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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

Capacity of axially loaded RC columns with arbitrary cross

sections to Eurocode 2

M. Traykova 1, N. Ganchovski 2, A. Traykov 3

1
Department of RC Structures, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and
Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria
2
Proektsoft EOOD, 34-36 Peyo Yavorov blvd, Sofia, Bulgaria
3
Department of Structural Mechanics, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering
and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria

alex_fce@uacg.bg

Abstract. Unlike older design codes, Eurocode 2 does not provide a procedure for calculation
of the capacity of axially loaded columns. For that purpose, a general algorithm is developed,
using the principles of structural mechanics and mathematics: It starts with constructing the P-
Δ relationship (buckling curve) for the element, accounting for initial imperfections, minimum
eccentricity, material nonlinearity and second order effects. Then, the respective bending
moments are determined from the displacements and the P-M relationship is obtained. Finally,
the axial load capacity in planar domain is determined by intersecting the P-M diagram with
the interaction curve for the RC section. In spacial domain, the P-Δ relationship is defined by
the respective “buckling surface”. Its intersection with the interaction surface represents a
spacial curve in the (P, Mx, My) coordinate system. The axial capacity is determined as the
minimum of P values along the curve. The solution is performed by numerical methods.

1. Introduction
Usually, design checks of RC columns for bending with axial force are performed by comparing the
external bending moment with the ultimate bending capacity (M Ed ≤ M Rd), providing that the internal
and external axial loads are in equilibrium (N Ed = N Rd). However, in most cases, columns are loaded
only with axial force and there are no external bending moments. Then, minimal eccentricities, initial
imperfections and second order effects are applied besides the axial load. In such cases, it is more
convenient to determine the ultimate axial force capacity N Rd,II and compare it to the imposed external
load N Ed . This approach provides more valuable information for the structural designer.

2. Capacity of RC sections for bending with axial load

Unfortunately, Eurocode 2 does not provide detailed methods or formulas for calculation of the
capacity for bending with axial load. Only general principles are described in section 6.1. of EN 1992-
1-1. They can be used by different authors to develop formulas, numerical models or computer
programs. On their bases. we have created a numerical procedure that is applicable for cross sections
with arbitrary shapes and reinforcement.
Parabolic-linear and linear plastic stress-strain relationships are used for the concrete and
reinforcement, respectively (Figures 1 and 2). Stain is distributed linearly along the section height.

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

Strain diagram is varied from pure tension to pure compression through stages 1, 2 and 3 as shown on
Figure 3.

Figure 1. Stress-strain relationship for concrete. Figure 2. Stress-strain relationship for steel.

Figure 3. Theoretical basis for bending-with-axial-force design.

For a given strain diagram, the respective stresses in concrete and reinforcement bars are evaluated.
The resulting compression force in concrete is calculated via numerical integration using adaptive
Gauss-Lobatto quadrature [1]. The equilibrium of the internal and external axial forces is found by
solving the equation:
N Rd (ε )+ N Ed =0 (1)
,where ε is a general strain parameter that describes all possible positions of the strain diagram. The
equation is solved using the modified Anderson-Bjork root finding method [2]. The axial cross section
resistance is determined as follows:
N Rd = N c + ∑ N si , (2)
where:
x

N c =∫ σ c ( z) ∙ b ( z) dz - the resultant force in the concrete; (3)

0

{ [ ( )]
n
ε c ( z)
σ c ( z )= f cd 1− 1− ε for 0 ≤ ε c ( z ) ≤ ε c 2 - concrete stress; (4)
c2

f cd for ε c 2 ≤ ε c ( z) ≤ ε cu 2

N si = Asi ∙ σ si is the force in reinforcement bar “i”; (5)

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

σ s (ε )=max (− f yd ; min (ε·E s ; f yd )) - stress-strain relationship for steel. (6)

The bending resistance of the section is determined accordingly:
M Rd = N c · z c + ∑ N si · z si (7)
For the case of biaxial bending, the above equation is applied along the direction of the total
external moment. Then, besides the strains in the extreme edges, we need to determine the angle of the
neutral line so that the total internal moment acts in the same direction as the external one. We may
notice that the neutral line is not perpendicular to the vector of the total bending moment, so again we
should use numerical methods to find the angle.

3. N-M interaction diagram/surface

If we sweep the strain diagram from pure tension to pure compression and calculate N Rd and M Rd for
each position, we will obtain a closed curve in the M–N plane(Figure 4). For biaxial bending, we also
need to rotate the neutral line and calculate the respective N Rd, M Rd,x and M Rd, y . The resulting object
is a closed surface in the M x –M y –N coordinate system which we will call “interaction surface”
(Figure 5).

