Lo) Nd Welcome to Earth Science What is Geology? Geology (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science) is a branch of science dealing with the study of the Earth. It is also known as earth science. 2 The study of the earth c of the whole earth, its origin, stru composition and history ing the development of life) and the natu the processes é In its broadest sense, geology is the study of Earth—its interior and its exterior surface, the minerals, rocks and other materials that are around us, the processes that have resulted in the formation of those materials, the water that flows over the surface and through the ground, the changes that have taken place over the vastness of geological time, and the changes that we can anticipate will take place in the near future ® Geology is a science, meaning that we use deductive reasoning and scientific methods to understand geological problems. It is, arguably, the most integrated of all of the sciences because it involves the understanding and application of all of the other sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, astronomy, and others. But unlike most of the other sciences, geology has an extra dimension, that of time—deep time—billions of years of it. ure, OsseoWhy Study Earth? The simple answer to this question is that Earth is our home—our only home for the foreseeable future—and in order to ensure that it continues to be a great place to live, we need to understand how it works: « We rely on Earth for valuable resources such as soil, water, metals, industrial minerals, and energy, and we need to know how to find these resources and exploit them sustainably. + We can study rocks and the fossils they contain to understand the evolution of our environment and the life within it. + We can learn to minimize our risks from earthquakes, volcanoes, slope failures, and damaging storms. . We can learn how and why Earth's climate has changed naturally if-the past, and use that knowledge to understand both natural and human-caused Climate change « We can recognize how our activities have altered the environment in Many ways and the climate in increasingly serious ways, and how to avoid more sever"chang@s in the future. « We can use our knowledge of Earth to understand other planets in our solar system as well as those around distant stars. NasLo) Nd Who is Geologist? Geologists (who study Geology) investigate the composition of earth materials and various geological processes to locate and exploit its mineral resources. | phenomena such a predict and minimize istory to determine the former positionin climates, and the evolution of life ® Geologists study the evidence that they see around them, but in most cases; they are observing the results of processes that happened thousands, millions, and even billions of years in the past. Those were processes that took place at incredibly slow rates—millimetres per year to centimetres per year—but because of the amount of time\ available, they produced massive results.Lo) Nd ‘Abdel-salam The Branches of Geology Geology can be broadly divided into several branches like Physical Geology, Geomorphology, Structural Geology, Sedimentology, Mineralogy, Economic Geology, etc. Physical Geology This subject deals with the physical forces and processes that bring about changes in the earth's crust or to the surface of the earth on account of their prolonged existence and action ® Physical Geology is broadly divided into two branches—those dealing with the internal dynamics of the earth (EAGOGEHOUSIGEOIOGY) and those with external dynamics (EROGSHOUSIGEOIOgy). Endogenous Geology The movement of earth's crust, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions, etc. (i.e., the endogenous processes) form the preview of this branch.t is further divided into the following sub-branches: Geotectonic The study of the conditions of the occurrence of rocks, movement of éarth’s crust» and the deformation caused by them. Metamorphism Its studies changes in rocks in the earth's interior, under conditions of high temperaturg;and pressure. Magmatism It deals with the composition of magma and the processes taking place in itLo) Nd ‘Abdel-salam Volcanism It is concerned with the study of volcanoes and their activity. This sub-branch overlaps with Magmatism. Seismology It is the study of earthquakes and the earth’s interior. Exogenous Geology It refers to all the processes that are produced StEHEISUHAES of the Earth (and other planets). ® Weathering, erosion, transportation, and sedimentation are the main exogenous processes. The result of these processes is the formation of sediments and sedimentary rocks. ® Exogenous geology can be further divided into the following sub-branches: Weathering and Mass Wasting This branch studies the process of the alteration of rocks under the action of physics aiteraical, and biological agents. poe ee) Oceanography This branch deals with the geological activity of oceans and seas. Marine Geology It is the study of the ocean floor and ocean continent margins. Hydrogeology It covers the geological activity of underground water.Glaciology The study of glaciers and their phenomena form part