Translation Strategies:

A Review and Comparison of Theories

by Zohre Owji, M.A.

Abstract

Extensive research has been done in the field of

translation strategies. However, the definition offered
by each author or theorist represets his/her own point
of view and their views differ from each other. Most
theorists agree that strategies are used by translators
when they encounter a problem and literal translation
does not work. Therefore, different researchers have
investigated and described various translation
strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-
known theories of this field are described and compared
to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study
was to show the different theories in the field of
translation strategies and to offer a general literature
review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in
future studies. Baker (1992) offered the clearest
taxonomy of translation strategies that she believed
professional translators use when they encounter a
translation problem while performing a translation task.

Key Words

Translation, translation strategies, Baker's taxonomy,

theoretical research, translational problems

1.0. Introduction

his study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2.

Review of literature; 3. Conclusions; 5. References;

1.1. General

Nowadays, in a world characterized by global communication,

translation plays a key role in exchanging information between
languages. To move along the natural and professional continuum
of conveying the meaning from one particular language into
another, a translator needs to learn some skills, which are referred
to as translation strategies.

Bergen (n. d.) quotes Chesterman's (1997) list of some general

characteristics of translation strategies:

a) Translation strategies apply to a process;

b) They involve text-manipulation;

c) They are goal-oriented;

d) They are problem-centered;

e) They are applied consciously;

f) They are inter-subjective.

Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when

they encounter a problem and literal translation is not useful.
Different researchers have investigated and described various
translation strategies from their different perspectives. This paper
concentrates on the differences between these theories. It intends
to show what translation strategies exist and when and why they
are used by professional translators.

2. Review of Literature

2.0. Preliminaries

In this chapter, three main issues are discussed: 1) translation (the

definition of general translation), 2) translation strategies
(typologies, characteristics, models and an introduction to Baker's
(1992) model of translation strategies), 3) the existing gaps and
the aim of the present study.

2.1. Theoretical background

2.1.1. Translation

Necessary to understand the concept of translation as mentioned by many translation

theorists to obtain an overall picture of the translation process. Some of these concepts
 quoted by Jiraphatralikhit, Kaewjan, Klinpoon, Visitwanit (2005: 7) are as follows:
Bensoussan (1990) states that translation is closely related to the reading process. Hatim
and Mason (1990) suggest that translation is a process involving the negotiation of meaning
between producers and receivers of the text. Picken (1989) defines that general translation
is a method of transferring oral and written messages from writing to speech or from one
language to another. Larson (1984) states that in general translation communicates, as much
as possible, the same meaning that was understood by the speakers of the source language,
using the normal language form of the receptor language, while maintaining the dynamics of
the original source language text. She also expresses that the goal of a translator should be
to produce a receptor language text (a translation) that is idiomatic; i.e., one that has the
same meaning as the source-language text, but is expressed in the natural form of the
receptor language. Nida (1974), cited by Jiraphatralikhit et al. (2005), believes that
translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of
the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style. Catford
(1965, as cited in Jiraphatralikhit et al. 2005) views translation as the replacement of textual
material in one language (SL) by the equivalent text material in another language (TL). Bell
(1991) views translation as the replacement of a text in one language by an equivalent text
in another language. Newmark (1981: 7) indicates that translation is a craft that attempts to
replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message or
statement in another language. Also, he views translation as a science, a skill, an art, and a
matter of taste. As a science, translation includes the knowledge and assessment of the facts
and the language that describes them; as a skill, translation contains the appropriate
language and acceptable usage; as an art, translation differentiates good writing from bad
and involves innovative, intuitive and inspired levels; and lastly, viewing translation as a
matter of taste includes the fact that the translator resorts to his/her own preferences; so,
the translated text varies from one translator to another. Kelly (2005: 26-27) defines
translation as the skill of understanding the source text and rendering it in the target
language by using the register, the background knowledge, and other language resources
according to the intended purpose. Therefore, a translator is a mediator of the two
.languages and cultures who can transfer the SL to the TL

What has been discussed above relates to translation theory, which identifies translation
problems and recommends the most appropriate procedure for translation in order to solve
the identified problems. So, translation can be explained as a decision-making process and a
problem-solving task. It is also a complicated task during which the translator encounters
some problems or problematic issues which require observation, identification and finding
the suitable solution. The means by which the translator deals with these problems are
called strategies. Finding the adequate strategy for solving the above-mentioned problems
.takes place in the decision-making process

Translation strategies .2.2

?What is a strategy .2.2.1

 The word strategy is used in many contexts. In translation studies many theorists have used
the term translation strategies widely but with some considerable differences in the
meaning and the perspective from which they look at it. A list of more general definitions of
:the word strategy is given below

A strategy is a long-term plan of actions designed to achieve a particular goal (Wikipedia

Committee, n. d.).A systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve one's
learning performance (Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary, n. d.).A strategy is a
planned, deliberate, goal-oriented (has an identifiable outcome) procedure achieved with a
sequence of steps subject to monitoring and modification (Curriculum Learning Literate-
Futures Glossary, n. d.).A set of explicit mental and behavioral steps used to achieve a
.specific outcome (Deep Trance, n.d.)

