Assignment# 04

Review Article of Selected Topic

Topic#: Development of low-cost and scalable fabrication methods for large-area perovskite
solar modules

Author
Muhammad Usman Bin Ahmed
Reg. No. 00000402462

Course Title
Research Methodology (RM-898)

Course Instructor
Dr. Kafait Ullah

Center of Advanced Studies in Energy

Faculty of Energy Systems Engineering
National University of Science and Technology (NUST)

18 April 2022
 Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 1

1. Aims and Introduction ...................................................................................... 2

1.1. Project Background .......................................................................................... 2

1.2. Possible Solutions .............................................................................................. 2

1.3. Aims and Objectives.......................................................................................... 2

1.4. Significance of Research ................................................................................... 3

2. Literature Review .............................................................................................. 3

2.1. Previous Work- Comparative Study and Critical Analysis .......................... 3

2.1.1. Conventional Fabrication Techniques ............................................................ 3

2.1.2. Review of newly emerged techniques; perspectives and

Challenges………………………………………………………………………………...........4

2.1.3. Substrate Materials And Interlayer Development for

Scalable Fabrication of PSCs ....................................................................................................... 7

2.1.4. Innovative Advancements in Scalable Fabrication of Large Area

Perovskite Modules ....................................................................................................................... 9

3. Current Status and Limitations ..................................................................... 12

4. Recommendations and Future Prospects ...................................................... 13

Summary and Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 14

References .................................................................................................................................... 15

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 Abstract
Perovskite solar cells, a beautiful and promising alternative to traditional silicon-based solar
cells, are reported to exhibit high efficiency and are of low cost compared to other technologies.
However, the commercialization of PSCs is facing enormous challenges, in terms of the
scalability and low-cost fabrication; especially of large-area perovskite solar modules. In this
review article, analysis is going to be done on recent research progress for the development of
low-cost and scalable fabrication methods for large-area Perovskite Solar Modules, and their
potentials and limitations. The use of various techniques such as blade-coating, spray-coating,
and slot-die coating for the deposition of perovskite layers is highlighted, as well as the use of
low-temperature processing and encapsulation techniques for PSCs to improve stability and
reliability of the PV system. Finally, the limitations and challenges are reported that still need
to be addressed, such as the need for better understanding of perovskite ink stability (for ink
fabrication techniques), the development of large-area deposition methods (for scalable
fabrication), and the improvement of long-term stability and durability. Thus, this review
article comprehensively provides insights into the current state of research for typical
fabrication methods for large-area perovskite solar modules, so as to make them commercially
viable, and identifies areas for future research and development.
Keywords: Scalable fabrication, spray coating, slot-die casting, vacuum deposition techniques,
Perovskite solar modules, power conversion efficiency (PCE).

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1. Aims and Introduction
1.1. Project Background
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have gained a lot of importance in recent years, which is primarily
based on their potential to achieve high power conversion efficiency (PCE) and low
production cost (to address economic viability). Perovskite solar cells are primarily an
innovation in traditional silicon-based technology, where a material called perovskite
(chemical formula ABX3) is used as the semiconductor layer, so as to absorb sunlight and
convert it into electrical energy through electron-hole transport mechanism. Perovskite is
typically used as absorber layer (a thin film), and is processed on flexible substrates, thus
making room for lightweight and flexible solar modules.
But despite the enormous PCE potential of PSCs, there are still numerous challenges associated
with them, which should be analyzed and overcome to make them commercially viable. The
biggest of which is scalability, as majority of fabrication techniques are primarily based on
vacuum deposition methods, which does not allow scalable fabrication of Perovskite solar
modules. So, enormous fabrication modifications are discussed currently in research phase, and
need to be addressed, at Research and development stage.
1.2. Possible Solutions
So to cater and address the associated challenges, several fabrication methods are continuously
being examined and researched upon in the previous decade, which are typically scalable for
larger scale, and economically viable at the same time. For instance, one of the approach in
this scenario is the utilization of roll-to-roll printing technique, which is typically a continuous
process which has ability to produce large number of perovskite solar cells at a high rate.
Another method researchers are exploring is the utilization of slot die coating process, which
is primarily a deposition technique of very high precision, which has potential to produce
uniform perovskite layers on flexible substrates of large area.
But each of approach discussed here, also comes up with several challenges, which should need
to be addressed. Coming up with roll-to-roll printing technique, it can produce perovskite films
with poor film quality, and can lead to non-uniform film thickness, which tremendously affects
the performance of the solar cell. Slot-die coating, on the other hand, during fabrication of
perovskite cells, may cause defects like pinholes and cracks, which ultimately reduce the
efficiency and stability of the solar cell.
1.3. Aims and Objectives
So to sum up the discussion, the main objective of this review article is to overview the recent

