az INTRODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 1 (b) Let the charges 4, and qq reside on the inner and outer spherical shells, respectively (see Figure 1.35). The field imensity produced by these charges is Bee) = a. 5007 — 1) +4500 =n) Hence, w= f E(r) arf Bitar = +a) v= [eee tT ars [Marae ae L, fe i To Mi If this system of equations is solved for g; and q,, then C)-Caye)-C 0) ‘The “capacitance” of a system of two conductors is defined by ae av where 4; = q and gz = —g are the charges on the first and second conductor, respectively, and. AV = V, — Vs represents the potential difference between them. Now, (*) . ees) (") 12, Sur Crr} \ Va, and therefore, iA a" L Cn —Cr\ far Va} XC) \-C Cur) Nar, For the capacitance one obtains gency) = Eula = Can Wut Cnt C24Cn) Cr+ Cn Cn + Cn v-V For the spherical capacitor, we get =n ‘This agrees with our previous result (Exercise 1.2).BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 43 Biographical notes Charles Auguste Coulomb, b. June 14, 1736, Angouléme-d. Aug, 23, 1806, Paris, French physicist. A corresponding member of the Académie des Sciences from 1774, Coulomb became a full member of its successor organization (Institut National) in 1795. Until 1776 he held the position of Licutenant-Culouel du génic in Martinique, and after rat he was Inspecteur général de I’ Université in Paris. (see also p. 512) [BR] Carl Friedrich GauB, b. Apr. 30, 1777, Braunschweig-d. Feb. 23, 1855, Géttingen. Gauss’ father was a day laborer. Gauss’ extraordinary talent for mathematics was realized very early. In 1791 he became a protégé of the Duke of Braunschweig, who paid for his education, From 1795 to 1798, Gauss studied in Gouingen, and in 1799 he did a doctorate in Helmstedt. In 1807 he became head of the observatory and professor at Gottingen university. He turned down all offers for better jobs. Gauss started working practically in 1791 with tests of the geometrical-arithmetical mean, of distribution of prime numbers, and in 1792 with “Grundlagen der Geometric.” Just two years later, he discovered the “method of smallest squares.” From 1795 he dealt with the theory of numbers, e.g., the squared reciprocity theorem. In 1796 Gauss published his first work, which proved that it was possible to construct a regular polygon of n angles with a pair of compasses and a ruler, as long as n stands for Fermat’s prime numbers. This holds especially for n = 17. Gauss’ thesis (1799) succeeded in proving the fundamental theorem of algebra. Several other proofs were to follow. It is known that at that time Gauss already had a basic knowledge of a theory of elliptical and modular functions, The first extensive treatise written by him was published in 1801. “Disquistiones Arithmeticae” marked the beginning of a new theory of numbers. Among other topics it contains a theory of divided circles. From about 1801 Gauss was interested in astronomy, too. In 1801 he managed to calculate the trajectory of the planetoid Ceres; in 1809 and 1818 he experimented with the attraction of general ellipsoids. A treatise on the hypergeometric series was published in 1812. It includes the first correct and systematic tests with convergence. In 1820 Gauss turned to geodesy. His most important theoretical achievement was the “surface theory” (1827) with the “Theorema egregium,” He ‘worked in practical geodesy, too. Between 1821 and 1825 he executed extensive measurings. In spite of such time-consuming work, he published two works on “biquadratic rests” in 1825 and 1831, the latter including a presentation of complex numbers in a plane, and a new theory of problems of physics. Important achievements in this field are the invention of an electric telegraph (1833-1834, together with W. Weber), and potential theory (1839-1840). Several important findings are only known trom his diaries and letters, e.g., the non-euclidian geometry (1816). The reason for his being so secretive was the strict standard he applied to the publication of his thoughts, as well as his attempt to avoid unnecessary arguments. (see also p. 520) Siméon Denis Poisson, b. June 21, 1781, Pithiviers-d. Apr. 25, 1840, Paris. Poisson was a student at the Ecole Polytechnique. After having finished his studies, he worked