Journal of American College Health

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vach20

Relationships between grit, physical activity, and

academic success in university students: Domains
of physical activity matter

Bryce T. Daniels, Ashton E. Human, Kaitlin M. Gallagher & Erin K. Howie

To cite this article: Bryce T. Daniels, Ashton E. Human, Kaitlin M. Gallagher & Erin K. Howie
(2021): Relationships between grit, physical activity, and academic success in university
students: Domains of physical activity matter, Journal of American College Health, DOI:
10.1080/07448481.2021.1950163

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1950163

Published online: 09 Jul 2021.

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Journal of American College Health
https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1950163

MAJOR ARTICLE

Relationships between grit, physical activity, and academic success in

university students: Domains of physical activity matter
Bryce T. Daniels, PhD Student, Ashton E. Human, PhD Student, Kaitlin M. Gallagher, PhD and Erin K. Howie, PhD
Health, Human Performance, and Recreation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Objective: To examine the relationships between contexts of physical activity, grit, and GPA in a Received 6 October 2020
college population. Revised 24 May 2021
Participants: 875 Undergraduate students from a large, southern university participated between Accepted 25 June 2021
October 2018 and March 2020. KEYWORDS
Methods: Participants completed an electronic survey evaluating physical activity and grit. The Academic success;
university provided official GPAs. Multiple linear regression models evaluated the correlations college students;
between grit, the different physical activity domains, and GPA. grit;
Results: Grit was positively associated with domestic physical activity, leisure time physical activity, physical activity
and GPA. Consistency of interest had no associations with the domains of physical activity or GPA.
Perseverance of effort was positively associated with walking, active transport physical activity,
domestic physical activity, leisure physical activity, and GPA.
Conclusion: Perseverance of effort is related to different domains of physical activity and GPA.
Future studies should investigate if increasing leisure time physical activity causes increases in
perseverance of effort.

Introduction more than SAT scores, conscientiousness, and self-control.8

Beyond obtaining a college degree, students who achieve
higher GPAs in college are more likely to gain employment,1
enroll in graduate programs,2 and acquire higher earnings
after college.3,4 College academic success, defined in this
paper as college GPA, also plays an important role in overall
life satisfaction.5 While intellectual constructs such as high
school GPA and standardized test scores may be related to
college academic success, non-cognitive constructs (academic
self-efficacy and effort regulation) are also positively asso-
ciated with college GPAs.6 Given the links between academic
success, income, and life satisfaction, it is important to
understand the correlates, both intellectual and nonintellec-
tual, of academic success.
Recently, grit has been receiving increasing attention in
education.7 Grit is the consistent and passionate pursuit of
long term goals8 and is composed of two facets: perseverance
of effort, defined as the propensity of consistently working
hard despite experiencing setbacks, and consistency of inter-
est, the inclination to maintain the same goals and interests
over time regularly.9 Grit has been hypothesized to be a
better predictor of achievement beyond talent, conscien-
tiousness, and self-control10 because of the “stamina” to
continually pursue long term goals even with setbacks and
adversity.8 Although grit was not originally suggested to be
a strong predictor of achievement compared to conscien-
tiousness and self-control, grit was the most significant pre-
dictor of academic achievement for Ivy League undergraduates
A positive association between grit and general academic
success was also reaffirmed in pharmacy students11; however,
samples including Ivy League and graduate students may
not apply to public undergraduate institutions due to their
high level of achievement required for admission. The mech-
anism between the relationship between grit and academic
success in undergraduate students of varying backgrounds
is unknown. When looking at the facets of grit inde-
pendently, perseverance of effort has previously explained
more academic achievement variance than consistency of
interest.9,12,13 A large meta-analysis that included high school,
college, and post-graduate students in a variety of domestic
and international educational settings found that persever-
ance of effort was a better predictor than conscientiousness
for academic success compared to consistency of interest
and overall grit score.9 The majority of these studies used
self-reported GPAs, which can be overestimated compared
to transcript GPAs14 due to social desirability.15 Many studies
included in the meta-analysis measured grit and GPA con-
currently9; therefore, students who reported their GPA may
have influenced their reported grit score due to this
mono-method bias. Due to these limitations, there remain
several unknown questions about the relationships between
the individual facets of grit and academic achievement.
Though grit may influence academic success, the impor-
tance of student mental and physical health for academic
success has become increasingly emphasized.16 Presently,
college students participate in low levels of physical activity.17