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progress in the development of scalable and economic (low cost) fabrication methods for large
area perovskite solar modules. Several aspects of fabrication method, like substrate selection,
deposition techniques, and device architecture; adopted by various researchers are discussed
comprehensively in this article. The article will also discuss the potential challenges and
limitations of each approach, adopted and gained attention by various researchers and propose
possible solutions to overcome these challenges.
1.4. Significance of Research
The approaches to enhance the commercialization of perovskite solar cells is attributed to this
review article. The comprehensive overview of the various innovative and potential fabrication
methods provided in the article makes room for researchers and manufacturers to identify the
most promising approaches for large-scale production of perovskite solar modules.
Additionally, the article can also serve as a basis for further research in this field by addressing
the remaining challenges and opportunities for future development. So, the research provides
critical insight covering almost all the techniques used for fabrication of perovskite soar cells,
leading to modules, and discuss the scalability of each process with associated drawbacks,
enabling researchers to optimize the process for low cost and scalable fabrication of solar
modules.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Previous Work- Comparative Study and Critical Analysis
Now if we talk about the previous work done on this project, there are various authors’ work
on this project, which can be described as:
2.1.1. Conventional Fabrication Techniques
The article [1]typically focuses on one of the fabrication techniques, i.e., Spray
deposition/coating technique. The comprehensive critical analysis shows various technical
potentials of the work. It provides comprehensive illustration of spray coating process, and
analyze process parameters, like solvent composition, spray nozzle characteristics and type,
as well as substrate temperature, and its impact on scalability and economic viability of the
PSCs. It also presents new materials being considered recently for spray deposition, and how
the fabrication parameters are optimized so as to achieve scalable fabrication. Coming towards
technical limitations, the major drawback is the research did not allow for comparative analysis
of various deposition techniques, like slot die casting, use of doctor blade, other PVD and CVD
techniques, as well as screen printing techniques. Also, defects and non-uniformity of deposited
film are not covered thoroughly for ultimate process optimization. Also, the scalability of the

