Paper No.

: 01 Physical/Biological Anthropology
Module : 03 Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom

Development Team
Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor
Principal Investigator Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof. Subho Roy

Paper Coordinator Department Of Anthropology, University Of Calcutta

Prof. S. Jibonkumar Singh

Content Writer Department of Anthropology, Manipur University, Canchipur

Prof. Barun Mukhopadhyay

Content Reviewer
Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata
Prof. K.D.Sharma
1
Department of Anthropology, Punjab University, Chandigarh

Physical/Biological Anthropology
Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
 Description Of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name 01 Physical/ Biological Anthropology

Module Name/Title Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom

Module Id 03

Physical/Biological Anthropology
Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
 Contents of this Unit
 Introduction
 Characteristics of mammals
 Primate diversity
 Summary

Learning outcomes:
1. To discuss Kingdom Animalia
2. To trace how Man evolved in animal kingdom
3. To highlight the basic features of Mammalia and its sub classes.
4. To study the salient features of Primates.
5. To portray the differences between man and other animals
6. To assign a systematic position of man.

INTRODUCTION:

All living organisms can be placed into one of five kingdoms: plants, animals, fungi, nucleated single
celled organisms, and bacteria (Relethforth, 2010). Of all these living organisms, about 5 to 10 million
species are animals and plants inhabiting on the surface of this earth today (Standford et al.2012).
Texonomically animal kingdom in which man belong to can be broadly classified into 2 groups viz., i)
Protozoa – Unicellular and ii) Metazoa – Multicellular. Multicellular animals though differing in form
and structure have some fundamental similarities among them such as arrangement of cells, body
symmetry, nature of coelom, segmentation, presence or absence of notochord etc. and man belongs to
this group. On the basis of presence or absence of notochord - a flexible internal rod that runs along the
back of the animal which acts to strengthen and support the body, metazoans are further divided into
two Phylum – Non-Chordata or Invertebrates (notocshord absent) and Chordata (notochord present).
Owing to the presence of notochord, man is placed in the later. Phylum Chordata which includes
animals characterized by the presence of a notochord is further divided into three sub-phylum –
Urochordata (Notochord in larva stage), Cephalochordata (Notochord extend from head to tail) and
Vertebrata (notochord is replace by vertebral column). One characteristic of vertebrates is that they
have bilateral symmetry, which means that the left and right sides of their bodies are approximately
mirror images. Imagine a line running down a human being from the top of the head to a spot between
the feet. This line divides the body into two mirror images (Relethforth, 2010). The presence of
vertebral column in man justify his position in the sub-phylum vertebrata which has been further
divided into five classes, viz. Pices, Amphibian, Reptilian, Aves and Mammalia. The nature of living
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 and structure of the reproductive organs of Amphibian stand away from considering man as a member
of that class. The Reptile is cold-blooded animals and that is sufficient to excluded warm-blooded man
for the class Reptile. The absence of feathers would eliminate the idea of including man with the other
members of the class Aves. Therefore, naturally, man belongs to the class Mammalia (Fig.1). Lets us
see why man is a mammal by going through its characteristics in detail.

Figure 1. Classification of Animal Kingdom up to Mammalia Showing the Position of Man

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS

 Mammals are air breathing warm-blooded vertebrates,

 they have epidermal covering in the form of hair,
 presence of mammae or mammary glands is the most important feature which justifies for
giving the term “Mammal”,
 most mammals are viviparous i.e do not lay eggs but give birth to young ones directly,

Physical/Biological Anthropology
Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
  young ones are nourished from the blood system of mother through placenta before the birth
and after the birth by breast milk of the mother,
 presence of sweat and sebaceous glands,
 presence of inter vertebral disc in the vertebral column.
 scapula of pectoral girdle articulates with the sternum by means of a clavicle.
 four chambered heart and lungs freely suspended within the cavity of thorax,
 heterodont i.e., teeth of different types and are thecodont i.e. embedded in the sockets of jaws
 The skull is dicondylic i.e., with two occipital condyles on two sides of foramen magnum in the
skull,
 RBCs are circular in shaped and non-nucleated,
 External fertilization.