CONTACT Bryce T. Daniels bxd013@uark.edu Health, Human Performance, and Recreation, University of Arkansas HPER 323, 155 Stadium Drive,
Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 B. T. DANIELS ET AL.
Because of the numerous health benefits of physical activ-
ity,18 researchers have investigated the link between physical
activity and academic success in an effort to improve student
health and academic performance. 19,20 The relationship
between academic success and physical activity is inconsis-
tent among college students. One study found that light
physical activity and moderate to vigorous physical activity
were not related to academic achievement.20 In contrast, a
study investigating medical and health science students
found a positive relationship between physical activity and
academic performance.19 Rather than using an objective
measure of physical activity,20 the study by Abou Elmagd
et al19 used a self-reported questionnaire, which could
explain the conflicting evidence. Neither study investigated
potential mediators nor evaluated the context of physical
activity being performed.
Current research suggests that perseverance of effort can
aid in the implementation of sustainable physical activity
programs.21 A better understanding of the relationship
between duration of physical activity and grit may help
create a healthier campus environment and improve aca-
demic success. A recent study linked vigorous leisure time
physical activity in school-aged children to consistency of
interest.22 Dunston et al23 investigated associations between
the two facets of grit and physical activity in college students
using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire short
form (IPAQ-S), which focuses on the intensity of physical
activity (moderate or vigorous), time spent walking, and
time spent sitting.24 Perseverance of effort was positively
associated with both vigorous and moderate physical activity,
while consistency of interest was negatively associated with
both vigorous and moderate physical activity.23 Overall grit
scores had positive associations with elevated volumes of
vigorous, but not moderate physical activity, and neither
grit nor its components had associations with walking or
time spent sitting.23 Though the intensity of physical activity
does provide meaningful insight into the relationship of
physical activity and grit measures, the domain of physical
activity, such as performing physical activity for one’s job
or performing physical activity in one’s leisure time, may
also influence the relationship between physical activity and
grit measures.
In addition to nuances with physical activity intensity,
different domains of physical activity have demonstrated
varied physical health effects, with leisure time physical
activity inducing more positive health benefits compared to
occupational or work physical activity.25 A meta-analysis
found that domains of physical activity can have a critical
effect on the association of physical activity and mental
health; specifically, leisure time and active transport physical
activity were positively related to mental health, but occu-
pational physical activity was negatively related to mental
health.25 Aside from physical activity intensities in IPAQ
short form, IPAQ long-form can offer additional contexts
including job-related physical activity, transportation physical
activity, housework/maintenance physical activity, leisure
time physical activity, and time spent sitting.24 Understanding
the relationship between the different domains of physical
activity and grit could be beneficial in determining the best
methods for increasing grit and, ultimately, academic
performance.
The overall purpose of this study was to examine the
relationships between physical activity, grit, and academic
achievement in a college population with the following
objectives:
1. To examine the relationship between general physical
activity and overall grit, along with the two facets of
grit. We hypothesized that overall grit would be pos-
itively related to general physical activity including
vigorous, moderate, and walking physical activity, but
perseverance of effort will be a better predictor of
general physical activity compared to consistency of
interest.
2. To determine differences in the relationship between
physical activity and grit by the domain (active trans-
port, leisure, occupational, domestic) of physical
activity. We hypothesized grit, perseverance of effort,
and consistency of interest will be significant predic-
tors of leisure time physical activity when compared
to occupational physical activity.
3. To evaluate the relationship between grit and GPA
and then the relationship between physical activity
and GPA. We hypothesized grit and perseverance of
effort would predict GPAs.
4. To assess the relationship between physical activity
and GPA. We also hypothesized that leisure time phys-
ical activity would be positively associated to GPA.
Methods
Participants
A convenience sample consisting of two cohorts of students
attending a large public university in the south were
recruited over the course of two years by means of electronic
and classroom announcements and word of mouth.
Participants were eligible for the study if they were enrolled
in undergraduate coursework at the respective university.
Each year, participation was voluntary, but participants were
incentivized by being in a drawing for one of five $50
Amazon gift cards. All participants granted informed con-
sent prior to the survey and the study was approved by the
university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Procedures
Eligible participants completed an electronic survey admin-
istered through Qualtrics 26 across two academic years,
between October 2018 and March 2020. The survey con-
sisted of a multitude of questions including those from the
Grit-S scale 27 and International Physical Activity
Questionnaire (IPAQ- long).24 Students were surveyed over
the course of 2 years, and student GPAs were obtained from
the university from administrators of the Student Success
Center. Other demographic variables included year in school,
age, and race.