Figure 4. Interaction diagram. Figure 5. Interaction surface.

4. Design criteria
As we mentioned above, most authors propose the equation M Ed ≤ M Rd for design check of RC
sections, where M Rd is obtained for the equilibrium of internal and external axial forces. However. this
approach may not be fully correct for unsymmetrical sections and/or reinforcement. For example, the
asymmetrically reinforced section, shown on Figure 6 will fail for the applied load even though M Ed ≤
M Rd. The correct approach for all cases is to check if the load is inside the interaction curve (Figure 4)
which can be expressed by the equation:
M Rd,min ≤ M Ed ≤ M Rd,max (8)
The same approach is applicable for biaxial bending, as shown on Figure 5. Here, M Rd,min, M Ed and
M rd,max are located on a horizontal line in the plane of the external moment. In this way, we provide
that the load point is inside the interaction surface. Once we have the surface constructed, we can use
it to check many load cases as displayed on Figure 5.

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

Figure 6. Sample cross section. Figure 7. Sample load.

5. Capacity of columns
Besides the cross section and material properties, the capacity of the element depends on the minimum
eccentricity, initial imperfections and second order effects, that should be also taken into account.

5.1. Minimum eccentricity

According to EN 1992-1-1, section 6.1 (4) [3], the minimum eccentricity is calculated by the equation:
e 0 = max(h/30; 20mm), (9)
where h is the section depth. Eurocode does not provide information how to proceed for arbitrary
shaped sections, subjected to biaxial bending. The logical approach is to take the distance between the
extreme points, projected in the plane of interest. Since the eccentricity may act in any direction, it can
be represented by a closed curve. For simplicity, we can calculate the eccentricities in the two main
directions and construct an ellipse.
The eccentricity results in a bending moment that is obtained by the equation: M Ed,0 = N·e 0 . For
plane bending, it can be represented by two lines in the M–N plane (Figure 8). If the external moment
M Ed is less than M Ed,0 the latest is relevant. And since the eccentricity can act in both directions, we
should make two checks: for –M Ed,0 and +M Ed,0, regardless of the sign of M Ed. For unsymmetrical
sections, it can happen that the opposite side is the relevant one as shown on Figure 8. The point where
the line intersects the interaction diagram defines the axial capacity of a section with minimum
eccentricity: N Rd,0.The minimum value from both sides should be taken as relevant.

Figure 8. Minimum eccentricity check with M–N Figure 9. Min eccentricity check
interaction diagram. with M x - M y interaction diagram.

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

Figure 10. Minimum eccentricity Figure 11. Axial capacity for

check with interaction surface. minimum eccentricity.

For the spatial formulation, the eccentricity can be represented by inverted elliptic cone as
displayed on Figure 11. Since, it can act in any direction, the entire cone will be the relevant load
whenever the external moment falls inside the cone/pyramid, regardless of its sign and direction. Then
the check is reduced to a mere geometrical problem: We intersect the pyramid and the interaction
surface with a horizontal plane at N = NEd and compare both shapes. If the eccentricity polygon falls
entirely inside the M x –M y interaction diagram in the N = NEd plane, the check is satisfied (Figure 10).
The definition of the axial load capacity N Rd,0 is a bit more complicated. If we intersect the
inverted pyramid with the interaction surface, we will obtain a spatial closed curve. The capacity is the
minimum of the curve in respect to the N coordinate as displayed on Figure 11

5.2. Initial imperfections

Initial imperfections are defined in EN 1992-1-1, section 5.2. For isolated members, they may be taken
as an eccentricity:
e i = l 0 /400, where
l 0 is the effective length of the column.
Since they do not depend on the shape of the cross section, they can be equally applied in any
direction. If we draw the eccentricity in plan, it will represent a circle with radius e i. The respective
bending moments can be represented as an inverted cone in the M x –M y –N coordinate system like the
one on Figure 11.

5.3. Second order effects

They are result from bucking and induce additional eccentricities. Unlike initial imperfections and
minimum eccentricity, the respective bending moments increase hyperbolically with the compressive
force. When the latest is close to the buckling load, the bending moment theoretically grows to
infinity. However, the column will brake long before that.