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process is not addressed primarily, which is of major concern for development of large area
perovskite modules.
2.1.2. Review of newly emerged techniques; perspectives and Challenges
The article [2] by Whittaker & co. typically presents a review on the development of slot die
coating techniques, which are scalable, and account for the fabrication of high performance
perovskite solar cells. This method is adopted for deposition of perovskite films on flexible
substrates, achieving a PCE of 18.6% with a large active area of solar module, i.e., 54 cm².
One of the key strengths of this adoption is depicted by the demonstration of a scalable and
low cost methodology for the fabrication of large area perovskite solar cells, allowing for
precise control over the deposition of perovskite layers through slot die coating, thereby
resulting in perovskite thin films of high quality with high PCEs. Moreover, the authors also
explore the effects of different process parameters on the performance of solar cells, providing
valuable insights into the optimization of the coating process. However, as attributed to other
methodologies, the article did not comprehensively address long term stability of modules
through testing, which is primarily critical for commercial scale development, as well as
upgrading the process to further larger areas, and impact on fabricated devices.
Another article investigating the fabrication methodologies for large area perovskite modules
thoroughly is presented by Zhen Lei & co. in 2018, presented in [3] , which provides a
comprehensive recent research literature for various scalable fabrication methodologies,
adopted for perovskite solar cells. Some of them discussed in the article comprise of blade
coating, slot die coating, spray coating, electrodeposition, vapor phase deposition, inkjet
printing, and screen printing. The article emphasizes on process parameters and
effectiveness, depicting thoroughly on pros and cons of each technique, as follows:
1. Blade coating, as depicted by the article, is primarily a relatively simple and economically
viable PVD or CVD technique which typically involves the utilization of a blade, so as to
spread the perovskite precursor solution over the substrate. It has ability to produce
perovskite films of high active area, with excellent thickness uniformity. However, the
technique is viably limited by the requirement for precise control over some of process
parameters, like the blade speed etc. and the difficulty of achieving high output rate.
2. Slot die coating, as depicted by the article, is another technique, which is continuous and
scalable, and typically utilizes a slot die head for depositing the perovskite precursor
solution onto the substrate. Its technical potential in the current research area is that it offers
better thickness control, as well as high reproducibility, making it suitable for device
fabrication of large area. However, the scalability of the process is primarily limited by the
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 cost of the slot die head and also the requirement for a high-quality substrate.
3. Spray coating, as depicted by the article, is another scalable as well as versatile technique
which involves the application of a spray gun for deposition of the perovskite precursor
solution onto the substrate. Similar to slot die coating, optimization of film thickness can
be precisely adjusted through process parameters; however, the methodology is most of the
times sensitive to various spray parameters and thus requires careful optimization in order
to achieve high efficiency and stability.
4. Inkjet printing, as depicted by article, is typically a non-contact and precise technique
which uses inkjet printheads, similar to inkjet printer, which prints letters on paper, and
thus allows for deposition of the perovskite precursor solution on the substrate. Good
control over the ink droplet size and position is offered by the process, which makes it
suitable for patterning of PSCs and flexible device fabrication. However, this method is
limited by the requirement for high quality inks and the complexity of the inkjet printing
system, which is a major drawback.
5. Screen printing is a simple and low-cost process which uses a screen stencil for deposition
of the perovskite precursor solution onto the substrate. It is also depicted that it also, like
other methods, offers excellent uniformity and is suitable for large area device fabrication
for perovskite solar modules. But yet again, the method is limited by the difficulty of
achieving high resolution and the requirement for precise control over the printing
parameters.
6. Electrodeposition is another process depicted in article, which involves depositing thin
films of materials onto a substrate by successively passing an electrical current through a
solution comprising of the material. This methodology for deposition has been used for the
deposition of various metals and metal oxides, but its application in the fabrication of
perovskite solar cells is limited. Like, it results in the formation of cracks and pinholes in
thin films via non-uniform deposition of perovskite film. Also, this process requires
particular equipment, and the resulting films are at a greater risk of exhibiting poor
crystallinity and lower device performance.
So, to summarize various scalable techniques are currently investigated for scalable fabrication
towards high performance Perovskite solar modules, but greatly limited by cost, throughput,
and other output parameters. Thus, further research is required for exploration and development
of fully optimized systems with high performance.
An overview of current developments in perovskite solar cells and modules manufacturing
techniques is given in the paper [4]. In order to allow the widespread commercialization of
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perovskite solar cells and modules, the article highlights the necessity for scalable and
economically viable fabrication processes. Several manufacturing processes are discussed,
including as vacuum based deposition methods. They include Vapor phase deposition methods,
like thermal evaporation, sputtering, and atomic layer deposition, as well as liquid phase
deposition methods like spin coating, blade coating, slot-die coating, and inkjet printing
(already discussed in [2]). Here the major concern is the stability and effectiveness of
perovskite solar cells, which is also emphasized in the paper along with the significance of
interfacial engineering and encapsulation. So, the article offers details on the technical
capabilities and restrictions of various manufacturing techniques. For instance, despite their
great efficiency, vapor phase deposition processes like spin coating and blade coating have