Instrumentation
The short grit scale (Grit-S) was validated in 2009 by
Duckworth and Quinn. This 8-question, Likert-style survey
ranks participant grit on a scale from 1 to 527 with a higher
score meaning a “grittier” individual. The eight questions
can also be broken down into two components: perseverance
of effort and consistency of interest (Table 1), allowing for
sub-scores for each component. Higher scores for each com-
ponent indicate more perseverance of effort and consistency
of effort. Three grit measures were utilized - overall grit,
consistency of interest, and perseverance of effort.
The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-
Long-form) is a 31-item questionnaire that allows partici-
pants to self-report their time performing particular tasks
related to occupational physical activity, physical activity
from self-powered transportation, household physical activ-
ity, recreation, sport a leisure physical activity, and time
spent sitting.24 Each physical activity domain is broken down
into frequency and duration of walking, moderate, and vig-
orous levels of physical activity. The variables of specific
interest included total Metabolic Minutes (a unit of energy
expenditure) per week (MET·min·wk−1) for each domain
and intensity. MET·min·wk−1 quantifies the minutes of
energy expenditure from physical activity each week.28 The
MET values utilized for scoring included 3.3 METS for
walking, 4 METS for moderate physical activity, and 8 METS
for vigorous physical activity. For example, 30 minutes of
walking equals 99 MET·min. The appropriate METS values
were multiplied by minutes the activity was performed and
then multiplied by days of the week for walking, moderate
physical activity, and vigorous physical activity. These scores
were summed with each domain and then summed across
all domains for the total physical activity.
Academic success measures
The University’s Student Success Center supplied the 2018
fall GPAs for the Year 1 cohort and then 2019 fall GPAs for
the Year 2 cohort. Fall GPAs were used instead of spring for
consistency due to the COVID-19 pandemic as the Year 2
cohort GPA could potentially be impacted by the pandemic.
Statistical analysis
Data was reviewed for missing data, normality, outliers,
and collinearity. Descriptive statistics described the
Table 1. A summary of the Grit-S items.
Consistency of interest items Perseverance of effort items
New ideas and projects sometimes Setbacks don’t discourage me
distract from previous ones
I have been obsessed with a certain I am a hard worker
idea or project for a short time
but later lost interest
I often set a goal but later choose I finish whatever I begin
to purse a different one
I have difficulty maintain my focus I am diligent
on projects that take more than
a few months to complete
Journal of American College Health 3
demographics, grit, and IPAQ data. Only participants who
reported as “female” or “male” were included in the data
analysis, which excluded 7 participants. Sex differences
between measures of grit and physical activity were mea-
sured by a series of t-tests. Physical activity and grit data
were found to be non-parametric; however, both
non-parametric and parametric tests resulted in equivalent
results. Parametric results are reported for interpretation.
Unless otherwise stated, all results will be presented as
mean and 95% CI. STATA 15.1 software29 was used to
conduct the analyses where a p-value less than or equal
to 0.05 indicated statistical significance. No adjustments
were made for multiple comparisons since this was an
exploratory study.
For Objective 1, to assess the relationship between grit
and general physical activity, multiple linear regression mod-
els were used to evaluate the correlations between grit and
physical activity. Grit was the independent variable, and
Total MET·min·wk−1 was the outcome. Separate models were
run using total MET·min·wk−1 for each intensity (vigorous,
moderate, and walking) as the outcomes. To examine the
individual effects of the facets of grit, models that included
both consistency of interest and perseverance of effort as
independent variables were run to examine the independent
associations of each facet of grit with total physical activity
and with each intensity of physical activity. All models were
adjusted for sex and age.
For Objective 2, to examine the relationship between
physical activity and grit by contexts of physical activity,
multiple linear regression models, adjusted for age and sex,
were used to assess the relationship between the grit mea-
sures and the domains of physical activity. Similar to the
first objective, separate regressions were examined with grit
as the independent variable and each physical activity
domain (Total MET·min·wk−1 of work, transport, household,
and leisure) as the dependent variable. Again, additional
models exploring the independent effects of both facets in
the same model with each domain of physical activity were
conducted while adjusting for sex and age.
For Objective 3, to determine the associations of grit
and physical activity with academic success, multiple linear
regressions were used to evaluate the relationship between
grit measures with GPA and physical activity with GPA.
Grit was the independent variable, while controlling for sex
and age, and GPA was the outcome. Then a model explor-
ing the independent effects of both facets in the same
model with GPA was conducted while adjusting for sex
and age.
For Objective 4, to evaluate the associations of physical
activity and academic success, multiple linear regressions
were used. One model used total physical activity as the
independent variable and GPA as the outcome, adjusted for
sex and age. Then a model that included all physical activity
intensities as the independent variables was explored with
GPA as the outcome, adjusted for sex and age. Lastly, a
model, adjusted for age and sex, included all the domains
of physical activity as independent variables and GPA as
the outcome was also conducted.
4 B. T. DANIELS ET AL.