there. In 1802, he got a chair. Poisson was a member of the Bureau of Longitudes and of the Académie des Sciences. From 1787 he was Pair of France. Poisson worked in several ie numbers. During the last years of his life, Gauss was interested inINTRODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 1 fields, e.g., general mechanics, heat conduction, potential theory, differential equations, and probability calculus. (see also p. 525) Pierre Simon Laplace, b. March 28, 1749, Beaumont-en-Age-d. March 5, 1827, Paris, After having finished school, Laplace became teacher in Beaumont and—with the help of d’Alembert—professor at the Ecole Militaire in Paris. Since Laplace tended to change his political opinion quite often, he was honoured by Napoleon as well as by Louis XVIIT His most important work is “Analytical Theory of Probability” (1799-1825). Probability calculus includes the method of generating functions, Laplace transformations, and the ultimate formulation of mechanical materialism. Celestial mechanics includes Laplace's cosmological hypothesis, theories on the shape of Earth and of Moon’s motion, perturbation theory of planets, and the potential theory of the Laplace equation. (see also p. 522) Paul Maurice Dirac, b. Aug. 8, 1902, Bristol-d. Oct. 20, 1984, ‘Tallahassee, Florida, USA. Dirac studied in Bristol and Cambridge, and at several foreign universities. In 1932 he got a chair for mathematics. Dirac is said to be one of the founders of quantum mechanics, The ‘mathematical equivalent developed by him mainly consists of a noncommutative algebra to calculate the properties of atoms. Dirac developed arelativistic theory of electrons, predicted the discovery of the positron in 1928, and made important contributions to quantum field theory. He received the Nobel Prize in 1933.2 Green’s Theorems For the determination of the electrostatic potential we encountered the relation -f 24 on) = [7 wit (2) This relation can be employed if the charge distribution p(x’) is known, But frequently in electrostatics the problem is a different one. Besides charge distributions p(r) also the potential distributions ¢(r) or distributions of the electric field E(r) = —V¢ on certain surfaces and bodies are given (see Figure 1.1). The charge distributions producing them are mostly not known, These boundary conditions fix the potential at all points in space. For the solution of this boundary-value problem the so-called Green’s theorems are required, which will be derived in the following. Let A(r) denote a vector field, and let y(r) and ¥(r) be two sealar fields, Let the vector field A be constructed out of the y and y-fields in the following way: A=9Vy Thus, the product rule yields VA=V- (VY) = 9VW + (Ve) (VW) Figure 2.1. ilustation of the geometrical relations in the integrations for Green's thevrems, (2.2) (2.3) 4546 GREEN'S THEOREMS 2 We start from Gauss’ theorem f v's Adv’ fa -n'da! (2.4) v Is and replace V'-A by equation (2.3). Furthermore, we write A-n! = g(V'y)-n! = y aw/an', the derivative of the scalar field yin the direction of the normal vector to the surface. The primes mean that the derivatives are taken with respect to the coordinates which are also integrated. With this replacement ihe first Green’s theorem follows from Gauss’ theorem: [levv+re (vy) av’ $7 ov da’ (25) In general, the charge density (r) and the potential distribution #(r), or the electric field E(r) on a surface S (position vector r) are given. The second Green's theorem is derived by interchanging the arbitrarily chosen scalar fields in (2.5) and subsequent subtraction of the equation obtained from equation (2.3). The second Green’s theorem then reads (with Vi= A): - 1 a a , [loa wer —vera've] av'= $[o os | dal (29) i P From Green’s theorems and employing Poisson's differential equation we want to find now an integral representation of the potential more general than the relation (2.1). For the arbitrarily chosen scalar fields we set wee’) = ad g(r’) = &(r') (potential) (2.7) ireen| Then AW = Aa = ie) (2.8) and A'o = A'o("') = —4zp(r') (2.9) With these relations we get, according to equation (2.6) —1x [60° sir rydv' +4 f 2© gy" lv ir—rl -¢ or ye 18 yey] aa’ 2.10) On’ Ir rl ie) a0) If the point of observation r lies inside the integration volume, then the first term on the left-hand side yields the potential at r: pr) ! 