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

There are three methods in Eurocode 2 to account for second order effects: general method,
nominal stiffness and nominal curvature. For the purpose of our research, we will use the nominal
stiffness method, according to EN 1992-1-1, section 5.8.7.2. However, any of the other methods may
be applied with equal success, without affecting the final conclusions.
The following procedure is used:
Bending moment with initial imperfections - M 0 , Ed = M Ed + N Ed · ei

Factor depending on the concrete grade - k 1 =

N Ed
√ f ck
20 MPa
[EN 1992-1-1 (5.23)]

Relative axial force n=

Ac · f cd
n· λ
Factor depending on axial force and slenderness - k 2 = < 0.20 [EN 1992-1-1 (5.24)]
170
Maximum value - k 2 <0.20
Effective creep ratio - φ ef =φ (∞ , t 0 ) · M 0 , Eqp / M 0 , Ed
k1 · k2
Factor for effects of cracking, creep, etc. K c = [EN 1992-1-1 (5.22)]
1+φ ef
Factor for contribution of reinforcement – K s =1
E cm
Design value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete – E cd = [EN 1992-1-1 (5.20)]
γ cE
Nominal stiffness – EI = K c · E cd · I c + K s · E s · I s
π 2 · EI
Buckling load – N B =
L o2
M 0 , Ed
Bending moment with second order effects – M Ed , II = [EN 1992-1-1 (5.30)]
N Ed
1−
NB

Minimum eccentricity – e o = max ( 30h ; 20 mm) [EN 1992-1-1, § 6.1(4)]

Design bending moment – M Ed =max ( M Ed , II ; N Ed · e o )

5.4. Buckling capacity

For the planar formulation, the second order effects can be represented by a hyperbolic curve that
asymptotically approaches the buckling load. The intersection of the hyperbola with the interaction
diagram defines the buckling resistance of the column as shown on Figure 12 a).
For the spatial formulation, the second order effects can be displayed as a surface that looks like
gramophone funnel. Its intersection with the interaction diagram represents a closed spatial curve. The
minimal “N” coordinate on the curve is the column buckling capacity as on Figure 12 b).
It is not necessary that buckling capacity point will occur in either of the main directions.
Especially for columns with complex, non-symmetric shapes and different boundary conditions in
both directions.

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

a) 2D solution b) 3D solution
Figure 12. Buckling capacity of columns.

6. Proposed algorithm
Based on the above discussion, we propose the following algorithm for calculation of the axial load
capacity of arbitrary shaped RC columns, with account to minimum eccentricity, initial imperfections
and second order effects:

6.1. Planar solution

1. Construct the interaction diagram by variation of the strain diagram.
2. Intersect the minimum eccentricity line with the interaction diagram = NRd,0.
3. Find the buckling load and construct the buckling curve.
4. Intersect the buckling curve with the interaction diagram = NRd,II.
5. Calculate the final column resistance NRd = min(NRd,0, NRd,II).

6.2. Spatial solution

1. Construct the interaction surface by variation of the neutral line direction and the strain diagram.
2. Construct the minimum eccentricity inverted cone.
3. Intersect the cone with the interaction surface and obtain the intersection curve.
4. Find the minimum coordinate on the curve in respect to its N-coordinates = NRd,0.
5. Find the buckling loads and construct the buckling funnel surface.
6. Intersect the buckling surface with the interaction surface and obtain the intersection curve.
7. Find the minimum coordinate on the curve in respect to its N- coordinates = NRd,II.
8. Calculate the final column resistance as NRd = min(NRd,0, NRd,II).

7. Additional considerations

7.1. Selection of a coordinate system

For arbitrary shaped cross sections, it is not always obvious how to locate the section in the Oxy plane.
However the laws of mechanics require us to perform the calculations about the principle axes through
the geometric center. That is why we will locate the geometric center at point O(0, 0) and rotate the
section so that the principle axes coincide with x and y axes.

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

7.2. Spatial distribution of buckling effects

Buckling analyses are performed about the two principle axes separately. For that purpose, the
respective boundary conditions or effective lengths should be specified in both directions. Two
buckling loads are determined for the two directions and the respective second order effects are
calculated. For all other directions, the influence of the second order effects is approximated as an
ellipse.

7.3. Performance
At a first glance, the proposed 3D algorithm may look computationally intensive. However it can be
efficiently implemented on the contemporary hardware. All surfaces can be stored as 3D meshes
(polygons). Once they are constructed, the problem is reduced to pure geometric algorithms. The
proposed method is suitable for parallelization, so we can take advantage of the today’s multi-core
processors. The other possibility is to benefit from the computational power of 3D graphic cards, if
available. In all cases, we will be able to calculate hundreds or even thousands of columns in a second.