Results
Demographics
The cumulative sample consisted of 956 undergraduate
students. After screening for missing data, the sample
included 875 total students (females: n = 375 (43%) and
males: n = 500 (57%)) and had an average age of 20 years
(SD = 2.46). Data was considered missing if the grit survey
was not entirely completed, if reported total minutes of
physical activity exceeded 960 minutes a day (as per stan-
dard IPAQ processing), or if provided contact information
did not match a university student GPA. The first cohort
contained 130 students (females: n = 94 (72%) and males:
n = 36 (27%)) whom had an average age of 21 years
(SD = 3.22). The year two cohort added 745 students
(females: n = 281 (37%) and males: n = 464 (62%)) whom
had an average age of 20 years (SD = 2.24). The year two
cohort was younger overall and had a larger percentage of
male participants when compared to year one. The sample
overall was 82% white and the majority (62%) were fresh-
men. Table 2 summarizes the total sample outcomes by
year in school and sex.
Descriptive statistics
Means and standard deviations of the physical activity, grit,
consistency of interest, perseverance of effort, and GPA
outcomes of the total sample can be found in Table 2.
Students reported the highest MET·min·wk−1 for walking,
1645.58, 95% CI [1528.18, 1763.00]. By domain, students
reported accumulating the most total MET·min·wk−1 during
leisure time, 1393.85.99, 95% CI [1262.16, 1525.53]. Students
accumulated the least amount of total MET·min·wk−1 when
working, 734.67, 95% CI [606.31, 863.04]. The sample’s mean
grit score was 3.36, 95% CI [3.32, 3.40]. Students had a
higher average perseverance of effort score (3.78, 95% CI
[3.74, 3.83]) than the average of the consistency of interest
score (2.93, 95% CI [2.88, 2.99]). The average GPA of the
sample was 3.30, 95% CI [3.26, 3.34].
Sex differences
The sex differences of Total MET·min·wk−1 for each intensity
and each separate domain of physical activity, grit and its
facets, and GPA can be seen in Table 2. Females reported
significantly more walking (t = −2.32, p = .017) and work
physical activity (t = −2.81, p = .030) than males. Reporting
as a female indicates higher walking and work physical activ-
ity compared to reporting as a male. Thus, the Null hypoth-
esis is rejected. However, males reported significantly more
domestic physical activity (t = 2.78, p = .008) compared to
females. Reporting as male indicates higher domestic physical
activity compared to reporting as a female. Thus, the Null
hypothesis is rejected. Total physical activity, vigorous physical
activity, moderate physical activity, active transport physical
activity, and leisure physical activity were not significantly
different among sexes. Thus, identifying as female or male
had no effects on their total, vigorous, active transport, and
leisure physical activity. Therefore, the Null hypothesis was
confirmed. Females self-reported significantly higher grit val-
ues (t = −2.89, p = .004), consistency of interest (t = −3.53,
p < .001), and obtained higher GPAs (t = −5.01, p < .001)
when compared to males. Reporting as a female indicates
higher values for grit, consistency of interest, and GPA com-
pared to those who reported as male. Thus, the Null hypoth-
esis was rejected. There was no significant difference between
sexes for perseverance of effort indicating sex has no effect
on reported perseverance of effort scores. Thus, the Null
hypothesis was confirmed.
Grit and general physical activity (objective 1)
The first hypothesis of the study included overall grit would
be positively related to general physical activity including

Table 2. A summary of the sample’s descriptive statistics.