The class Mammalia (Fig. 2) is again divided into two different sub classes, namely i) Prototheria and ii)
Theria. Prototheria is the egg-laying mammal, sharing much character with reptiles and birds. Though, this
group of animals belon to class Mammalia, they, in fact represent a transitional stage between reptiles and
mammals. Duck-billed platypus and Spiny ant-eater are the examples of Prototheria. Man does not belong to the
former as the members lays eggs, hatch them out and then suckle their young ones. So, men belong to Theria
which give birth to young ones and has been further divided into two section- Metatheria and Eutheria. In
Metatheria, the placenta which is the characteristic of man is either underdeveloped or function for only a few
days. Metatherians are those pouch equipped viviparous mammals. They are known by the term “Marsupials”
The pouches on the mothers’ abdomen are meant for shelter of their young ones. Nipples are present inside the
pouches for feeding their young ones. Kangaroo, teddy bear kola and American opossum belong to this section.
They are known as marsupial or pouched mammal. The Eutheria or placental mammals in which men is the
member consist of nine orders, namely-Edentata, Cetacea, Sirenia, Ungulata, Carnivora, Insectivora,
Cheiroptera, Rhodentia and Primates. Brief characteristics of eutherian mammals are presented below.

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Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
 Figure 2 Classification of Class Mammalia

Orders of Eutheria-

i. Cetacea: Sea dwelling mammals. Forelimbs are modified into paddle-like structures and hind limbs
disappear completely. Example – Blue whale
ii. Sirenia: They are the aquatic mammals. Herbivorous food habit in nature. Example – Dolphins
iii. Insectivora: Mammals consuming insects as their sole food. They are usually nocturnal and smaller in
size. Example – the Mole, Tree shrew, etc.
iv. Carnivora: These are those mammals that live on the flesh. They have well developed cutting and
tearing teeth and sharp claws. Example – Dog, Cat, Lion, Tiger, etc.
v. Ungulata: They are ground dwelling, four footed hoofed mammals usually having horns.Herbivorous
food habit in nature. Example – Horse, Cow, Buffalo, etc.
vi. Edenta: Enamel lacking mammals. Some of them are completely toothless. Example – Armadillo.
vii. Rhodentia: Small size, furry mammals and having claws in fingers. Presence of large, chisel-like incisor
teeth. Example – Rat, Rabbit, Squirrel, etc.
viii. Cheiroptera: Flaying mammals in which four-limbs are modified into wings. Elongated bones making a
broad web of skin and it extends up to hind limbs. They exhibit aerial form of life. Example – Bats
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 None of the above mentioned basic features of Eutheria, can’t be acceptable features of Man e.i., man
doesn’t belong to those above mentioned orders. Hence, it can be stated that man should belong to the
only remaining order of the placental mammal known as Primate.

ix. Primate: Prosimii and Anthropoidea, that is Ceboidea, Crecopithecoidea and Hominoidea; including,
Hylobatidae, Pongidae and Hominidae constitute the order primate. Generally, primates can be
divided into broad categories: human and non-human primates.

Primates

Man, after all, is one among the 300 living species of primates and 4000 living species of mammals (Standford
et al.2012). Therefore a full in depth study of the primate behaviour would include a focus on the human as well
as the non-human aspects. Carolus Linnaeus was the first scientist who gave the idea that man has a common
origin with the primates in his splendid work ‘Systema Naturae’in 1758. Though the term Primate mean either
‘highest’ or‘first’ and both (Eckhardt,1979) for specific order of animal kingdom containing monkeys, apes and
man and it is neither the most primitive nor the most advanced of the mammalian order (Minkoff, 1983).
Primate has been defined as “Unguiculate, claviculate, placental mammals, with orbits encircled by bone;
three kinds of teeth, at least at one time of life; brain always with a posterior lobe and calcarine fissure; the
innermost digit of at least one pair of extremities opposable; hallux with a flat nail or none; a well developed
caecum; penis pendulous; testes scrotal; always two pectoral mammae (Mivart 1873)”. Almost all primates
except human and a few modern primates are completely arboreal in habit, and therefore possess physical
features adapted or suited to arboreal habit. Such features are even retained through inheritance among the
terrestrial primates Some important and silent features of Primate are as follows-

i. The limbs are prehensile and adapted arboreal life. This was probably an earliest mammalian
characteristic.
ii. Either the thumb or the great toe or both are opposable there by helping in firm grasping during arboreal
locomotion.