poor scalability and repeatability. Inkjet printing and slot-die coating, on the other hand, are
auspicious methods for mass manufacturing, but they still need to be optimized in order to be
highly effective and stable. Thermal evaporation and sputtering are examples of VPD, and have
shown excellent efficiency and repeatability, yet they are expensive and have limited
scalability. Although atomic layer deposition is a promising method for interfacial engineering,
it still has to be improved before being used on a big scale. The significance of encapsulation
for the stability of perovskite solar cells is also covered in the article. Perovskite solar cells
have been enclosed in glass, polymers, and metal foils to shield them from oxygen and
moisture. However, the encapsulation procedure might be difficult, and thus the performance
of the perovskite solar cells may be impacted by the encapsulating materials. As a result, the
paper offers a thorough review of the methodologies in perovskite solar cell fabrication and
module manufacturing techniques while also emphasizing the need for more research to create
scalable, economically viable fabrication techniques for large area perovskite solar modules.
Another article which is based on optimization and evaluation of spray coating technique for
deposition of perovskite thin film is cited in [5]. It analyzes the use of spray nozzle to deposit
perovskite thin film precursor on flexible substrates. The concentration of the precursor
solution, the spraying distance, the substrate temperature, and the spray speed are just a few of
the variables that are explored by the researched; as they define the deployment of spray-
coating process. Various additives, such metal halides, organic solvents, and surfactants, affect
the perovskite film's quality, which are analyzed in article. The article also discusses the
benefits of the spray-coating method, including its economic viability, minimal equipment
needs, and capacity to scale to large-area surfaces. The technique's drawbacks are also covered,
including its susceptibility to external factors and the requirement for additional modification
in order to obtain high device performance. Hence, to sum up, the study provides a thorough
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explanation of the spray-coating approach for creating perovskite films and its potential as a
scalable, inexpensive technology for product development.
Another article produced by Zhichun Yang & co. cited in [6], is focused on detailed review
of methodologies for large-area perovskite cells and modules development. The article
describes several ways for creating large-area perovskite thin films, including solution-based
(liquid phase deposition) methods such as spin-coating, doctor-blading, and slot-die coating,
as well as vapor-based methods such as chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor
deposition. The difficulties associated with scaling up these technologies, such as concerns
with uniformity, repeatability, and stability are also addressed in the article. In terms of module
development, the article emphasizes current advances in the design and construction of large-
area perovskite solar modules, like the usage of connectivity technologies, encapsulating
materials, and backplane materials. The authors also address the requirement for more study
into the stability and endurance of perovskite modules under diverse environmental conditions.
2.1.3. Substrate Materials And Interlayer Development for Scalable Fabrication
of PSCs
Tremendous research is going on for finding the most efficient and flexible substrate for coating
of perovskite thin films, as well as for finding efficient materials for ETLs, HTLs for perovskite
solar cells. In this perspective, the article presented in [7] entitled "A multifunctional
interlayer for highly stable and efficient perovskite solar cells based on pristine poly (3-
hexylthiophene)" by Wei, Min Go and co. in 2022. It basically presents an interlayer material
in order to improve the stability and efficiency of perovskite solar cells. Poly(3-
hexylthiophene) (P3HT is developed as a novel interlayer between the perovskite layer and the
electron transport layer, which greatly enhances the efficiency and stability of the solar cell.
A technical potential of this approach is that P3HT is a commercially available polymer which
can be easily processed with the help of various liquid phase deposition methods, which makes
it an attractive candidate for large scale manufacturing due to low cost and customization to
scalable fabrication. It is reported that the use of P3HT as an interlayer ultimately leads to a
significant improvement in the stability of the perovskite solar cell, as extensively
demonstrated under accelerated aging tests. But there are also, some technical limitations of
approach; for instance, film thickness is abruptly disturbed (increased) by the addition of
interlayer, which leads to the reduction of the overall efficiency of the solar cell. Also, the
effectiveness of interlayer depends upon the nature of ETL, as well as perovskite layer, so
fabrication must be to ensure efficient collection of current, and optimized selection of
materials for all layers. Thus, further research is typically required in order to fully understand
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the technical potentials and limitations of this approach, and also to optimize the device
performance for large-scale manufacturing.
Another article of great significance in this area is cited in [8], which basically discusses a new
method to fabricate large area flexible PSCs utilizing tin oxide (SnO2) vertical nanopillars.
The features of the solar cell that results from the fabrication process are thoroughly examined
in the paper. Fabrication of the solar cells included a liquid phase deposited methodology,
reported in the article. SnO2 nano-pillars are created using the sol-gel technique, which
includes covering a substrate with a spin-coated SnO2 precursor solution and then annealing it
at a high temperature. A perovskite layer was subsequently applied to the nanopillars using a
one-step deposition procedure utilising a mixture of lead iodide (PbI2) and methylammonium
iodide (MAI). The perovskite layer was then covered with a thin layer of gold to create the top
electrode. The produced solar cells have high fill factors (FFs) of up to 79% and high power
conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of up to 20.8%. After several months of exposure to ambient
conditions, the devices also demonstrated good long-term stability with negligible
deterioration. Many benefits come from using SnO2 nanopillars in the fabrication process,
including better light trapping, less charge recombination, and better charge transfer. The
absence of oxygen vacancies in the SnO2 nanopillars is a depicter and promoter of the excellent