1 1 He av’ een ee: dn) f por tae =f lat 59 (8) = g(r 2 ae wom] (2.11)UNIQUENESS OF THE SOLUTIONS 47 Now we treat two special cases of this equation. At first, we shift the integration surface S to infinity. ‘Ihen, the integral goes taster to zero, e.g., for a point charge: a —$(r')~ rane) than the surface element tends to infinity. Consequently, the surface integral vanishes, and the known form (2.1) remains: f 7) ays vy ir—r'] On the other hand, if the integration volume is free of charges, then the first term of equation (2.11) becomes zero, and the potential is determined only by the values of the potential and the values of its derivatives at the boundary of the integration region (the surface S), One should note that the integration volume always has to contai get a solution for the potential. According to equation (2.11) the potential ¢ (1) is defined by the potential and its normal derivatives on the boundary surface. But. by giving both values #(8) and a(S)/An the problem is overdetermined: as we will see soon, itis enough to give one condition to fix the potential. The boundary conditions are called Virichlet boundary conditions if @ is given at the boundary, and Neumann boundary conditions if the normal derivative 36 /2n (that is the normal component of the electric field intensity) is given there. or) the point r in order to Uniqueness of the solutions ‘We will now show that the potential is determined uniquely by giving Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions. The two solutions ¢(r) and da(r), assumed to be different from each other, obey the Poisson equation (or the Laplace equation Agi2(0) = —4p (0), thatis, — A(o1 — o2) =0 (2.12) At the boundary both functions satisfy the same conditions ae ae ous)=ers) or Sis) = Bs) (213) in an Now we set u 1 — $2 and use the first Green's theorem with g = y = u, so that ou(r’) On" fiwe A'u(r) +(V'u(r))"]dV" fue) da! (214)48 GREEN'S THEOREMS 2 Due to the condition (2.12) the first term of the volume integral vanishes. The surface integral becomes zero since either u (Dirichlet) or u/n (Neumann) vanish on the surface due to the boundary conditions. ‘his means: fevueypav or | Viu(r’) =0 (2.15) Vv ‘Thus, w is constant throughout the volume V. As for Dirichlet boundary conditions, u is zero at the boundary, and we have w = 0 everywhere, that is, $; = go, so that the uniqueness is demonstrated, For Neumann boundary conditions, both solutions fur ¢ differ at most in an insignificant additive constant. With the proved uniqueness of the solution of the potential problem it becomes clear that the potential is fixed uniquely by either Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions. If (5) and 4@(S)/an are given as required in equation (2.11) the problem is overdetermined. In other words, (S) and 86(S)/8n depend on cach other. Green function With the help of the second Green's theorem we can calculate now the solution of the Poisson equation or the Laplace equation within a certain bounded volume with known Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions. To get the equations (2.11) and (2,12), we choose yr = 1/|r —r'| corresponding to the potential of a unit charge for which holds 1 Ir—r] = -428(r— (2.16) ‘This function y have one of the class of functions G depending on r and r’ and for which we 1 rl VG rr) =—4nd(r—r') with G(r’) = owt Fr) (2.17) Here, F has tw fulfil the Laplace equation AF is symmetric in r and F’: G(r, F’) = G(r’, rv) It should be stated again that the particular solution (r, r’) = 1/|r—r'| obeys Poisson's equation (2.16), but it does not satisfy Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions, except if the surface lies at infinity. For the Green function G(r, +’) the boundary conditions can be taken into account via the functions F(r, r’) in equation (2.17). We will continue to follow this idea. Let us consider equation (2.11), which is a conditional equation for $(r). But it still contains hath conditions, (r’)|s as well as 6(r')/An|y. Due to the Green function and the freedom contained in it, it is possible to choose a function F(r,’) in such a way that one of the surface