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    8 views7 pages

    Elementary

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    Joseph JR

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Elementary Considerations on Function Theory MATHEMATICAL SUPPLEMENT In potential theory as well as latet uu int the computation of complicated integrals, we need methods coming from function theory, i.e., from the theory of functions with complex arguments. For these reasons, we will arm ourselves with the most important tools in this branch of mathematics. Complex numbers 100 Complex numbers can be written in the form zex+iy=:Rez+i-Imz, i: (41) where x and y are real numbers.! ‘The set of all z denoted by C can be represented by a plane: every point of the plane corresponds to a complex number due to the isomorphism C <> R?. Besides (4.1) there is an alternative representation z= (le? (4.2) "The sign =; means is defined as. Depending on whether the colon is on the right or the left side of the equal sign, the quantity to be defined is on the right or the left respectively. So the first part of equation (4.1) defines the real and the imaginary parts of z after the sign =:, while in the second part of equation (4.1). the sign := defines the quantity i ‘COMPLEX NUMBERS 101 with kl=vx?+y?, 9 tangs x Itcorresponds to the introduction of polar coordinates in the complex plane (see Figure 4. 1). Obviously, a comparison of (4.1) and (4.2) yields lz|cose, y ing In the arithmetical operations +, and /, i is treated like an algebraic quantity, e.g., te = (i tiv) +2 +2) = Gi $2) FiO ty) S23 = tis Hence, x3 = x; + x2, y3 = y; + y2. Two complex numbers are equal to each other if and only if their real parts, as well as imaginary parts, are equal to each other. Since i is defined by the (many-valued) root function the exponential law cannot be transferred; that is, the root cannot be solved, as the following example demonstrates: 1 1 vi 1 v-T v= VO One is only allowed to rewrite i by taking its powers, e.g., 1/1 = i/i? = i. In addition to the known basic arithmetic operations, an important operation is the complex conjugation, indicated by an asterisk: Sy (4.3) ‘One may be convinced easily that v-Tsi a(x tiyy® 1 Rez=x=5(¢ +2") 1 =(-2 (4.4) mz Bee) (4.4) ie =x? +? Rez Figure 4.1. A complex number in the complex plane. 102 ELEMENTARY CONSIDERATIONS ON FUNCTION THEORY 4 Example 4.1: Computing with complex numbers We compute (1 + 41)/(2 — 31): Ladi Leal 243) 2-1243+8i 23 449 BB Cauchy-Riemann differential equations The significant statements of function theory refer to functions f(z) defined on an open and connected subset (domain) G of C: f@:G>C The notions continuity and differentiability of complex functions are introduced analogously to the real case, but with a fundamental additional requiremer Continuity f(z) is called continuous in cy € G if for any © > 0 there is a(€) > O such that for |z — zo] < 8(€), If @) — f (zo) <€ Differentiability _f is called complex differentiable, holomorphic, regular, or analytic in 20 if the limit af (2) im f@ — Feo) dz ru 2m (45) exists and is unique. Here, to be unique means that the limiting value is independent of the path along which ‘one approaches the point zo. At first, there is an infinite number of possibilities, but they may be reduced to two independent ones: the two limits in the direction of the coordinate axes, With z = zo + Az, one can rewrite equation (4.5): Fig Fle0+ Az) — feo) dz ~ aso az @s) ilmz Zs Rez Figure 4.2. On the ditferentiabiity of a complex tunction. ‘COMPLEX NUMBERS, 103 Now, we set (i) Az = Ax and (ii) Az = Ay and obtain Gy Em tim LG0ti+ Ax) — fotino) _ af dz aro Ax = 0x i; ee F (iy ES jim LG0ti0+ Ay) — fo ti) _ 1 af dz ~ oyu fay Tay ‘The requirement that the limiting value has to be independent of the direction leads to ee in (47) Since f(z) € C the decomposition F@) =ulx,y)+ive.y), — with u(x, y), vay ER (4.8) is always possible. Substituting equation (4.8) into (4.7), a comparison of the real and the imaginary part leads to the Cauchy-Riemann differential equations: du(x, y) _ dv(x, y) ax ay du(x,y) _ ave, y) ‘ay Ox oO Hence, a function is differentiable in the complex domain if it is differentiable in the real domain and satisfies the equations (4.9). The additional requirement (4.9) is the reason for many curious propertics of holomorphic functions, as will be shown now. By the way, the Cauchy-Riemann differential equations may be summarized also in the short form ae e (Arig) usin =o (4.10) Example 4.2: Holomorphic functions Are the functions f, . fala) = Re x holomorphic? aw Sel Si =z>u=x, a => fi is holomorphit fl -Rezauoz, va0s ax = fris not holomorphic because the Cauchy-Riemann differential equations (4.9) are not fulfilled anywhere, 104 ELEMENTARY CONSIDERATIONS ON FUNCTION THEORY 4 Figure 4.3. Path C in the complex domain G. Line-integrals Let f(z) : G > C be a function continuous along the path C in G (see Figure 4.3). To calculate the integral f/f (z)dz, defined as the limiting value of a sum, like in the real domain, one has to parametrize the path C; that is, one determines z:[a,bJ>c such that to any t € (a, b) there corresponds uniquely a z(t) € C. If z(a) = z(b), then the path is closed. Then, the line integral is given by frown with SUM" ae (1 ZO= di The following statements are valid: i FQ)dz= - [rod (4.12) if flea]

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