Physical/Biological Anthropology
Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
 iii. All the digits of both the limbs have flat nails and sensitive touch pads with friction ridge underneath
with the exception of only few primitive primates among whom either the second or third digit or
both are provided with claws.
iv. They have well developed clavicles facilitating free movement of arms in all planes during locomotion.
v. Unlike the mammary glands found in the abdominal region of other non primate mammals, Primates
have mammary gland placed in pectoral position thus making it easy to feed young ones in face to
face in position even during arboreal locomotion. .
vi. Primates have brain with well developed posterior lobe and reduced olfactory lobe as a result of which
they have highly developed binocular, stereoscopic and visual convergence and reduced snout and
sense of smell. Consequently they observed the food items with their eyes and take it to the mouth
i.e food goes to the mouth while for non human mammals, they smell first and eat it with mouth.
The primates provide only one offspring at the time as parents unable to protect more than one at the
time when they are in arboreal and danger environment.\
vii. Nearly all primates have uterus simplex thus usually give birth to single offspring at a time and longer
duration of gestation. Moreover they have longer period of parental care for young ones.
viii. As the young one need longer parental care the time interval between successive births is longer than
other non primate mammals.
ix. The orbits are completely surrounded by bony rim so that eyes are more effectively protected than open
orbits of lower mammals and forward in position for giving maximum visual convergence.
x. Dentition is suited to an omnivorous diet.
xi. Longer postnatal growth. Development of sexual maturity takes longer time.
xii. The primates possess pendulous penis.
xiii. They have well developed caecum.

PRIMATE DIVERSITY

Many Primatologist gave their own opinion as to the classification of the order Primate. But, one of the
generally accepted comprehensive and traditional classification is that of Simpson (1945) (figure-1). According
to him, the living primate may be conveniently classified into two orders-Prosimii and Anthropoidea.

Prosimii

Physical/Biological Anthropology
Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
 The name Prosimii is derived from (pro- before; simian –ape), and German word describes them as Halbaffe
which means half- ape (Weiss and Mann, 1978). Generally the Prosimii are fox-like muzzle elongated face,
complete absence of postorbital wall, foramen magnum is further back compared to other primates, the thumb
and toe opposable, lower extremities longer than upper extremities, almost all arboreal and nocturnal and the
dental formula 2.1.3.3, etc. All these characters far removed man from this sub-order. The three infra-orders-
Lemuriform (lemurs), Lorisiform (lorises) and Tarsiform (tarsiers) falls in a convenient category in former sub-
order Prosimii. Further infra-order Lemuriformes is conveniently classified into two super families of
Tupaioidea, and Lemuroidea. The Tupaioidea has only one family Tupiidae. Lemuroidea are classified into
families Lemuridae, Indriidae and Daubentonioiidae, of which the Lemuridae are primitive in majority of the
characters, while Daubentonoiidae are all together aberrant and are often regarded as an independent
superfamily. The infra order Lorisiformes comprises of the single family Lorisidae. The infraoder Tarsiformes
represent an important link between the two suborders Prosimii and Anthropoidea, in having many features in
between the two.
Anthropoidea

In sub-order Anthropoidea includes, besides Man himself, a considerable number of more or less quadrupedal
forms of generally man like body shape and head form popularly refer to as monkeys and apes. Some of the
features vary from Anthropoidea are-
i. The lower incisors and canines do not form a tooth comb
ii. The complete development of the post orbital wall
iii. The strong reduction in olfactory apparatus
iv. The short snout
v. The formation of nails on all fingers and toes