efficiency and stability of the resultant solar cells. The intricacy of the fabrication process,
which includes several phases and demands exact control over a few parameters, is one possible
drawback of this strategy. The expense of using gold as the top electrode may also make it
unsuitable for large-scale manufacturing. Yet the authors propose that substitute materials like
silver or copper to be used as the top electrode. So, further improvement and modification in
the designated topic could lead to commercialization of solar cells, provided reliability and
standard testing procedures are followed.
Another article of similar significance, cited in [9] (Nur e Saifi & co.; 2021) is based on
modifications of electron transport layers, hole transport layers, as well as interfacial layers for
perovskite solar cells. It gives a summary of current developments in the performance and
stability of perovskite solar cells using graphene-based materials. The potential of graphene-
based materials to improve charge transfer in perovskite solar cells and increase their stability
under varied environmental situations is depicted in this article. Various techniques are looked
upon in the article, like physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, and Liquid phase
deposition techniques including spin coating and inkjet printing, to introduce graphene-
based materials into perovskite solar cells. Also explored is the usage of graphene-based
materials as interfacial layers, hole transport layers, and electron transport layers in perovskite
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solar cells. The article also emphasizes the opportunity for mass production as well as the
potential of graphene-based materials to enhance the performance and stability of perovskite
solar cells. However, several drawbacks of utilizing graphite-based materials are observed, like
scalability and repeatability of process could not be achieved, as well as the cost of graphene
remains still the biggest barrier in widespread commercial utilization of the technique.
Another technical aspect of PSCs is analyzed in [10] by Kun Mu Lee & co. in 2022, where
emphasis is primarily given upon hole transport material, which is free of dopant (i.e. Acceptor
impurities). Thus, it is a representative of innovative model on this area.
In this work, a small molecule called STH1 was synthesized and described in order to produce
a dopant-free hole-transporting material (HTM). The STH1 HTM layer was applied to the
perovskite layer via a thermally assisted blade coating technique, and then a top electrode was
deposited on top of it. High crystallinity and excellent surface coverage of the HTM layer
were attained by the optimization of the thermal annealing procedure. One of the highest
recorded PCEs for perovskite solar cells based on dopant-free HTMs, 21.3%, was displayed
by the perovskite solar cells under investigation. It is also demonstrated that they offer good
stability in experiments which exposed them to ambient light and conditions. It is advantageous
to employ a dopant-free HTM because it makes the device fabrication process easier and lowers
the costs of dopant components. To increase the reproducibility and stability of the devices, it
is found out that additional annealing procedure and blade-coating parameter modification is
required. To satisfy the criteria for commercial usage, the devices' efficiency must also be
increased for enhancing the strategy for industrial scale production
Another article by Sisi He & co., published in ACS Energy Letters in 2019; and cited in [11]
is based on a typical case study, where doctor blade coating is utilized for both perovskite and
charge transport layers, made up of metal halide (typically sodium bromide). High power
conversion efficiencies for small-area cells and large-area modules are reported in the article
as the results of experimentation; up to 18.3% and 13.3%, respectively (10 cm x 10 cm).
Moreover, it was demonstrated that the modules exhibited good stability under standard optical
testing, in 1000 hours of continuous illumination. It also addresses the possibilities for further
enhancing stability and efficiency as well as the necessity of streamlining the fabrication
procedure for mass manufacturing. Also, significance of environmentally friendly and low cost
raw materials and production techniques for commercialization are emphasized.
2.1.4. Innovative Advancements in Scalable Fabrication of Large Area
Perovskite Modules
Another article, which primarily focuses on low cost and highly available materials like
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polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as a substrate; discussed by Chu El et Al. in [12] , is a novel
idea, which presents a study on the development of large-area perovskite solar modules using
scalable and cost-effective manufacturing processes. The fabrication process is discussed in
detail, which comprises of antisolvent vapor assisted crystallization and slot die coating
methodologies to achieve the aforementioned objectives. The uniformity of perovskite film
deposition on PETs is optimized by adjusting process parameters, like deposition rate, substrate
temperature etc. A high power conversion efficiency (PCE) of ~22% is achieved and recorded
for a module with dimensions 21 cm x 21 cm, which is undoubtedly a promising result for the
commercialization of perovskite solar cell technology. However, it is observed that research is
primarily limited to lab scale, and testing at commercial level or mass production is still a
menace. Moreover, stability and durability of developed modules is still needed to be addressed
for long term performance of modules.
The development in the designated field is enchantingly depicted in [13] ; which is a review
article which provides an overview of the large-scale fabrication methods used in perovskite
solar cells. The article provides an insight for several techniques for deposition of the
perovskite layer, which include solution-based (i.e., Liquid phase deposition, like sol gel
method), vapor-assisted, and printing methods. The difficulties in scaling up the fabrication
process are discussed in the study, including managing perovskite crystallisation, enhancing
the shape of the perovskite layer, and enhancing device stability. As depicted by article, these
difficulties can be resolved by using automated procedures and creating more durable
materials. The article also discusses several deposition methods that were utilised to create the
electrodes, hole transport layer, and electron transport layer. For the ETL, the article details the
use of chemical bath deposition and spray pyrolysis, while the electrodes are discussed as being
made via atomic layer deposition and sputtering. The paper also discusses a number of novel
