Synthesis

In 1888, Nikola Tesla had recognized the alternating current [1]. This type of current

changes its direction sinusoidal, positive and negative half-cycle [2]. The utilization of AC

became rampant as technology advances. Through AC, energy transmission became more

economical, transmitting higher or lower voltages with minimal losses [3]. Being one of the

known universities when it comes to engineering and as the newly hailed National Engineering

University, the BatState-U Alangilan has massive number of loads that depends on AC

transmission.

Rotating machines are the common sources of sinusoidal currents, which when passed

through a resistor, inductor, or capacitor produces another waveform with the same frequency

but different magnitude and phase angle [4].

The discrepancy between the ideal sinusoidal waveform of the supply voltage and the

current waveform is referred to as the harmonics and harmonic distortion. The behavior of

resistance in an AC and DC machine is similar, hence the voltage across the resistance

determines the amount of current flowing. This is because a resistor is a linear device. Complex

waveforms produced by machines can affect the behavior of the current waveform. Moreover,

switching current waveforms utilized in switching circuits usually demands current at the peak

values of the AC supply, hence the resulting load current is expected to contain harmonic [5].

Non-sinusoidal currents exist either because a linear circuit has a non-sinusoidal voltage

acting upon it, or the circuit is composed of non-linear elements but a sinusoidal voltage act on

it. The inductive resistance of an element rises as with the harmonic number, in contrary of the
capacitive element. A DC component does not have any capacitor, so as the resistance that

cannot be replaced by inductance [6].

There are different types of non-sinusoidal waveforms as presented in Figure 5. These

waves can be mathematically computed through the Fourier Series which states that any practical

periodic function can be represented as an infinite sum of sinusoidal waveforms that have

frequencies which are integral multiple of ωo. In addition, other characteristics of harmonics such

as symmetry, phase sequence, and independence should also be determined. [24]– [26], [33].

Non-sinusoidal waves can also be referred to as cosine waves, a direct opposite of a sine

wave. This produces non-sinusoidal currents which is characterized by time as the independent

variable. Cosine waves can also be from two or more sine waves. With its complex structure,

cosine waves have one fundamental frequency which has the lowest frequency but has the

highest amplitude and one or more harmonic frequencies. It is the harmonics which causes the

complex structure of cosine waves [9].

Loads had been linear before 1980. The shift happened in 1981 when electronic hardware

makers shifted to switch-more power supply (SMPS). This transforms the applied voltage into

distorted current waveform which copies AC pulses. Voltages or currents that have frequencies

are multiples of the fundamental frequency were referred to as harmonics [11]. With the status

of technological advancements, almost all the electrical loads present today generate harmonics.

Voltages or currents that have frequencies are multiples of the fundamental frequency were

referred to as harmonics [11].

 Waveforms represent sine waves, and those that represent nonlinear loads has current

affecting the voltage wave. The affecting current results to voltage distortion when the entire

system is affected [12].

Harmonics is generated by the electrical loads utilized every day, specifically those that

has rectifier or converter or those that convert AC to DC power vice versa [11]. Non-linear loads

are highly inductive in nature, and they were the harmonic producers. These are the loads that

whose impedance changes according to the applied voltage cycle. This is because devices of this

kind draw current at the peak values of the AC supply which then causes the current to behave

nonlinearly. This includes loads like computers, printers, televisions, and those that utilizes

SMPS [13], [14]. Hence, nonlinear loads were loads whose current is not proportional with the

voltage that produces distorted waveform [15]. With the presence of harmonics, electrical waves

are altered and power is distorted [16]. Nonlinear load type is prone to fluctuation because of the

alternating load impedance. Current were drawn at short pulses which distort waveforms and

result to harmonics [14].

When two or more waves interact with each other, wave interference occurs. This can

result to large, smaller, or identical amplitude. Wave interference may either be constructive or

destructive. Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between waves with

equal frequency is zero, this results to single amplitude which is also equivalent to the sum of the

amplitudes of the individual waves [17]. On the other hand, when the resultant amplitude is a

smaller than the aggregates, the interference is considered to be destructive [16]. Hence

constructive interference results to larger sine waves and destructive interference are an invert,

which results to smaller sine waves amplitude. Several harmonics can be found on each wave.
 Both positive and negative interference are produced during the interaction. Considering

the original waveform and the harmonics present, the harmonics’ in-phase location is combined

constructively and those destructively added to the out of phase location. This results to warped

non-sinusoidal wave [18].