Clearly, these definitions are general and can be related to different fields of study. This
study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the above-mentioned definitions can
be narrowed down to this research field, as well. Translation strategies have their own
.characteristics, through which one can gain an appropriate understanding of them

Generally speaking, a translator uses a strategy when s/he encounters a problem while
translating a text; this means, when a translator translates a text literally, translation
strategies may not be needed. Bergen (n. d.) mentions that strategies are not obvious and
trivial. Although, when they translate word for word and use a dictionary, beginners in the
area of translation think they have made a good translation; they do not understand that
a problem still exists and changes must be made at some levels of the translation. Therefore,
problem-solving is the most important function of the strategies. However, the question that
?arises here is: what is a translation problem

Translation strategies' typologies

Different scholars suggest various types, categorizations and classifications for the strategies
.according to their particular perspectives. Here, some of these typologies are mentioned

Chesterman (1997), as Bergen (n. d.) stated, believes that in translation strategies' field
there is "considerable terminological confusion". As Chesterman (1997) believes, the general
:characteristics of translation strategies are as follows

.They involve text manipulation .1

 .They must be applied to the process .2

.They are goal-oriented .3

.They are problem-centered .4

.They are applied consciously .5

They are inter-subjective. (It means the strategies must be empirical and .6
understandable for the readers not the person who used them.)

Different scholars have various perspectives to the aspects of the act of translation, so, they
define and describe different types of strategies. Bergen's (n. d.) classification of the
strategies includes three categorizations: 1. Comprehension strategies, 2. Transfer
strategies, 3. Production strategies

By his classification, he meant: first, we read and comprehend a text. Second, we analyze the
differences between the source text and the target one, and we must decide on the kinds of
strategies which we are up to use them. And lastly, we produce the equivalent text in the
.target language

Lorscher (1996: 28) identifies nine basic elements, or as he called, building blocks of
:translation strategies. These building blocks are as follows

Original elements of translation strategies

Realizing a translational Problem RP .1

.2
Verbalizing a translational Problem VP .3
.4

Searching for a possible solution to a translational Problem SP .3

 Solution to a translational Problem SP .5
.6

Preliminary Solution to a translational Problem PSP .5

Parts of a Solution to a translational Problem Spa, .7

…SPb

Solution to a translational Problem is still to be .8

found SPø

.9

Negative Solution to a translational Problem SP=ø .7

Problem in the reception of the Source Language text PSL .8

.9

The first complex notation means that there is a translation problem of some sort, and the
translator immediately finds a preliminary solution to the problem [(P) SP], and stops
working on this problem [#], or [/] decides to leave this problem unsolved and return to it
.later [SP ø]

Hatim and Munday (2004) stated that some of the main issues of translation are linked to
the strategies of form and content of literal and free translations. This division can help
identify the problems of certain overly literal translations that impair comprehensibility.
However, the real underlying problems of such translations lie in areas such as text type and
.audience

Local strategies (concerning how to handle translation problems)

Bergen (n. d.) compared local strategies to the many vital systems which deliver air, blood
.etc. To various parts of the body helping them to function Well

Chesterman (1997) believes, as quoted by Bergen (n. d.), that the taxonomy of translation
strategies can be presented simply. It includes a basic strategy which is: change something.
In his statement, Chesterman (1997) does not refer to the replacement of elements in the
source text words by their equivalent in the target text; it means that this replacement
 cannot be the only task of a translator and it is not sufficient. The normal types of changes
:made by the translators can be classified as

The words which are used in the )a

source text

The structure of these words )b

The natural context of the source )c

text

Thus, as Bergen (n. d.) mentioned, according to Chesterman (1997), local translation
strategies can be categorized into semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic changes; each group
has its own subcategories. Also, there is no obvious distinction between them, so it is
difficult to say which exact strategy is being used. In the following subsections, Chesterman's
:(1997) classification of translation strategies is described, according to Bergen (n. d.)

Syntactic strategies

These local strategies change the grammatical structure of the target text in relation to the
source text. Although most of the strategies are applied because a literal translation is not
appropriate, Chesterman (1997) presents his first syntactic strategy, literal translation. He
.believes that, according to many translation theorists, this is a "default" strategy

Literal translation: It means the translator follows the source text form as closely as .1
.possible without following the source language structure

Loan translation: This is the second syntactic strategy in his classification which .2
refers to the borrowing of single terms and following the structure of the source text
.which is foreign to the target reader

Transposition: Another term that Chesterman (1997) has borrowed from Vinay and .3
Darbelnet (1958) is transposition that refers to any change in word class, for
.example adjective to noun
Unit shift: This is a term that has been borrowed from Catford (1965) in the levels of .4
.morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph

Paraphrase structure change: This strategy refers to changes which take place in the .5
internal structure of the noun phrase or verb phrase, although the source language
.phrase itself maybe translated by a corresponding phrase in the target language

Clause structure change: This is a term which refers to a strategy in which the .6
changes affect the organization of the constituent phrases or clauses. For example,
changes from active to passive, finite to infinite, or rearrangement of the clause
.constituents

Sentence structure change: It is a term that refers to changes in the structure of the .7
sentence unit. It basically means a change in the relationship between main clauses
.and subordinate ones

Cohesion change: The way in which the parts of a sentence join together to make a .8
fluent, comprehensible sentence is called textual cohesion. Cohesion change is a
term referring to a strategy which affects intra-textual cohesion, this kind of strategy
mainly takes place in the form of reference by pronouns, ellipsis, substitution or
.repetition

Level shift: By the term level, Chesterman (1997) means the phonological, .9
morphological, syntactical and lexical levels. These levels are expressed variously in
.different languages

Scheme change: This strategy is another term in Chesterman's (1997) classification. .10
It refers to rhetorical schemata such as parallelism, alliteration and rhythm and
rhyming in poetry. Parallelism refers to similar arrangement of collocations, phrases
.or sentences