THE HUMAN BODY: An Orientation  ORGAN LEVEL: contains two or more types of tissues

 ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL: organs that work closely together

Overview of Anatomy and Phisiology  ORGANISMAL LEVEL: all organ systems combined to make the
whole organism
WHY ANATOMICAL TERMS MATTERS?
•Learning and understanding anatomical terminology allows you to
communicate accurately with your colleagues in the health sciences.
WHAT IS ANAPHY?

Anatomy
-derived from the greek workds meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
-it is the study of structure and shape of the body and part and their
relationship to one another
Physiology
- Study of the function of body parts; how they work or function to
carry out life-sustaining activities
-(physio = nature) (logy = study of)

Branches of Anatomy
1. GROSS OR MACROSCOPIC ANATOMY
-is the study of large, visible structures
Necessary Life Functions
 REGIONAL ANATOMY: looks at all structures in a particular
area of the body; → Maintenance of life involves:
 SYSTEM ANATOMY: looks at just one system
(cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, etc..)  MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES: Separation between internal and
 SURFACE ANATOMY: looks at internal structure as they external environments must exist
relate to overlying skin (visible muscle masses or veins  MOVEMENT: Muscular system allows movement
seen on surface)  RESPONSIVENESS : Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
 DIGESTION: Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by
2. MiCROSCOPIC ANATOMY absorption of simple molecules into blood
-deals with structures too small to be seen by naked eye  METABOLISM: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
 CYTOLOGY: microscopic study of cells .  EXCRETION: Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
 HISTOLOGY: microscopic study of tissues  REPRODUCTION: At the cellular level- reproduction involves
division of cells for growth or repair. At the organismal level-
3. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY reproduction is the production of offspring
-studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life  GROWTH: Increase in size of a body part or of organism
 EMBRYOLOGY: study of developments before birth
 Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual
 To study anatomy, one must know anatomical cells must be kept alive
terminology and be able to observe, manipulate,  Organ systems are designed to service the cells
palpate, and auscultate.  All cells depend on organ systems to meet their
survival needs
Subdivisions of Physiology  There are 11 organ systems that work together to
maintain life
1. BASED ON ORGAN SYSTEMS
-(e.g renal or cardiovascular physiology) (neurophysiology, cardiac
physiology)
The Organ Systems
2. CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR LEVELS OF THE BODY
- Looks at how the body's abilities are dependent on chemical a) INTERGUMENTARY
reactions in individual cells. SYSTEM
- Forms the external body
Principle of Complimentarity of Structure covering, and protects deeper
tissues from injury. Synthesizes
and Function vitamin D, and houses cutaneous
-Anatomy and physiology are inseparable (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors
and sweat and oil glands.
-Function always reflects structure
-What a structure can do depends on its specific form

Structural Organization
-Human body is very organized, from the smallest chemical level to
whole organism level:
 CHEMICAL LEVEL: atoms, molecules, and organelles
 CELLULAR LEVEL: single cell
 TISSUE LEVEL: groups of similar cells
b) SKELETAL SYSTEM
-Protects and supports body
organs, and provides a framework
the muscles use to cause
movement. Blood cells are
formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
a) MUSCULAR SYSTEM
-Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression. Maintains
posture, and produces heat.
b) NERVOUS SYSTEM
-the fast-acting control system
of the body, it responds to
internal and external changes by
activating appropriate muscles
and glands.
c) ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as
growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use (metabolism) by
body cells.
d) CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
- Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.
The heart pumps blood.
immune response mounts the
attack against foreign substances
within the body
e) LYMPATHIC
SYSTEM/IMMUNITY
-picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood.
Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream. Houses white
blood cells (lymphocytes)
involved in immunity. The
f) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
-keeps blood constantly supplies
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide. The gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
g) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
-breaks food down into
absorbable units that enter the
bloob for distribution to body
cells, indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces
h) URINARY
SYSTEM/EXCRETORY
-Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
from the body. Regulates water,
electrolyte, and acid-base balance
of the blood.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
(MALE & FEMALE)
Male Reproductive System-
Overall function is production of
offspring. Testes produce sperm
and male sex hormone, and male
ducts and glands aid in delivery
of sperm to the female
reproductive tract. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex
hormones. The remaining female
structures serve as sites for
fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of
female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.
Female Reproductive System
Overall function is production of
offspring. Testes produce sperm
and male sex hormone, and male
ducts and glands aid in delivery
of sperm to the female
reproductive tract. Ovaries
produce eggs and female sex
hormones. The remaining female
structures serve as sites for
fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of
female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.
 Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism

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Survival Needs
Humans need several factors for survival that must be in the
appropriate amounts; too much or too little can be harmful:
 NUTRIENTS - Chemicals for energy and cell building
(Carbohydrates, Proteins,Fats,Minerals and vitamin)
 OXYGEN - Essential for release of energy from foods
 -The body can survive only a few minutes without oxygen
 WATER- Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery
 environment needed for chemical reactions
 NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE- If body temp falls below or goes
above 37°C, rates of chemical reactions are affected
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
- Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
- May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect as feedback causes
variable to continue in same direction as initial change
- Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous
adjustment
Example of POSITIVE feedback:
 Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
 Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug

 APPROPRIATE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE- Specific pressure of air

is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs

Homeostasis
is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite
continuous changes in environment
Homeostatic control variables
1. RECEPTOR - Monitors environment: Responds to stimuli
2. CONTROL CENTER - Receives input from receptor: Determines
appropriate response
3. EFFECTOR- Receives output from control center: Provides the
means to respond
 Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as other systems, play a
major role in maintaining homeostasis
 Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body
temperature, blood volume, etc.)
 Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or
enhances stimulus (positive feedback)

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

Most-used feedback mechanism in body Response reduces or shuts off  Increases risk of disease
original stimulus Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change  Contributes to changes associated with aging
Example of negative feedback: • Control systems become less efficient
 Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood sugar)  If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed,
 Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over
 Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, • Heart failure
which decreases blood glucose levels
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable
internal conditions.
 THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY REGIONAL TERMS
-designate specific areas within body divisions
ANATOMICAL TERMS

Anatomical Position and Directional

Terms

Standard ANATOMICAL POSITION

-Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with
thumbs pointing away from body
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
-describe one body structure in relation to another body
structure
 Direction is always based on standard anatomical
position
 Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not
right and left of observer

Planes and Sections

BODY PLANES
-Surfaces along which body or structures may be cut for anatomical
study
Three most common planes:
 SAGITTAL plane
 FRONTAL (coronal) plane
 TRANSVERSE (horizontal) plane
SECTIONS
-Cuts or sections made along a body plane
• Named after plane, so a sagittal cut results in a sagittal section
 Sagittal plane
- Divides body vertically into right and left parts
-Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane
MIDSAGITTAL (median) plane
• Cut was made perfectly on midline
PARASAGITTAL plane
• Cut was offcentered, not on midline

Regional Terms
Two major divisions of body:
AXIAL
• Head, neck, and trunk
APPENDICULAR
• Limbs (legs and arms)
Frontal (coronal) plane
-Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts
(front and back)
-Produces a frontal or coronal section

THORACIC CAVITY
 Two pleural cavities
-Each cavity surrounds one lung
 MEDIASTINUM
-Contains pericardial cavity
 Transverse (horizontal) plane -Surrounds other thoracic organs, such as esophagus, trachea,
-Divides body horizontally (90° to vertical plane) into etc.
superior and inferior parts (top and bottom)  PERICARDIAL CAVITY
-Produces a cross section -Encloses heart
OBLIQUE SECTION
-Result of cuts at angle other than 90° to vertical plane ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
 ABDOMINAL CAVITY
-Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
 PELVIC CAVITY
-Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

Body Cavities and Membrane

 Body contains internal cavities that are closed to environment Membranes in the ventral body cavity
 Cavities provide different degrees of protection to organs within
them SEROSA (also called serous membrane)
 Thin, double-layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral
Two sets of cavities: body cavity
 PARIETAL SEROSA lines internal body cavity walls
1) DORSAL body cavity 2) VENTRAL body cavity  VISCERAL SEROSA covers internal organs (viscera)
-Protects fragile nervous system -Houses the internal organs  Double layers are separated by slit-like cavity filled with
(collectively called viscera) serous fluid
 Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane
Two subdivisions: Two subdivisions, which are  Named for specific cavity and organs that they are associated
 CRANIAL cavity separated by the diaphragm with
-Encases brain
 VERTEBRAL cavity  THORACIC cavity
 ABDOMINIPELVIC cavity
-Encases spinal cord
 Other Cavities in the Body
-In addition to the two main body cavities, the body has several
smaller cavities that are exposed to environment
1. Oral and digestive cavities
2. Nasal cavity
3. Orbital cavities
4. Middle ear cavities
Not exposed to environment:
• Synovial cavities: joint cavities

Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

-Quadrants are divisions used primarily by medical personnel
Abdominopelvic region is sectioned into quarters
▪ Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
▪ Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
▪ Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
▪ Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

 Nine divisions called regions, resembling a tic-tac-toe grid, are

used primarily by anatomists
▪ Right hypochondriac region
▪ Epigastric region
▪ Left hypochondriac region
▪ Right lumbar region
▪ Umbilical region
▪ Left lumber region
▪ Right Iliac (inguinal) region
▪ Hypogastric region
▪ Left iliac (inguinal) region