The fundamental frequency is equivalent to harmonic number 1 since it is considered as

the first harmonics waveform, while the DC components is represented by 0. The odd harmonics

which are represented by odd numbers are commonly produced by nonlinear loads, and the even

harmonics represented by even numbers are generated by uneven current drawn in the positive

and negative half of one cycle of operation [31]. Most of the systems has 60 Hz as the

fundamental frequency, especially in the Philippines where it is considered as the standard

frequency for the AC supply. Any frequency higher than this is its multiple, and the multiplicity

defines the number of harmonic cycles present [11], [19].

The categories of harmonics depend on its name, frequency, and sequence. In a balanced

system, the harmonics refers to the phase rotation of the harmonic voltages and current like the

direction of the fundamental frequency. This is considered as the positive sequence harmonics

because they rotate on the clockwise direction, however this is usually undesirable as it causes

overheating. On the other hand, negative sequence harmonics rotates on the counterclockwise

direction to the fundamental frequency. This causes reduction in the mechanical torque of motors

as the rotating magnetic field weakens. In addition, triplens is known as another rotational

sequence. Harmonic orders that are multiples of 3 rotates on this sequence. This is displaced by

zero degrees, which results for the harmonics to bounce back between the phase and the ground.

This makes the current in the neutral wire to be up to thrice of the phase current, since the
numbers in the common neutral wire were added up. Therefore, the third order harmonics causes

most of the harmonic problems [5], [11].

The voltage in a system can be easily distorted, may it be increased or decreased. The

decrease in supply voltage is known as sag. This usually results to an assumed interruption.

However, voltage sag happen suddenly as during sagging the voltage drops, while complete loss

of voltage occurs when there is interruption. An opposite of sag is likely to occur when the

voltage is increased by 10% of the nominal, this is described as dips or voltage swells. A

resemblance of voltage swell can also be observed in a system- transient voltage. Its occurrence

has stronger magnitude and lasts quickly than drips. The common reasons for such voltage

disturbances revolve within sudden turning ON/OFF of a huge load [20]–[22].

Generally, all electrical loads that convert AC to DC powers and vice versa are

considered as sources of harmonics [23]. Nonlinear loads cause changes in behavior of an

electrical system, especially current disruptions which results to harmonics. Looking back, most

of the indicated loads can be found inside Batangas State University - Alangilan campus.

There are several sources of harmonics in an electrical system, this includes different

nonlinear loads. Single phase rectifiers are used in electrical system to convert AC power to DC

power, they can be found on universal power supplies and switched-mode power supplies of

computers, LEDs, and battery chargers [24]–[26].

High frequency electronic ballasts are commonly found on fluorescent lamps. This

equipment is loaded with high frequency voltage and current harmonics to achieve its efficacy

[24], [27].
 Harmonic resonance occurs when the natural frequency of the power system and the

frequency of a harmonic source coincide [28]. The resonance is considered to be series when the

inductance and capacitance are combined in series or almost in series, this results to low

impedance path of the harmonic currents of the natural frequency [29].

Analyzing the electrical system is vital in employing different mitigation techniques. The

analysis can be done through computations, having known the different electrical parameters

such as resonance, harmonic currents and voltages, and distortion levels. Common harmonic

distortion indices like Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), rms value, telephone interference factor

was indicated under IEEE Std 3002.8-2018. [10], [30].

A computer program can be considered to determine the harmonics in a system, this

requires harmonic power flow analysis. Another is a spreadsheet that results to harmonic

impedances by having the required variables [10]. The voltage and current THD were both the

root-sum-square of the harmonic content of the voltage or current to the root-mean-square value

of the fundamental frequency or voltage respectively. The maximum load current shall be the

average current of the maximum demand during the previous 12 months. This is used to

calculate the short circuit ratio [29].