The conventional divisions of this suborder are Platyrrhine and Catarrhine infraorders classified based on nasal
characters. In the former nostrils are round and separated by a broad nasal septum and are often refer to as broad
nosed monkeys while the nostrils in the later are separated by a narrow nasal septum, comma shaped and
pointing downward and often referred to as sharp nosed monkey. The infra-order Platyrrhine has one super-
family-the Ceboidea with one family-Cebidae (New world monkey). The infra-order Catarrhine has two super-
families-the Cercopithecoidea with one family–Cercopithecidae (Old world monkey) and the other super-family
Hominoidea. As Hominoidea differ from lacking in external tail, cheek pouch and Ischial calosities, men stand

Physical/Biological Anthropology
Anthropology Man’s Place in Animal Kingdom
 apart from Ceboidea and Cercopithecoidea and belongs to Hominoidea super-family.with three families-
Hylobatidae ( gibbon and siamang), Pongidae (himpanzee,gorilla and orangutan) and Hominidae (man). The
name Anthropomorpha is sometimes used as a synonymous name for the superfamily Hominoidea (Montagu,
2010). The members of these families had jointly been referred to as higher primates having in common a great
many important characteristics. In the absence of pre-maxilla bone, presence of chin and in many other details,
man differs from the anthropoid apes and as such it could not be included under either of the two families viz.
Hylobatidae and Pongidae. Thus, the position of man is found in the family Hominidae forming one genus
‘Homo’ and a single Species ‘sapien’. Man has many distinguishing characteristics by which he is separable
from other members of the other families of Hominoidea super family.

Table 1. Conventional Classification of Living Primates

Order Suborder Infra order Superfamily Family

Lemuriformes Lemuridae
Lemuroidea Daubentonidae
Prosimii Indridae
Tupaioidea Tupaidae
Lorisiformes Lorisoidea Lorisidae
Tarsiformes Tarsoidea Tarsidae
Platyrrhine Ceboidea Cebidae
Callithricidae
Primate Anthropoidea Catarrhine Cercopithecoidea Cercopithcidae
Hylobatidae
Hominoidea Pongidae
Hominidae

Though this traditional system of classification is still widely used and accepted, a modified and a more recent
classification (Fig. 3) was developed by St. Hilaire in the late eighteenth century (Standford et al.2012).
Following this classification, the two suborders of Primate order are Strepsirhini and Haplorhini unlike
Prosimii and Anthropoidea of traditional classification. This classification is made on the basis of nasal
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 characteristics. Members of Strepsirhini have their nasal tips provided with naked and moist skin called
rhinarium, while absence of rhinarium for Haplorhini. In this scheme of classification, all the members of infra
order Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes of traditional classifications are kept under Strepsirhini suborder while all
the members of infra order Tarsiformes and suborder Anthropoidea of taditional classification are kept under
Haplorhini suborder.

Order Suborder Superfamily Family

Figure 3 Taxonomic Chart of Living Primates (reproduced from Standford, 2012)

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 Whatever the classification of Primates be, Man is placed in the super family Hominoidea along with the lesser
and great apes. The following classification (Fig. 4) of this super family can clearly illustrate man’s taxonomic
place therein.

Super Family Hominoidea

The super family Hominoidea consists of three families: Hylobatidae, Pongidae and Hominidae. Hylobatidae
(Gibbon) and Pongidae (Orangutan, Chimpanzee and Gorilla) are commonly known as Apes (Fig.4)

Fig.4. Traditional taxonomic classification of Hominoids. Names in italics refer to common names (Source:
Relethforth, 2010)
Following this scheme of classification, the lesser apes i.e. gibbons, siamang are placed in the family
Hylobatidae. Hylobates differ from great apes (chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, bonobos and humans) in
being smaller, exhibiting low sexual dimorphism, in not making nests, and superficially more closely resemble
monkeys than great apes. Gibbons brachiate, up to 15 m (50 ft), at speeds as high as 55 km/h (34 mph).
(http://www.nhptv.org/wild/hylobatidae.asp)

The family Pongidae comprises three genera namely, Pongo, (orangutan) Pan (chimpanzee) and Gorilla
(gorilla). Orangutans live on vegetarian diet and very fond of fruits. Males are much larger than females (sexual
dimorphism). They sleep in the nest built by them. Cranial capacity ranges from 365 cc to 425 cc (
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangutan ). Height of gorilla ranges from 5 to 6 feet and body weight varies from
200 to 250 kg. Cranial capacity ranges from 450 cc (females) to 500 cc (males). They spent most of their time
on the grounds, but can climb on the trees. Nests are built on the trees to pass the nights there. They walk
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 quadrupedally and sometimes bipedally (Roy, 2012). Chimpanzee vary considerably in size and appearance, but
chimpanzees stand approximately 1–1.7 metres (3–5.5 feet) tall when erect and weigh about 32–60 kg (70–130
pounds). Males tend to be larger and more robust than females. Cranial capacity ranges between 400 cc to 500
cc (Roy, 2012).