8. Software and implementation

The 2D version of the algorithm is implemented as a Calcpad worksheet. It it is available for free,
under the MIT license. The 3D version is included into the PMM Expert professional software,
developed by Proektsoft. It was used for preparation of all 3D examples in the current paper.

9. Worked example
To illustrate how the proposed method works, we developed a simple example for a rectangular
section with different boundary conditions in both directions. We calculated the buckling resistance
using both methods – planar and spatial and compared the results.
Cross Section – R50x30 + 4N28 Buckling Data
Concrete area - Ab =1500 cm2 Column length – L = 420cm
Bar count - nb = 4 Buckling length – Lox = 2*L
Bar diameter - db = 28mm Buckling length – Loy = 1*L
Reinforcement area - As = 24 cm2 Creep factor - φ(∞,t0) = 2.5
Reinforcement ratio - ρ = 1.6% Permanent load ratio - KG = 75%
Concrete grade C25/30
Characteristic compressive cylinder strength - f ck =25 MPa
Partial safety factor for concrete - γ c =1.5 , α cc =0.85
α cc · f ck 0.85 · 25
Design compressive cylinder strength - f cd = = =14.17 MPa
γc 1.5
Mean value of cylinder compressive strength - f cm =f ck +8=25+8=33 MPa

( )
0.3

( )
0.3
f 33
Secant modulus of elasticity - E cm =22· cm =22· =31.48 GPa
10 10
Ultimate compressive strain - ε cu 2=0.0035
Strain at the end of parabolic part of the diagram - ε c 2=0.002
Reinforcement grade B500
Characteristic yield strength - f yk =500 MPa
Partial safety factor for steel - γ s =1.15
f yk 500
Design yield strength - f yd = = =434.78 MPa
γ s 1.15
Modulus of elasticity - E s=2 00 GPa

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

Planar solution
Geometric imperfections and accidental eccentricity
Number of vertical members contributing to the total effect - m=1
2 2
Reduction factor for height - α h= = =0.976
√ L ·10 √ 4200 · 10−3
−3

This value is limited within the interval: 2/3 ≤ α n ≤ 1

2
( ) 2
( )
α h=max ; min ( α h ; 1 ) =max ; min ( 0.976 ; 1 ) =0.976
3 3

√
Reduction factor for number of members - α m= 0.5 · 1+
1
( m1 )=√ 0.5 ·(1+ 11 )=1
Basic inclination value - θo= =0.005
200
Inclination - θi=θo · α h · α m =0.005 · 0.976 · 1=0.00488 [EN 1992-1-1 (5.1)]
θi · Lo 0.00488 · 8400
Eccentricity - ei= = =20.49 mm [EN 1992-1-1 (5.2)]
2 2
Minimum eccentricity [EN 1992-1-1, § 6.1(4)]
eox =max (h
30 )
; 20 =max (
500
30 )
; 20 =20 mm eoy =max
b
(
30 )
; 20 =max
300
30 (
; 20 =20 mm )
Second order effects based on the nominal stiffness method
N Ed 2271
Relative axial force - n= −3
= =1.07
A c · f cd ·10 150000 · 14.17 ·10−3

Factor depending on axial force and slenderness

√ √ f
Factor depending on the concrete strength class - k 1= ck = 25 =1.12 [EN 1992-1-1 (5.23)]
20 20
[EN 1992-1-1 (5.24)]
n· λ x 1.07 ·58.2 n · λ y 1.07 · 48.5
k 2 x= = =0.366 k2 y = = =0.305
170 170 170 170
Maximum value - k2 < 0.20 Maximum value - k2 < 0.20
k 2 x =min ( 0.366 ; 0.2 )=0.2 k 2=min ( k 2 y ; 0.2 )=min ( 0.305 ; 0.2 )=0.2
Effective creep ratio
φef =φ(∞ , t 0)· K G =2.5 · 0.75=1.88
Factor for effects of cracking, creep etc. [EN 1992-1-1 (5.22)]
k ·k 1.12· 0.2
K c= 1 2 = =0.0778
1+φef 1+1.88
K s=1 – factor for contribution of reinforcement
γ cE=1.2 [BS EN 1992-1-1 (5.20), NA.1]
Design value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete [EN 1992-1-1 (5.20)]

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

E cm 31.48
E cd = = =26.23 GPa
γ cE 1.2
Moment of inertia of the concrete cross section
b · h3 300 · 5003 h· b3 500 · 3003
I cx = = =3125000000 mm4 I cy = = =1125000000 mm4
12 12 12 12
Radius of gyration