The concerns regarding minimizing the expenditures and controlling the usage can be

addressed by the power factor, which is the ratio between the actual and apparent power. As the

current increases, the power factor decreases. Facilities with low power factor are charged more

in terms of utilities because they require thicker wires and more durable infrastructure. However,

there are methods on how the power factor and the harmonics can be reduced [31].
 The recommended limits of voltage and current harmonics can be found at Tables 3 and 4

respectively. There were as indicated in IEEE Std 519-2014 [32]. These limits were applicable to

common coupling points. Harmonics control is a joint responsibility between the utility and the

customers [29], [32]. The limits were categorized according to the conditions of the electrical

system and the strength of the voltage source. In cases where the harmonic current limit needs to

be increased, multipliers were used. Setting the harmonic distortion limits is done to establish

steady-state limitations when designing electrical systems, maintaining such can limit the

transient conditions [32]. The restrictions set on the current harmonics is dependent on the

strength of the voltage source, as huge grids can be able to suppress current harmonics to a far

greater extent than a weak grid without affecting the voltage [33].

Since the standard frequency in the Philippines is different from the standard in other

countries, the country has set its own electrical requirements and limits. It was started in the 3.2.4

of the Philippine Distribution Code 2017 Edition that THD and TDD of a 60Hz system should

not exceed 5%.

Different countermeasures and mitigating techniques can be done to eliminate or reduce

harmonics that can be hazardous. Using single-tuned filters provides path for harmonic current

that lowers impedance [34]. Multilevel inverter is one of the key methods to reduce harmonics,

as this converts DC source into an almost sinusoidal signal. It reduces utilization of transformers

and filters. MLI ensured great output waveform [35]. Other methods for controlling harmonics

include lowering the harmonic current of loads, adding filters to the electrical system, and

implementing filters, inductors, and capacitors that may alter the frequency response of the

system [24], [34], [36] .

 There are five different methods available which can be used to decrease the harmonic in

an electrical system. Capacitors can be added to the system to decrease the existing harmonic

level in the system; the capacitor acts as the power harmonic filter. The specific loads or sections

in the system who were found generating high levels of harmonics can be distributed to other

feeders, in some cases harmonic generating loads are also eliminated from the system. However,

the network topology reconfiguration cannot be adopted by the BatState-U Alangilan

considering the functions of the existing nonlinear loads. Another method that can be adopted is

done by increasing the supply mode stiffness, this requires the addition of cogeneration system

which can be seen inside the university through the solar-powered streetlights and PV modules

installed on some of its buildings. Series reactors can also be used to reduce the harmonic

element, but this method is only ideal for neutral to ground connection of power transformers.

Lastly, the phase balancing method which is the simplest among the five methods mentioned.

However, the expected outcome of this method is difficult to attain as single phase loads are

constantly changing which then generates unbalanced voltages [24], [34].

The abovementioned methods were further studied by the researchers. Given that the

network topology reconfiguration cannot be done, the addition of cogeneration system is already

existing, and the phase balancing and addition of series reactors is difficult to attain, the

researchers came up with the addition of power harmonic filters to the electrical system. This

method provides a more accurate expected outcome and is more convenient to be applied. There

are different filters available in the market that may help to provide the appropriate harmonic

level for an electrical system.

Mitigation techniques for harmonic distortion can be done either passive or active. Active

filter solutions generate actively harmonics in opposite phase to the distorting harmonic and
eliminate them by superposition. Passive filter solutions are done by connecting capacitors,

reactors and resistors forming a conventional filter. Active filters are way cheaper that passive

filters. Such is also simple to retrofit and scale but requires costly serial connection to achieve

the desired function. Passive filters on the other hand requires careful network analogy and can

be connected in parallel [37].