integrals vanishes and, thus, an equation with either Dirichlet or Neumann boundary condition is obtained. Setting p = 9 and yr = G(r, r’) in (2.6), and 0. G is called the Green function, and itGREEN FUNCTION 49 taking into account the relations found above for the Green function, we find in analogy to equation (2.11) on) foe rce.erav' +x flow. 1.0) _ gee By an appropriate choice of Gr, Fr) one or the other oF the surtace integrals can be eliminated in the following way: for Dirichlet boundary conditions, we set Gp(r, r’) = 0, if r’ lies on the surface S, that is, ifr’ = r(S). Then, the problem is formulated only for Dirichlet boundary conditions since the equation given above becomes dGp(r.r’ oe) ={ ple)Go(r,r’) dV" — x how C008) ay (2.19) ‘ant eG ee) da’ (2.18) For Neumann boundary conditions the obvious ansatz /3G p(r, 1’) result since it does not fulfil the requirement of Gauss’ law (for a unit charge): aGy(e,r’) a f an“ ‘Therefore, the simplest ansatz is aGn(rr’) 4a -4n (2.20) (2.21) in! Ss if S is the entire surface and r lies on the surface. Then we obtain 1 0o(r’) oe =r f PU Gurr )dV! + — ee Gute se) da’ (2.22) v an Js Here, (g)s = + f, OU" )da’ 1s the average value of the potential atthe surface. This average value can be absorbed always into the additive constant in which the potential is arbitrary. If the entire surface S tends to infinity, then it vanishes if @(r) decreases faster than 1/r. considering r —> oo. Here, the physical meaning of F(r, r’) should be mentioned. F(r, r’) surface s charge distribution Figure 2.2, The hatched region shows the charge distribution outside the volume V generating the “image potential” F(r,1'). Depending on where lies in V, that is, depending on r', the image charge Fle.) will ha diforont50 GREEN'S THEOREMS 2 solves the Laplace equation inside V. Hence, the function F (r, r’) denotes the potential of a charge distribution outside the volume V so that. together with the potential 1 /|r— | of the point charge at the point r’, the Green function can just reach the values Gp(r, r’) = 0 or 4/8G p(r, r’)n' = —4x7/S at the boundary surface (r = r’(S)). It is clear that the external charge distribution depends on the point charge in the volume whose potential or the normal derivative of whose potential it has to compensate for r’ = ’(S). This means that F(x, r’) depends on the parameter r’, which gives the position of the point charge distribution in the volume. The method of images (Figure 2.2) that is used in the following examples is based on this knowledge. Example 2.1: The grounded conducting sphere in the field of a charge q Consider a conducting sphere of radius a held at ground potential (@ = 0). Grounded means that the potential is the same as that of the surface of the earth, and therefore, the same as very far from the sphere, at infinity. By v we denote the vector from the center of the sphere to the position of the charge q. and hy F the point of observation (see Figure 2.3). The boundary conditions are $(a) = (|r| = 00) = 0. This is a Dirichlet problem. First, we determine the Green function G p obeying the boundary condition, using the method of electric images. That is. we try 10 achieve the honndary condition by placing a second charge of magnitude q’ at an appropriate position (e.g.,at y’ in the figure) such that by superposition with tie first charge g the boundary condition is satisfied. As will be shown by the calculation, itis sufficient to use one image charge q’ possessing, for symmetry reasons, a position vector y’ parallel to y. We choose the center of the sphere as the origin. To determine the magnitude and position, we set up the common potential of both charges and try to fulfil the boundary conditions. The potential of the two charges is giry) eed Ir-y'l If m = r/r| and n’ = y/ly| are the unit vectors in r- and y-direction, respectively, then 4 q gir.y) —i_ Irn = yn’ Irn = int] Figure 2.3. Grounded conducting sphere in the field of a charge g.GREEN FUNCTION 51 From this expression, by factoring out r or y’ at the point r = a we obtain the following relation: orl =a.y)= according to the assumption (Dirichlet boundary condition forthe Green function). This equation is correct for all n-n’ = cosy only if 420 ang a ye We