√ √I
i x = cx =
Ac
Slenderness ratio
3125000000
150000
=144.34 mm i y=
√ √
I cy
Ac
=
1125000000
150000
=86.6 mm

L 8400 Loy 4200

λ x = ox = =58.2 λ y= = =48.5
i x 144.34 i y 86.6
Second moment of area of the reinforcement

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
h h b b
I sx = A s 1 · −d 1 + A s 2 · −d 2 I sy = A s 1 · −d 1 + A s 2 · −d 2
2 2 2 2

( ) ( )
2 2
500 300
I sx =2 · 1200 · −50 =96000000 mm4 I s =2 ·1200 · −50 =24000000mm4
2 2
Nominal stiffness [EN 1992-1-1 (5.21)]
EI x =K c · E cd · I c +K s · E s · I s EI y =K c · E cd · I c + K s · E s · I s
EI x =0.0778· 26.23 ·3125 ·106 +1 · 200 · 96 · 106 EI y =0.0778 · 26.23 · 1125 · 106 +1· 200 · 24 · 106
EI x =25575184994 kN·mm² EI y =7095066598kN·mm²
Buckling load [EN 1992-1-1 (5.17)]
π 2 · EI x 3.142 · 25575184994 2
π · EI y 3.14 · 7095066598
2
N Bx = = =3577.34 kN N By = = =3969.7 kN
Lox 2 84002 Loy 2 42002

Ultimate capacity for axial force

Cross section only - N Rd , max =3168.48 kN
Capacity for minimum eccentricity
N Rd ,0 x =2872.74 kN N Rd ,0 y =2653.59 kN
Capacity for geometric imperfections
N Rd , eix =2865.99 kN N Rd , eiy =2879.7 kN

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IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

Capacity for imperfections and II order effects

N Rd , IIx =2375.23 kN s N Rd , IIy =2482.87 kN
Buckling factor
N 2375.23 N Rd , IIy 2482.87
φ x = Rd , IIx = =0.75 φ y= = =0.784
N Rd , max 3168.48 N Rd , max 3168.48
Spatial solution

Axial force - N = -2271 kN, Bending moments - Mx = 0 kNm, My = 0 kNm

Capacity with imperfections and II order effects - N Rd , II =2271 kN
N 2271
Buckling factor - φ= Rd , II = =0.717
N Rd , max 3168.48
Spatial buckling resistance is a bit lower than the orthogonal one and it is located at slightly
diverted direction, as expected. This is due to the fact that the column is stronger along the orthogonal
directions which can be seen in the shape of the interaction surface. But if we restrict the column to

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DCB-2022 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1276 (2023) 012011 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1276/1/012011

buckle only along one of the two orthogonal directions, the spatial method gives the same results as
the planar one.

10. Conclusions
Based on the above discussion, we may draw the following conclusions:
1. Design codes do not provide sufficient recommendations about the buckling capacity of arbitrary
shaped columns. Numerical methods and computer software/simulations are required.
2. Using one planar solution only may not be enough for certain shapes. On the other hand, it may
be too conservative to account for the minimum eccentricities and initial imperfections simultaneously
in both directions, as recommended in sections 5.8.9 of EN 1992-1-1 [3]. For example, for circular
sections, it will be simply equivalent to increase the eccentricities by approx. 1.4 times.
3. Even for simple cross sections, it may be difficult to predict the most unfavorable direction to
apply the minimal eccentricity and initial imperfections, if the boundary conditions of the element are
different in both directions.
4. The proposed algorithm gives a robust and solid mathematical approach to find the buckling
resistance of RC columns with arbitrary shapes. Additionally, it provides a clear and illustrative
graphical representation of the solution.

11. Limitations and future work

1. The above method can be applied for relatively compact sections. RC cores may have much
more complicated behavior like warping, local buckling, flexural-torsional buckling etc. The
assumption for the planarity of sections may not be not valid for them and they have to be designed by
different methods.
2. Although we choose the most unfavorable direction to apply the minimum eccentricity and
initial imperfections, the statistical probability for that may not be very high. A lot of laboratory tests
are needed for verification. Additional correction factor may be included to account for that
circumstance.

References
[1] Gander W and Gautschi W 2000 Adaptive Quadrature - Revisited BIT Numerical Mathematics
40 pp 84–101
[2] Anderson N and Björck Å 1973 A new high order method of regula falsi type for computing a
root of an equation BIT 13 pp 253–264
[3] EN 1992-1-1 (2004): Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings

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