The advancements in technology paved way for different software developments. There

were several software’s that is commercially available to be used in harmonic measurement and

mitigation. EasyPower® Harmonic Analysis Software can identify and mitigate harmonic in a

system though a dynamic single-line. It has analogical features, providing ease in utilization. But

it can also provide integer and non-integer harmonics which can be used for accurate modelling

and calculations. This has the ability to measure and examine harmonic currents, voltages, and

system interference [38]. Aside from this, Eaton’s CYME Harmonic Analysis Module is also

used by engineers to measure and test different applicable mitigation techniques in a power

system. This software can provide frequency scanning, calculations for voltage and current

distortion, capacitor rating and filter size analysis, K-Factor and Factor-K calculations, and

others. The resonant frequencies caused by capacitor banks as well as the effects of the nonlinear

loads can be projected in the testing. With these features, the Eaton’s CYME Harmonic Analysis

Module can provide precise assessment of an electrical system [39]. Moreover, the Harmonic

Analysis feature of ETAP is considered the most used program when it comes to harmonic

measurement and assessment. Through this software, users can simulate harmonic current and

voltage sources, pinpoint harmonic issues, lessen nuisance trips, develop and test filters, and

detect harmonic voltage and current distortion limits breaches [40]. Aside from the Crystal

reports, the result of testing is also projected in graphs which provides clearer understanding. The
source and power system component frequency are modelled in the program and are used for

calculations of load flow and frequency scanning. The features and capabilities of ETAP

Harmonic Analysis Module provides ease, such that even students can make a mitigation model

for harmonics in a power system. The said software is also used in other electrical system testing

and modelling [40].

Different disturbances hamper the operation of electrical systems, including harmonic

distortion. Familiarity with different waveforms distortions from various harmonic sources can

help to easily develop techniques in detecting and eliminating harmonics [41].

The waveforms produced by electromagnetic ballasts is determined in a study made by

Chang et al, [42] and is presented above. From there it can be drawn that the power factor is

poor, and a capacitor is used to improve. The quality of the power factor is caused by THD is

produced by the equipment; this is usually produced by the third harmonic current [42]. One of

the commonly seen and used device that utilizes electronic ballasts are the compact fluorescent

bulbs that significantly reduce energy costs compared to incandescent lightings. Adopting such

lighting can cut the network losses by 27%, while the overall losses for the 110kV networks

power transit is still at 2.86%. The widespread usage of small fluorescent lights would

undoubtedly create harmonic distortion on the input of electricity [43].

Due to its nonlinear nature, VFDs found with front-end diode bridge rectifiers of 3-phase

and 6-pulse static power convertors are known to produce harmonics. If the generated harmonics

are not treated, the THID can raise up to 100-140% with fifth and seventh harmonics being

dominant [44].
 In the telecommunications sector, rectifiers are necessary in constructing network

systems [45] as they were used to convert AC to DC power. A table obtained from research

made by Anga et al [46] is presented above as table 10 to exhibit the THD values of the different

rectifiers used in the circuit.

The HVACR is utilized to maintain good ventilation system in any establishment, this

uses as lot of energy. But with the addition of VFDs, the power usage can be lowered. The most

common VFD design operates by rectifying a three-phase AC line input using the diodes. This

three-phase rectification of AC to steady Dc voltage produces nonlinear current [47]. Air-

conditioning units which are prominent in the university can produce less than 5%of THD [48].

Electric arcs, especially electric arc furnace is another harmonic source. After the arc

ignites, the short circuit current causes the voltage to drop. It has magnetic ballasts and discharge

lighting, but the harmonics generated cannot be easily predicted as the wave varies from each

cycle [41].

The power quality at King Fahd University was measured with the personal computers as

the existing load. The research has shown that the THD level was beyond the 20% limit of the

standards. Hence, it can be proved that depending on the amount single-phase nonlinear loads

can contribute to the harmonic distortion in the system [49], [50].

Research made by Bajpai et al have shown the harmonics generated by printers in a

large-scale printing industry. After conducting the testing using a power quality analyzer, it was

found that the maximum THD level was also beyond the 20% limit. Also, the harmonic orders

such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, and 13 were observed [51].

 Water pump motor is another type of harmonic generating load. The %THD generated by

such can range from 2.10% to 8.42%. Idemne et al., presented that the minimum THD is

generated by the motor alone and the maximum THD is produced when variable frequency drive

is added to the motor as a controller [52]. From there, it can be drawn that addition of VFD’s

results to higher harmonic generation.

Switched-mode power supply itself can be affected by non-sinusoidal supply voltages,

that can increase or decrease current harmonics. This produces high frequency speed, that when

the SMPS is turned off and on, can generate high levels of harmonics and electromagnetic

interference [51].