Man certainly differs from gibbons, orangutan, gorilla and chimpanzee in a number of above characteristics,
thus placing him in a separate family having the following features.

i. Bipedalism (orthograde) mode of locomotion with erect posture (autograde),

ii. Communicate each other through articulated speech,
iii. Slow and gradual rate of growth and development with prolonged growth period,
iv. Longer life span as compared with those of other primates,
v. Upper extremities are much shorter than lower extremities,
vi. Absence of ischial callosities,
vii. Relatively hairless body except dense hair on scalp and certain specific areas of the body,
viii. Highly rolled margins of ear,
ix. Prominent nose with elevated bridge and fleshy tip,
x. Enlarged cranium and reduced facial portion,
xi. Cranial capacity ranges from 1300 cc to 1450 cc approximately,
xii. Placement of foramen magnum far anteriorly at the base of the skull for balancing the head on the
vertebral column,
xiii. Development of pyramidal mastoid process and styloid process,
xiv. Presence of well-marked linea aspera in femur bone,
xv. Absence of diastem, smaller canines and reduced size of molar teeth.

These special features have given the man at top place in the animal kingdom. Therefore, position of man among
the mammals can be traced in the following heirarchial position:

Kingdom –Animalia
Phylum- Chordata
Sub-Phylum- Vertebrata
Class-Mammalia
Sub-Class- Eutheria
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 Order- Primate
Sub-Order-Haploirini
Infra-Order- Catarrhine
Super –Family –Hominoidea
Family- Hominidae
Genus- Homo
Species- sapiens
Sub Species- sapiens
SUM MARY

 Classification of Animal Kingdom is based on some fundamental features like level of organisation,
symmetry, coelom, segmentation, presence or absence of notochord etc. Of these features, presence of
notochord and backbone justifies man’s inclusion in the phylum Chordata and sub-phylum Vertebrata
respectively.
 Out of the five taxanomic classes of sub-phylum Vertebrata viz. Pices, Amphibian, Reptilian,
Aves and Mammalia, man is placed in the last class i.e Mammalia mainly because of presence of
Mammary glands and viciparous nature i.e giving birth to young ones directly instead of laying eggs.
 Of the nine eutherian mammalian orders, namely-Edentata, Cetacea, Sirenia, Ungulata, Carnivora,
Insectivora, Cheiroptera, Rhodentia and Primates man belongs to the Order Primate as they possess
prehensile limbs, opposable great toes and/or thumb, flat nails, well developed clavicle, vision with
stereoscopic, binocular and visual convergence, pectoral mammae etc.
 Among the primates, man is placed in the sub-order Anthropoidea jn conventional classification and
Haplorhini in more recent one owing to the presence of non procumbent incisors and canines, complete
development of the post orbital wall, strong reduction in olfactory apparatus, short snout with no
rhinarium, formation of nails on all fingers and toes etc.
 Owing to the presence of nostrils separated by a narrow nasal septum, downward pointing nasal
nostrils and will elevated nasal bridge; man is placed in the infra-order Catarrhini of sub-order
Haplorhini,

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  In the infra-order Catarrhini, man is placed in super-family Hominoidea because of absence of tail,
laterally expanded chest, very large complex brain, arms longer than legs (except man), more or less
semi erect or erect posture etc.
 Finally man is placed in species sapiens, genus Homo of family Hominidae characterized by
orthograde posture, highly complex brain, very less body hair, prominent nose with elevated bridge and
fleshy tip, enlarged cranium and reduced facial portion, articulated speech etc.

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