P value comparing
Total sample (% of sample) Males Females males and females
Demographics Year in school
Freshmen 538 (61%) 374 164
Sophomores 128 (15%) 41 87
Juniors 105 (12%) 49 56
Seniors 100 (12%) 35 65
Physical activity
(MET·min·wk–1)
Total n = 875 3842.84 [3599.79, 4085.89] 3889.17 [3556.07, 4222.27] 3781.07 [3426.76, 4135.37] .667
Total vigorous n = 875 1069.17 [955.55, 1182.80] 1152.64 [988.65, 1316.63] 957.87 [807.85, 1107.88] .096
Total moderate n = 875 1128.10 [1012.63, 1243.57] 1214.17 [1060.98, 1367.36] 1013.32 [837.50, 1189.15] .091
Total walking n = 875 1645.58 [1528.18, 1763.00] 1522.36 [1381.23, 1663.50] 1809.88 [1611.23, 2008.51] .017*
Work n = 875 734.67 [606.31, 863.04] 611.67 [442.34, 781.00] 898.68 [702.19, 1095.17] .030*
Active transport n = 873 1065.73 [983.69, 1147.78] 1024.97 [937.57, 1112.37] 1120.13 [967.86, 1272.39] .260
Domestic n = 871 660.42 [575.07, 745.77] 760.29 [633.62, 886.96] 527.69 [422.83, 632.56] .008**
Leisure n = 871 1393.85 [1262.16, 1525.53] 1507.90 [1320.28, 1695.53] 1242.28 [1063.90, 1420.65] .050
Grit n = 875 3.36 [3.32, 3.40] 3.31 [3.26, 3.36] 3.43 [3.37, 3.49] .004**
Consistency of interest n = 875 2.93 [2.88, 2.99] 2.85 [2.78, 2.92] 3.05 [2.97, 3.13] < .001**
Perseverance of effort n = 875 3.78 [3.74, 3.83] 3.77 [3.70, 3.83] 3.81 [3.74, 3.88] .371
GPA n = 873 3.30 [3.26, 3.34] 3.20 [3.14, 3.27] 3.42 [3.36, 3.48] < .001**
Values are expressed as the means and 95% confidence intervals.

Bold values are statistically significant at p < .05

 Journal of American College Health 5

vigorous, moderate, and walking physical activity, but per-
severance of effort will be a better predictor of general
physical activity compared to consistency of interest.
Coefficients and standard errors for grit, consistency of
interest, and perseverance of effort with each outcome can
be found in Table 3. Grit was positively and significantly
associated with total physical activity (β = 1009.99, p <
.001), vigorous physical activity (β = 470.09, p < .001), mod-
erate physical activity (β = 306.94, p = .001), and walking
(β = 232.96, p = .018). Participants who reported higher
grit scores, reported higher total, vigorous, moderate, and
walking physical activity. Thus, the Null hypothesis was
rejected. In the next model which included both consistency
of interest and perseverance of effort, consistency of interest
was positively and significantly associated with only total
physical activity (β = 307.81, p = .047) and vigorous physical
activity (β = 169.40, p = .019). Participants who reported
higher consistency of interest scores, reported higher total
physical activity and vigorous physical activity. Thus, the
Null hypothesis was rejected. Perseverance of effort was
positively and significantly associated with total physical
activity (β = 756.95, p < .001), vigorous physical activity
(β = 318.87, p < .001), moderate physical activity (β = 194.91,
p = .025), and walking (β = 243.17, p = .006). Participants
who reported higher perseverance of effort scores, reported
higher total, vigorous, moderate, and walking physical activ-
ity. Thus, the Null hypothesis was rejected. Based off these
results, our initial study hypothesis for Objective 1 was
confirmed.
Grit measures and physical activity domains (objective 2)
The second hypothesis included grit, perseverance of effort,
and consistency of interest will be significant predictors of
leisure time physical activity when compared to occupational
physical activity. Grit was positively and significantly asso-
ciated with domestic physical activity (β = 192.14, p = .007)
and leisure physical activity (β = 555.42, p < .001).
Participants reporting higher grit scores reported higher
domestic and leisure physical activity. Thus, the Null hypoth-
esis was rejected. In the next model which included both
consistency of interest and perseverance of effort, consis-
tency of interest was not associated with any of the domains
of physical activity. The consistency of interest scores
reported were not associated with the domains of physical
activity. Thus, the Null hypothesis was confirmed.
Perseverance of effort was positively and significantly asso-
ciated with walking (β = 243.17, p = .006), active transport
physical activity (β = 132.44, p = .033), domestic physical
activity (β = 160.92, p = .012), and leisure physical activity
(β = 428.32, p < .001). Participants reporting higher perse-
verance of effort scores, reported higher walking, active
transport, domestic, and leisure time physical activity. Thus,
the Null hypothesis was rejected. Overall, the study’s second
hypothesis was only partly confirmed with an association
between grit and leisure time physical activity, but not with
occupational physical activity. While perseverance of effort
was associated with several domains of physical activity,
consistency of interest was not significantly related to any
domain of physical activity, which was contrary to the
study’s second hypothesis.
Grit and GPA (objective 3)
For the third hypothesis, we forecasted grit and perseverance
of effort would predict GPA. In the first model, grit
(β = 0.187, p = .001) was positively and significantly asso-
ciated to GPA. Participants who reported higher grit scores
also obtained higher GPAs. Thus, the Null hypothesis was
rejected. The next model demonstrated perseverance of
effort perseverance of effort (β = 0.155, p < .001) was pos-
itively associated with GPA while consistency of interest
(β = 0.046, p = .100) was not associated with GPA.
Participants who reported higher perseverance of effort
scores also obtained higher GPAs. Thus, the Null hypothesis