approaches, including static wetting, which permits the creation of very homogeneous and
devoid of flaws over a large surface area. The utilisation of scalable manufacturing methods,
such as roll-to-roll processing, that can enable the production of large-area perovskite solar
modules is also covered in the article. Hence, the article analyses the technical potentials and
limitations of these approaches while providing a thorough review of the various large-scale
production processes employed in perovskite solar cells. According to the paper, the
widespread use of perovskite solar cells in commercial applications depends on the
development of economically viable and scalable production techniques.
Now, coming towards another revolutionary research article in filed, presented by Ho-Baille &
co. In 2021, cited in [14]. It, similar to article in [4], comprehensively discusses the current
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state of perovskite solar cells and the potential for improving their efficiency using tandem
solar cells. Tandem solar cells are basically composed of multiple layers of various materials,
with each of the layer absorbing different parts of the solar spectrum which improves overall
efficiency of the cells. Some techniques and potentials similar to [4] are discussed, like liquid
phase deposition, including spin coating etc.; as well as Molecular Beam Epitaxial technique,
which allows deposition lf various materials on same substrate. The potential advantages of
perovskite tandem solar cells are highlighted in the article, including their capacity to attain
efficiencies above the theoretical maximum for single-junction solar cells and their suitability
for economic and scalable production techniques. The authors also point out a few obstacles
which need to be removed in order to fully utilise the capabilities of perovskite tandem solar
cells, such as enhancing stability and durability, creating efficient interfaces between various
materials, and improving device architecture and fabrication methods. The article offers a
thorough summary of the present status of tandem solar cells and their potential to increase
perovskite solar cells' efficiency. The authors examine numerous manufacturing processes and
emphasise both the advantages and drawbacks of these methods, giving researchers attempting
to create high performance solar cells incorporating perovskite absorber layer.
An advanced research upon organic-inorganic bilayer HTLs for mixed cation PSCs at room
temperature processing, is carried out by In Su Jin & co., 2020. Published in Solar Energy
Materials journal. This article found its roots in an innovative method to enhance the longevity
of solar cells. The researchers developed a special layer which prevents moisture from entering
the solar cell and thus damaging capability is reduced. The layer is fabricated using a blend of
organic and inorganic materials and applied it utilizing the simple spin-coating process. The
results of the study indicate that the bilayer hole transport layer (HTL) effectively protected the
solar cell from environmental moisture, which leads towards a considerable improvement in
its stability. Moreover, several analyses are conducted to comprehend the role of the bilayer
HTL on the solar cell's efficiency and stability. The findings of the analysis suggest that the
HTL seemingly mitigated defects and ion migration within the solar cell, which, in turn, led to
better performance and stability. This research demonstrates a cost-effective and unfussy
technique which increases the durability of solar cells. However, the study solely focused on
the effects of moisture, and further investigation is necessary to determine its effectiveness
against other environmental factors that could lead to the damage of the solar cell. [15]
Finally, the innovative article "Chemical insights into perovskite ink stability"(Aurorra
Rizzo & co., 2022), cited in [16] provides insights into the chemical stability of perovskite
inks, which is an important factor for the development of lPerovskite solar cells and modules
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at larger scale with minimal cost.
The degradation mechanisms of various perovskite inks are discussed, and the ways are
analyzed to control them for improvement of the stability of the inks. It is observed that the
presence of moisture and oxygen aggravates degradation of perovskite inks, and also addition
of certain additives leads to improved stability of the inks. The importance of controlling the
pH and the concentration of the ink is also investigated to improve its stability.
The creation of perovskite inks and their characterisation with the help of several methods,
including UV-Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy, are all part of the approach utilised in the article. The authors alsodemonstrated
how various additives affect the stability of the inks.
The research offers insightful information about the chemical stability of perovskite inks. The
study's technological potential and limits in respect to the review article topic are more oblique
because it does not explicitly address fabrication processes or procedures. Yet, it can initiate
future work in the field by offering insights into the chemical stability of perovskite inks.
3. Current Status and Limitations
From the research articles reviewed, it becomes evident that there has been significant progress
in the development of economically viable and scalable fabrication methods for perovskite
solar modules of large area, for commercial benefits. Some attractive and impulsive techniques
which have been explored include spray coating, blade coating, inkjet printing, vapor phase
epitaxial deposition method (CVD), and several liquid based deposition processes (Sol gel
method) and slot-die coating. These methods have shown great potential for producing large
area perovskite films with high quality and efficiency.
However, there are still some limitations which need to be addressed. One major obstacle is
improving the stability of perovskite films, particularly when they are exposed to moisture and
other environmental factors. Another limitation is the requirement to develop more efficient
and low-cost methods for mass production of perovskite solar cells and modules.
Furthermore, there is a need for more research into the performance of modules in long run,
and durability of perovskite solar modules, especially in real-world conditions. This includes
addressing issues such as degradation, hysteresis, and the impact of temperature and humidity.
While there has been tremendous progress in developing low cost and scalable fabrication
methods for perovskite solar modules of large area, there is still work to be done to address the
remaining technical challenges and to ensure the long-term performance and commercial
viability of these technologies.