of this branch. Limnology The geological activity of bogs and lakes are studied Structural Geology This branch primarily deals with the study of FSGKdeformalion in the earth's lithosphere viewed from all scales—from the microscopic (atomic scale) to the macroscopic (continental scale), The study also includes the deformation of rocks and their structural attitudes of arrangements. Sedimentology Sedimentology deals with the study of modern sediments and understanding the processes that deposit them. ® The formation of a sequence of deposit and the processes that cause their formations.within the uppermost part of the earth's crust form the backbone of Sedimentology Mineralogy It involves the study of minerals, their formation, analysis, association, and classificatisn @ Italso includes the study of their chemical composition, specific features of their structure’, physical properties, and conditions of occurrence, their interrelationship, and their origin. NasEconomic Geology Earth materials that are used for economic and/or industrial purposes such as petroleum, coal, ores, building stones, salt, gemstones, etc., form the preview of this branch: ® Economic Geology is subdivided into a number of branches, but the most important of these include Petroleum and Coal Geology. - Petroleum Geology This branch deals with the specific search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration), - Coal Geology Itis the study of coal Geochemistry Itis the study of the sources and fates of chemical species in natural environments ® Geochemistry encompasses the investigation of the chemical composition of the earth, other planets, solar system, and the universe as a whole (Cosmochemistry), as well as the chemical processes that occur within them. Hydrogeology Itis the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the earth's crust (mostly in Aquifers). Geohydrology is often used interchangeably with Hydrogeology, S01 Nas f /abdelsalamGeophysics Geophysics is the application of physics to study of the solid earth. It occupies an important position in earth sciences. Solid Earth Geophysics Global or pure Geophysies Hydro-Geophysics Mining Geophysics Engineering Exploition Environmental Gisloo25hysies (Geophysics in (geophysicsfor Geophysics Geophysics Geophysics (g20phyics in Water investigation) — mineral Glaciology) >” Exploration) Geophysics (in archaeotyps \—inls “24 pg —tAn Image of Our Universe What Is the Structure of the Universe? Over the centuries, two schools of thought developed concerning how to explain the configuration of stars and planets, and their relationships to the Earth, Sun, and Moon. ® The first school advocated a geocentric model, in which the Earth sat without moving at the center of the Universe, while the Moon and the planets whirled around it within a revolving globe of stars. he second school advocated a heliocentric model, in which the Sun lay at the center of the Universe, with the Earth and other planets orbiting around it Geocentric model: earth sits motionless at the center of the universe. Heliocentric model: sun lies at the center of the universe while the earth and oth around it. bit The Nature of Our Solar System The Solar System The solar system consists of an average sized star called the Sun and the cosmic bodies that are bound to it by its gravity. These bodies include the eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), their more than 130 satellites, large number of smaller bodies (such as comets and asteroids) S01 Nas f /abdelsalamClassification of Planets Planets are divided into two broad groups according to their mass, density, and other parameters: (i) The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), also called the Terrestrial planets. (ii) The outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), also the Giant, Jovian or Gas planets (@) (b) Interiors of Terrestrial planets Interiors of Jovian planets (to same scale) (to same scale) Venus Earth Saturn Jupiter Neptune NP PP vranus | D... ~ @ can sen Hl oc von cow a ih vicsecoe vs na [BB eicvoncoe J stctecust Encore anreos non Hl cs reatcnysooen Comparison n planets (the Nas f /abdelslaimLo) Nd Forming the Universe In the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the universe was not static. Rather, it was ‘expanding; a find that revealed the universe was apparently born in a Big Bang. ® According to the Big Bang theory, ail matter and energy—everything that now constitutes the Universe—was initially packed into an infinitesimally small point. ® Much later, some 300 to 500 million years after the Big Bang, clumps of matter were held by the gravity. ® ® Every matter grouped to form atoms, atoms to molecules, and finally, molecules grouped together to form trillions of stars and billions of galaxies, Galaxies are at a great distance away from each other and back at the time. The point “exploded” and the Universe began, according to current estimates; b]lion years 8) ago. opp 00. 