Table 3. A summary of grit measures relationships with physical activity and GPA.
Grit Consistency of interest Perseverance of effort
Total MET·min·wk–1 (n = 875) 1009.99 (200.76) 307.81 (154.74) 756.95 (180.93)
p < .001** p = .047* p < .001**
Vigorous MET·min·wk–1 (n = 875) 470.09 (93.78) 169.40 (72.32) 318.87 (84.56)
p < .001** p = .019* p < .001**
Moderate MET·min·wk–1 (n = 874) 306.94 (96.11) 121.04 (74.19) 194.91 (86.74)
p = .001* p = .103 p = .025*
Walk MET·min·wk–1 (n = 874) 232.96 (98.11) 17.33 (75.62) 243.17 (88.41)
p = .018* p = 0.819 p = .006*
Work MET·min·wk–1 (n = 875) 192.65 (107.08) 141.26 (82.65) 38.91 (96.63)
p =.072 p = .088 p = .687
Active transport MET·min·wk–1 (n = 873) 60.17 (68.82) –50.03 (52.97) 132.44 (61.92)
p = .382 p = .345 p = .033*
Domestic MET·min·wk–1 (n = 871) 192.14 (71.08) 45.24 (55.00) 160.92 (64.28)
p = .007* p = .411 p = .012*
Leisure MET·min·wk–1 (n = 871) 555.42 (108.49) 159.60 (83.62) 428.32 (97.64)
p < .001** p = .057 p < .001**
GPA (n = 865) 0.187 (0.036) 0.046 (.03) 0.155 (.03)
p = .001** p = .100 p < .001**
Values are expressed as correlation coefficients and (standard errors).