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4. Recommendations and Future Prospects
After analyzing the above research articles, some recommendations can be made for the
development of low-cost and scalable fabrication methods for large-area perovskite solar
modules.
Firstly, there is a need for the development of new materials and fabrication processes which
must have capability to enhance the stability and performance of perovskite solar cells. This
could involve the use of new hole transport materials, such as dopant-free or organic-inorganic
bilayer materials, or the incorporation of graphene-based materials to improve charge transfer
and stability. Additionally, the use of spray-coating or blade-coating techniques can help to
produce homogeneous and defect-free films over large areas, which is important for scaling up
production.
Secondly, there is a need for further research into the optimization of existing manufacturing
processes to reduce costs and increase scalability. This could involve the development of new
printing methods or the optimization of existing solution-based (liquid phase deposition)
methods such as inkjet printing or slot-die coating. Additionally, the use of roll-to-roll
processing can help to improve throughput (deposition rates) and reduce costs.
Thirdly, there is a need for the development of reliable and efficient encapsulation techniques
to improve the long-term stability of perovskite solar modules. This could involve the use of
advanced encapsulation materials, such as metal-organic frameworks, or the development of
new encapsulation methods like atomic layer deposition.
Finally, there is a tremendous requirement for the development of large-scale manufacturing
facilities and supply chains to support the mass production of perovskite solar modules. This
could involve the establishment of partnerships between universities, research institutions, and
industry to facilitate technology transfer and commercialization. Additionally, the development
of industry standards and certifications can help to promote the widespread adoption of
perovskite solar technology.

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Summary and Conclusion
Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional silicon
solar cells due to their high efficiency and low production costs. However, the scalability and
stability of PSCs still need to be improved for commercial viability. One major challenge in
PSCs is the development of scalable and cost-effective fabrication methods for large-area
modules. Currently, most PSCs are fabricated using vacuum-based deposition methods,
which are expensive and complex. Therefore, there is a need for new low-cost and scalable
fabrication methods that can enable large-scale production of perovskite solar modules.
In recent years, various approaches have been explored to address the challenges in PSC
fabrication, each of which is discussed in detail in the former section.
In summary, the literature suggests that developing low-cost and scalable fabrication methods
for large-area perovskite solar modules is a crucial step towards commercializing this
renewable energy technology. Various approaches, including printing techniques and novel
materials, have been explored and shown promising results in improving the efficiency and
stability of PSCs. The proposed study aims to contribute to this ongoing research for future
perspectives by investigating new fabrication methods and techniques which have the
capability to enhance the scalability and performance of perovskite solar modules.

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