20.) ‘tay Liisa Sot pg —4ea DR.AHMED Time 4 According to the Big Bang theory, a cataclysmic explosion at 13.8 Ga formed the Universe, which has been expanding ever since. Atoms formed during the Big Bang collected into nebulae which, due to gravity, collapsed into dense balls, the first Waves and the Doppler Effect ain! The color you see depenc the freque: ne Ii ves Red light has a longer wavelength (lower frequency) than does blue light NasThe Doppler effect also applies to light but can be noticed only if the light source moves very fast, at least a few percent of the speed of light. ® Ifa light source moves away from you, the light you see becomes redder, as the light shifts to longer wavelength or lower frequency. Sages aoe eon poset ao ‘tay Liisa @If the source moves toward you, the light you see becomes bluer, as the Yight'shifts7t6 higher frequency. We call these changes the red shift and the blue shift, respectively.ee DAT DR.AHMED The Cosmic Bodies Our Solar system is home to all cosmic bodies—from Asteroids and Comets to Satellites and Planets. Asteroids include all Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites, a brief nomenclature of cosmic bodies is given in the next Table. Where Do Elements Come From? Nebulae from which the first-generation stars formed consisted entirely of the lightest atoms, because only these atoms were generated by Big Bang nucleosynthesis S01 Nas f /abdelsalamLo) Nd ® In contrast, the Universe of today contains 92 naturally occurring elements. Where did the other 87 elements come from? In other words, how did elements with larger atomic numbers (such as carbon, sulfur, silicon, iron, gold, and uranium), which arc common on Earth, form? Physicists have shown that these elements form during the life cycle of stars, by the process of stellar nucleosynthesis. ® Because of stellar nucleosynthesis, we can consider stars to be “element factories," constantly fashioning larger atoms out of smaller atoms Stellar nucleosynthesis- a process of fusion reactions that occur during the life cycle of stars... created intermediate weight elements. Stellar wind- the stream of atoms emitted from a star during its lifetime. Succeeding generations contain a progressively greater proportion of heavier elements. Wt contribute heavier elements to the next generation. stars die, the ® For most of their lives, stars fuse elemental hydrogen into helium in their o6res:°Two.aioms of hydrogen are combined in a series of steps to create helium-4. These reactigns.atcount for 85% of the Sun's energy. The remaining 15% comes from reactions that produce the elements beryllium and lithium. ® At this stage of our Sun’s life cycle, hydrogen atoms are fused to form heliumatoms, This huclear reaction produces very large amounts of energy.The energy from these nuclear reactions is emitted in various forms of radiation such as ultraviolet light, X-rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves. In addition, energized particles such as neutrinos and protons are released, and it is these that make up the solar wind, ® Earth is in the path of this energy stream, which warms the planet, drives weather and provides energy for life. The Earth's atmosphere is able to screen out most of the harmful radiation, and the Earth's magnetic field can deflect the harmful effects of the solar wind, When a star's core runs out of hydrogen, the star begins to die out, The dying star expands into a red giant, and this now begins to manufacture carbon atoms by fusing helium atoms ®@ More massive stars begin a further series of nuclear buming or reaction stages. The elements formed in these stages range from oxygen through to iron. During a supernova, the star releases very large amounts of energy as well as neutrons, which allows elements heavier than iron, such as uranium and gold, to be produced. In the supertova-explosion, all of these elements are expelled out into space. Supernova- what's left after a star dies and explodes. a S01 Nas f /abdelsalamea DR.AHMED Examples of element making (nucleogenesis) in helium burning reactions: + 3 helium atoms fusing to give a carbon atom 3@‘*He— "Cc + carbon atom + helium atom fusing to give an oxygen atom: 12C + 4He — 160 + oxygen atom + helium atom fusing to give a neon atom: "0 + ‘He + neon atom + helium atom fusing to give a magnesium atom: 7°Ne + ‘He > “Mg Man-made elements Only 92 of the known elements occur naturally, so where have the others come from? The answer is to be found in the development of AUCISaMPOWERplanIs and machines known as particle accelerators: ® Scientists discovered that, by allowing fast neutrons to collide with the common jsetope-of uranium known as U-238 in a nuclear reactor, the ‘new’ element plutonium was made. ® By smashing atoms together in machines known as particle accelerators, it was disc elements could be made. For example, bombarding atoms of the element curium-(Cm 96) withatoms of neon (Ne 10) made element 106 — seaborgium (Sg 109). White dwarfs are stars that have burned up all of the hydrogen they once usedaS uelear itel Neutron stars are city-size stellar objects with a mass about 1.4 times that of the sin. Born from the explosive death of another, larger stars. asda Nas overed'that new f /abdelsalalmNasADAI DR.AHMED UNIVERSAL ELEMENT FORMATION ery cored Eat a % a For ae on > eras Creed a eu ee eer ad Poa Nas eee)