Bold values are statistically significant at p < .05

6 B. T. DANIELS ET AL.
was rejected. However, consistency of interest scores had
no significant effect on GPAs. Thus, the Null hypothesis
was confirmed. Based off these results, our initial study
hypothesis for Objective 3 was confirmed.
Physical activity and GPA (objective 4)
For the fourth hypothesis, we forecasted leisure time physical
activity would be positively associated to GPA. In the first
model, total physical activity (β = −8.48e−6, p = .166) was
not associated with GPA. Participants’ total physical activity
reported did not significantly predict GPA. Thus, the Null
hypothesis was confirmed. Next the physical activity inten-
sity model demonstrated moderate physical activity (β =
−3.85e−5, p = .007) was negatively associated with GPA.
Participants who reported higher amounts of moderate phys-
ical activity scores had lower GPAs. Thus, Null hypothesis
was rejected. However, vigorous physical activity (β = 3.33e−5,
p = .017), walking physical activity (β = −1.50e−5, p = .256)
were not associated with GPA. The vigorous and walking
physical activity reported by participants did not signifi-
cantly predict their GPA. Thus, the Null hypothesis were
rejected. The physical activity domain model showed domes-
tic physical activity (β = −7.15e−5, p < .001) was negatively
associated with GPA. Participants reporting higher domestic
physical activity amounts had lower GPAs. Thus, Null
hypothesis was rejected. However, work physical activity (β
= −1.33e−5, p = .251), active transport physical activity
(β = 1.44e −5, p = .432) and leisure physical activity
(β = 1.76e−5, p = .133) were not associated with GPA.
Participants’ work, active transport, and leisure physical
activity amounts reported had no effects on their GPAs.
Thus, the Null hypothesis was confirmed. The study’s fourth
hypothesis was not supported by these results as leisure
time physical activity reported by participants was not a
significant predictor or their GPA.
Discussion
The current study investigated relationships between physical
activity, grit, and academic achievement in a college popu-
lation. Our first objective was to examine the relationship
between general physical activity and grit, examining the
separate constructs of consistency of interest and persever-
ance of effort. We found that grit and perseverance of effort
were positively and significantly related to vigorous physical
activity, moderate physical activity, and walking physical
activity, and that consistency of interest was positively and
significantly related to total physical activity and vigorous
physical activity. Our third objective was to investigate the
relationship between physical activity and grit measures by
the domain (occupational, active transport, leisure, and
domestic) of physical activity led to the observations of grit
being positively and significantly associated with domestic
physical activity and total leisure physical activity. Perseverance
of effort was positively and significantly related to active
transport physical activity, domestic physical activity, and
leisure physical activity, while consistency of interest was not
related to any of the domains of physical activity. These
findings suggest that individuals with high scores for perse-
verance of effort have higher levels of vigorous, moderate,
and walking physical activity and perform more physical
activity than their counterparts. Lastly, the relationships
between grit measures and academic success, along with
domains of physical activity and academic success, were eval-
uated. Perseverance of effort was the best predictor of aca-
demic success compared to overall grit and consistency of
interest, while moderate physical activity and domestic phys-
ical activity were negatively associated with academic success.
The current study found sex differences among grit mea-
sures and physical activity. Similar to previous work,30
females reported higher grit and consistency of interest
scores. With respect to physical activity, females reported
higher amounts of walking and work physical activity,
whereas males reported more domestic physical activity
which aligns with previous findings.31 However, the current
study utilized a larger sample and investigated college stu-
dents rather than younger adolescent students. This is
important as physical activity habits tend to change from
adolescents to young adulthood.32 The findings of these sex
differences may aid in the development of more effective
interventions while also increasing clarity regarding factors
related to grit measures and physical activity domains. Our
study also found that overall grit was positively associated
with each measure of general physical activity; however, a
similar study found that overall grit scores were not different
between college students who performed less than
75 min·wk−1, between 75 − 300 min·wk−1, and more than
300 min·wk−1 of vigorous physical activity.23 Though, the
previous study, excluded the following item from the con-
sistency of interest section of the grit scale: “New ideas and
projects sometimes distract me from previous ones.” Data
suggests this item may be more representative of younger
people,22 though removing it could have impacted the overall
grit score’s validity as grit scores with the 7-items in our
sample were higher than grit scores with the eight items.
In an effort to assess the impact of the item removed by
Dunston et al,23 statistical tests were run with and without
the item. Similar results were obtained. Our study also had
a larger sample size than that of Dunston et al,23 which
could lead to a better representation of these relationships
in a larger population of college students.
Similar to a previous study with a smaller sample of
college students,23 perseverance of effort was associated with
both vigorous and moderate physical activity. Another study
conducted with school-aged children in Europe found that
consistency of interest, but not perseverance of effort, was
associated with objectively measured moderate to vigorous
physical activity.22 College students in the United States have
self-selected to pursue a higher education and thus may
naturally exhibit more grit when compared to a sample of
school-aged children, therefore it is unknown if this effect
exists in the current population of interest.
From the current study, it appears that perseverance of
effort, the ability to continue to work hard despite experi-
encing setbacks9 has a stronger relationship to general phys-
ical activity than consistency of interest, the ability to