can see that q' and y’ approach zero if y becomes large, that is, the charge vanishes at infinity. Furthermore, q and q’ become opposite and equal when |y’ — y| tends to zero, With these values for and y’, the potential of the charge q of a grounded sphere is 7 ey—@ ‘This holds for the region external to the sphere, i., for r > a. Namely, this region is the charged volume V of equation (2.19). The surface of the sphere is the bounding surface S. Since according to ‘our general considerations the solution of the boundary value problem is unique, the solution found for the problem is the only one, ‘The Green function for this potential distribution is Golr.y) —2yr cosy It may be checked easily that Gp(a, y) as well as G(r, a) vanish as required. Furthermore, we have Go(r,y) = Goly. 1), as always. To determine the charge induced by q at the sphere, we start from the statement that the jump of the field intensity across charged surfaces is equal to the charge density at the surface52 GREEN'S THEOREMS 2 because E; = 0 since the fields inside a homogeneous conducting sphere break down. The electrons of the conductor shift until no further forces are acting, that is, E(r) = 0 for r < a. This follows from the fact that the whole sphere, including its interior region, has the potential @ = 0. Hence, the system is spherically symmetric a(r =a) ~y cosy ry?/a® — y cosy ny, _rvtfeh = yeoty (Wate aayamy) | (aarp ar oy) Ge) y’ nay 1 @ 2a ee +H 2 cosy where y is the angle between r and y. Drawing the density of the surface charge against the angle y for two ratios v/a. one obtains Figure 2.4 ‘The total induced charge Q is o- foo. naan — : Just equal to the image charge, as it must be according to Gauss’ law. The next question to be answered concerns the strength of the attractive force between the charge q and the charge induced by it at the surface of the sphere. We could perform this calculation by integration using the charge density of the Figure 2.4. Induced charge, which decreases with increasing distance y of the charge q. Note, that the induced charge is plotted in units of 4 aa /-q.GREEN FUNCTION 53 surface found above. But the induced charge, as we have seen, behaves just like a charge q’ sitting at the position y’, so itis easier to compute the force between the original charge and the image charge: aq ens = a . ve a and therefore 1 Pega ie) lec li a Te Gea 1” OFaronar e The quantity d = y —a denotes the distance between the charge q and the spherical surface. In the vicinity of the surface of the sphere the force decreases as 1/d?, but far outside it varies as I/y’, similar to the force in a dipole field. This is the typical behavior of the charge and the induced charge. Obviously, ifa charge leaves the surface of the sphere and further moves to infinity work has to be done against the attractive force of the induced charge. This is the work function. Itis the reason that, in general, tne charges remain on a conductor (the sphere in our case) and do not leave it to move to infinity. Due to the repulsion of like charges one would not expect this, at first. But, when a charge moves off the surface the corresponding image charge appears immediately, attracting the original ‘charge (to get it back), Example 2.2: A conducting ungrounded sphere in the field of a charge Let a conducting but ungrounded sphere be in the vicinity of a point charge q. If this sphere, in the charge-free space, has a total charge Q distributed uniformly over its surface, then this charge is conserved ify is located in the eaterior region because the charge cannot drain off. Of course, a charge 4 will be distributed over the surface in such a way that the surface-charge distribution calculated in Example 2.1 will be observed. The residual charge (Q — q") will be distributed uniformly over the sphere because the forces of g are balanced already by q’ = —aq/y at the position y’ = (a*/y)y/y. ‘Therefore, the charge Q —q’ will act like itis concentrated at the center. Hence, inthe exterior region the potential found in the Example 2.1 will get an additional term of the form (Q — q')/r: O+ Similarly, the attractive force between g and the sphere can be determined again FQ) = gE(y) = g[—grad dr. yey] ac a 28) ose (223) (2.24)