With three-phase passive filters, harmonics can be filtered out; and it can be lower than

the IEEE standards [53]. The significant harmonic distortion has an impact in the grid’s overall

power quality as well as to the distribution system. Compared to repairing broken electric and

electronic devices, newer ones can save substantial amount of energy [54].

Reducing and controlling harmonics ensures a more reliable system operation. Capacitors

may be used as they reduce THD and increase power factor. There are different approaches

available for detecting harmonics, each providing the needs of the end-users. Microcontroller-

based harmonic distortion meter with its software does DFT computation which quantifies THD

[55], [56].

Using an algorithm for harmonic analysis, the Fast Fourier Transform technique was

applied [56]. FFT is used to construct a harmonic analyzer on an ARM7 core CPU (LPC2138).

Using a voltage divider, the source voltage is divided into 6V for matching power rating. With

the use of this harmonic analyzer, one may determine the frequency and harmonic range of a
single-phase supply. The fact that this system is reasonably priced makes it advantageous.

Experimental findings show that the suggested gadget is more accurate to use, and an analysis of

harmonic power flow is also presented [56].

Researchers Králiková & Iáková have undertaken research that primarily focuses on the

measuring of distortion power. The application has demonstrated its effectiveness in measuring

any type of periodic voltage and current waveforms by using harmonic distortion to measure

power components in single-phase electrical systems. The program was able to simulate the

parameters of the voltage and current, such as rms values, mean values, and total harmonic

distortion (THD), using the tools and environment of LabVIEW and a DAQ card to transport all

the voltage and current signals to the computer [57].

In addition, Table 13 shows the classification of equipment with rating smaller than or

equal to 16 A as proposed in the study of Timens et al [58]. This makes use of PSL PQube and

Dranetz PowerXplorer as measuring devices. Researchers came up concluding that the

overheating of transformers and voltage distortion were caused by harmonic distortion.

The harmonic problem in the power supply was previously brought on by the magnetic

saturation of transformers and commercial loads like arc furnaces and arc welding equipment.

The effects of harmonics, particularly on induction and synchronous devices, were the main

problems. But today, more harmonics-related techniques are necessary for the following

reasons . (85)

1. In recent years, nonlinear loads have increased rapidly in locations that are industrial,

commercial, and residential.

2. The modifications in the growth of network resonances.

 3. The equipment and system loads in a power system are typically harmonically sensitive.

Harmonics modelling are done to estimate the harmonic impact of a new or existing

customers and electric utility and assess the effectiveness of harmonic mitigation techniques are

the commonly used harmonics models as studied by Balci et al. It is being said that the Norton

model is the best modelling approach. This has the lowest standard deviation among the three

models [59].

The (IEEE-519) standards for power quality improvement, states that there is a need to

minimize the number of harmonics established in electricity grids as an outcome of such

nonlinear loads owing to the upsurge in harmonics in the distribution system, which is brought

on by a swift increase in the generation of equipment that controls power. The most common

approach used is filtering, which uses active, passive or hybrid filters [60].

In addition, the network configuration technique was also developed. This utilizes HPSO,

the best locations, sizing of distributed generation (DG), capacitor, and network reconfiguration

were determined along with the compliance of IEEE 33-bus radial distribution system [58].

There were also industries who uses capacitor banks as mitigation. This helps for the

switching to happen frequently. Capacitor banks were used to reduce transient overcurrent and

overvoltage effect at the point of application [61].

The measurement and mitigation techniques available shall be carefully analyzed and

selected depending on the research objectives of this research paper and the available resources.

Any of the measuring and testing methods stated above can be utilized, provided that the

researchers have enough resources, most especially to the testing devices and the access to the

software. Afterwards, the appropriate controlling methods mentioned shall be employed in the
electrical system of the university. In BatState - U Alangilan, there were an estimated 3114

fluorescent lamps, 503 personal computers, 102 copiers and printers, and 410 ACU. With this

huge amount of the electrical and electronic loads resent in the university, high level of

harmonics can be expected. However, after testing and mitigation a more efficient and reliable

power distribution shall be expected inside.