maintain interest and the same goals over time.8 As bouts
of physical activity induce natural physiological stress on
the body,33 persevering with high effort to finish each bout
of physical activity may align more with one’s perseverance
of effort rather than one’s consistency of interest. Although
an individual may modify their physical activity modalities
or goals over time, the need to overcome the induced phys-
iological stress to complete a bout of physical activity will
remain constant. Demonstrating successful perseverance with
high effort to overcome the physiological stress of physical
activity may translate to persevering with high effort through
a challenging academic course despite their level of interest.
Future studies should establish causality behind completing
bouts of physical activity to increase perseverance of effort
or should investigate the relationship between increasing
perseverance of effort and the amount of physical activity
performed. Further clarity on the direction of the relation-
ship between perseverance of effort and physical activity
may improve the effectiveness of physical activity or perse-
verance of effort interventions.
Our findings support our hypothesis that the context of
physical activity will have different associations with grit mea-
sures. Occupational physical activity was not related to overall
grit, consistency of interest, or perseverance of effort, while
leisure time physical activity was associated with overall grit
and perseverance of effort. This may be explained by leisure
time physical activity being a voluntary decision. Enjoyment
demonstrates a high association with exercise adherence.34
One may find more enjoyment in persevering while exercising
without feeling the pressures of having to perform for a boss
or a means to make money. Potentially, the freedom of choice
to perform leisure time physical activity may naturally require
more grit and perseverance of effort than performing physical
activity in a supervised job to fulfill financial needs. Similarly,
previous research has found that occupational physical activity
has been linked to negative health outcomes, including
increased cardiovascular disease and mortality risks35 and
mental ill-health.25 Considering the importance of the domain
of physical activity on health outcomes and the associations
to grit and perseverance of effort, universities may look to
prioritize promoting and facilitating leisure time physical
activity.
Our findings indicate that perseverance of effort was
most positively and significantly related to GPA out of the
grit measures which is in agreement with previous work.9
Uniquely, our study measured overall grit and each facet
and recorded official GPAs at the end of the semester in a
large sample of students in a public university. Considering
that perseverance of effort is the facet of grit most associated
with GPA, future studies should continue to investigate
potential mechanisms and relationships that focus on per-
severance of effort in a university setting to improve aca-
demic success. In an effort to establish concrete evidence
and methodology that can be replicated in several
post-secondary academic settings, cross-sectional studies that
identify potential factors related to perseverance of effort
that are followed by randomized control trials to establish
causality are necessary.
Journal of American College Health 7
Despite the associations found in the current study
between grit with both physical activity and academic suc-
cess, it is not clear if grit can be enhanced through inter-
ventions; however, other non-cognitive traits such as
resiliency have been successfully increased through inter-
ventions.36,37 Recently, a large intervention on 9 and 10-year-
old children in Turkey successfully enhanced grit and had
positive longitudinal effects on math standardized test
scores.38 Moreover, academic grit, defined as the determi-
nation, resilience, and focus in the pursuit of long-term
goals in an educational context, is a novel measure of grit
used for youth and adolescents.39 When compared to general
grit, academic grit scores were more strongly associated to
academic achievement, GPA, and school satisfaction than a
nonacademic outcome, life satisfaction in youth and ado-
lescents.39 Studies utilizing academic grit in college students
are lacking. Future studies should investigate the relationship
between general grit, academic grit, and physical activity
measures in college students. General grit and academic grit
may be positively related. Though, it is possible general grit
is more related to physical activity measures than academic
grit as the grit demonstrated in an educational context may
be different than the grit demonstrated for physical exertion.
Thus, future pilot interventions that include physical activity
should assess the malleability of general grit and academic
grit in the college setting in the United States.
The current study found few relationships between phys-
ical activity and academic success. Moderate and domestic
physical activity was significantly and negatively related to
GPA. However, these were the only physical activity domains
associated with academic success. These findings add to the
conflicting evidence of previous studies. However, the cur-
rent study had a larger sample and was conducted within
a large public institution within the United States compared
to previous work studying students from Spain20 and the
Middle East19 which could limit direct comparisons. The
negative association between domestic physical and GPA
may be explained by the high number of freshmen included
in the sample. Freshmen living in dorms on campus are
likely to have different responsibilities than upper-level stu-
dents who live off-campus. For example, increased respon-
sibilities within a living space such as a significant other or
pets can take away from time spent on academics. It is also
possible that the self-reported physical activity was overes-
timated, as the long-from IPAQ has been prone to higher
estimates of physical activity.24 Even with the over-estimation
of absolute physical activity, it would be expected the relative
associations would be valid. Future studies should use
device-based measures of physical activity, such as acceler-
ometers, paired with self-reported physical activity measures,
as self-report measures also capture the context of physical
activity which has shown to be important in the cur-
rent study.
Limitations
A main limitation of the study includes the use of a con-
venience sample and a cross-sectional study design. The
8 B. T. DANIELS ET AL.
convenience sample was composed of 464 freshmen male
engineering students (39% of the sample). The cross-sectional
design strictly limits data to associations and not causations.
Future studies should attempt to determine temporal pre-
cedence between grit and physical activity. Establishing if
grit causes an increase in physical activity or if physical
activity causes an increase in grit is necessary to create
enhanced interventions.
Conclusion
Our study confirms limited previous studies that persever-
ance of effort is a critical facet of grit that is related both
to physical activity23 and academic success.9 Importantly,
our study adds that perseverance of effort is also related
to different contexts of physical activity. Universities may
be faced with low resources to support interventions, thus
focusing on leisure time physical activity interventions may
induce both positive health outcomes and academic-related
constructs such as grit. More research is necessary to estab-
lish if increasing leisure time physical activity will cause
increases in grit and perseverance of effort in order to craft
more meaningful interventions. Future studies should con-
tinue to assess the malleability of perseverance of effort
and further investigate the impact perseverance of effort
has on increasing physical activity. If one’s perseverance of
effort is not malleable, targeting those with low persever-
ance of effort to increase physical activity and academic
success might still induce positive effects such as enhanced
physical health and potential employment opportunities.
Grit, particularly perseverance of effort, may be a useful
construct in improving both university students’ physical
activity and academic achievement, and ultimately student
health and success.
Conflict of interest disclosure
The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The
authors confirm that the research presented in this article
met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal
requirements, of [United States] and received approval from
the [IRB at the University of Arkansas].
Funding
This study received no funding throughout data collection
or development of the manuscript.
ORCID
Kaitlin M. Gallagher http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2089-0392
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