The “Isolated Nation” in the Midst of Scientific Discovery:

An Examination of US-SP Relations through the Astronautic World

By: Brianne DelBonifro (Institut d’Estudis de Nord-americans)

When examining dictatorial regimes, history is oftentimes apt to gloss over the stories of

cultural and scientific development that were occurring in tandem with the more heavily

chronicled histories of political oppression and strife. These omittances are unfortunate, because

the cultural and scientific histories of a nation provide a unique perspective to a nation’s history.

Throughout most of the nearly 40 years of the Franco regime, Spain was largely ostracized by

the western powers and was labeled as the “isolated nation”. This classification has influenced an

incorrect narrative shared by many in the international community that Spanish society was

incapable of participating in scientific and cultural exchanges between other nations.

In reality, Spain’s diplomatic relations during the Franco era with many other western

nations, especially the United States, owe their establishment to those very cultural and scientific

exchanges, specifically, through the burgeoning world of astronautics. This new field of science

helped launch Spain onto the world stage and is a unique perspective through which

Spanish-American relations in the 1950’s and 60’s can be examined. When viewed through the

lenses of two prominent Spanish institutions – The Institut d’Estudis Nord-americans (IEN) and

the National Institute of Aerospace Technology (INTA) – the key role that astronautics played in

the development of Spanish-American relations becomes very clear.

The Spanish Civil War (1936 – 1939) heavily influenced the next several decades of

Spain’s international standing. The outcome of the war was the establishment of Francisco

Franco’s dictatorship which swept in reprioritizations and immense changes, domestically, within

all classes of Spanish society. The immediate changes in the early days of the regime were the
splintering of the Spanish upper class and the relegation of the scientific community to obscurity.

The Francoists severely restricted business and scientific industries, forcing many in the upper

class to adopt new standards of living and severely limiting progress and advancement. Citizens

of all classes lived under constant and often violent enforcement of strict adherence to Francoist

ideology.

Spaniards who had been gaining reputations in the fields of science and technology no

longer held their stature in the new regime as Franco held little regard for academia or

intellectual and technological development.1 Many scientists, including those who quietly

conformed to Francoist doctrine, were stripped from their roles in universities and research

facilities throughout the country.2 This effectively left the Spanish scientific community crippled,

without any financial or technical resources. Meanwhile however, the scientific community was

still flourishing in Nazi Germany, despite suffering a “brain drain” in the 1930’s as the rising tide

of Nazism forced many prominent Jewish-German scientists to flee the country.

As the 1940’s progressed and World War II came to an end, Spain continued to further

cement its isolation among the world’s nations. The Franco regime became a refuge for former

Nazi politicians and German scientists and technicians who had actively participated in and

contributed to Hitler’s regime.3 During this time the Western powers intentionally neglected to

include Spain in many of the post-war treaties, alliances, and rebuilding policies they were

implementing. Notably, the United States’ post-war “Marshall Plan” excluded Spain in its efforts

to help rebuild the continent because of the nation’s status as a fascist dictatorship. Furthermore,

at the time of The United Nations establishment in 1945, Spain was excluded due to Franco’s

1
Miret & Puig, Science, Culture and National Identity in Francosit Spain, 1939-1959, pg. 372
2
Interview with Lorenzo Delgado Gómez-Escalonilla, 2023
3
Interview with Lorenzo Delgado Gómez-Escalonilla, 2023
decision to claim neutrality during the war while still assisting and aligning themselves with the

Axis powers. Spain was also excluded from NATO upon its establishment for the same reasons.

Despite the Franco regime’s crippling of the scientific community, Spanish scientists still

desired to advance their research and make some attempt to keep pace with the rest of the

Western World during an era of rapid scientific and technological advances. For this reason, in

1942, the Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA) was founded to serve as Spain’s

primary center for aeronautical research. The field of aeronautics, which studied the science of

flight, had recently made rapid advances in Western nations as war broke out around the world. It

was nearly impossible for INTA to make any significant advancements without international

collaboration which led to many roadblocks. The current state of the scientific community in

Spain led to concerns about the ability to acquire and train new staff and obtain materials. For

this reason, a representative was sent to the U.S. in 1944 on a trip to acquire materials and share

a proposal to bring interns over to Spain.4 Given the ongoing war and lack of official diplomatic

relations between the two nations, this was a significant trip.

However, the representative was mostly unsuccessful and given advice to wait until the

political climate shifted. The current view of the U.S. was that Spain “technically and

scientifically remained stranded in the dark years” and was “alien to the understanding of

Western civilization of the 20th century”.5 Despite these strong sentiments against them, Spain’s

aeronautic community wanted to forge ahead, so instead, they developed a new strategy of

inviting foreign professors to Spain. After the war and despite Spain’s isolation at that time,

INTA found an ally in Hungarian Professor Theodore von Kármán. He was considered one of the

4
Miret & Puig, Science, Culture and National Identity in Francoist Spain, 1939-1959, pg. 380

5
Gomez-Escalonilla, et al. La apertura internacional deEspaña Entre el franquismo y la democracia
(1953-1986) pg. 271
world’s greatest aeronautic specialists at the time and had a high esteem for Spain, making

frequent contacts with the authorities and researchers at INTA in its early years. 6 Von Kármán

and many other prominent foreign scientists and researchers significantly contributed to the

growth of Spain’s scientific community and its advancements, marking a noteworthy step in

international collaboration in a time of significant isolation.

Other Spanish citizens outside of the science community who had contacts and

connections outside of Spain were also beginning to desire more international collaboration and

exchange. Dr. Josep Maria Poal Ballarín and Josep Maria Bosch Aymerich, two prominent

Catalonian citizens, frequently traveled outside of Spain for work and met in New York City.

They had an appreciation for the American way of life at a time when many other Spaniards

were still living under the oppression of the Franco regime. They decided to establish the Institut

d’Estudis de Nord-americans (IEN) to initially serve as a social club for the upper class and

noteworthy individuals in Barcelona. They sent an application to become a recognized

institution; September 4th, 1951 marks the date that the documents were deemed permissible

with the signing of Barcelona’s civil governor, General Felipe Acedo Calunga.7

Throughout the 1940’s, official diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Spain were

almost non-existent, but contact on technical, scientific, and cultural levels were relatively strong

considering the political situation. Until 1951, the U.S. had no ambassador to the Spanish

regime, only just a Charge d ’Affairs. 8 However, at the start of the 1950’s the rapid rise of the

Cold War caused Spain’s isolation to begin to dissipate, as the U.S. turned its attention towards

the Iberian nation. Stopping the rising tide of communism was regarded by the American

6
Dorado, et al. Spain in Space: A Short History of Spanish Activity in the Space Sector, pg.1
7
Marti, et al. El Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos de Barcelona, 1951-1962
8
Marti, et al. El Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos de Barcelona, 1951-1962, pg. 21
government as a top priority. To accomplish this, the U.S. set out to form diplomatic and military

alliances around the world, while also spreading democracy. However, some countries that had

the potential to be important anti-communists allies operated with systems of government that

were diametrically opposed to American democratic ideals. Spain was one such country that

posed what was called an “uncomfortable proposal” as it was a dictatorship, but one that was

staunchly anti-communist. The U.S. was faced with the challenge of sending a consistent

message to the international community of its support for democratic ideals, while

simultaneously instituting foreign policy that safeguarded its national interests. The Cold War

forced American foreign policy makers to “prioritize practical criteria over idealistic

approaches” and prioritize military and economic imperatives over ideological reservations.9

Spain’s geographical location on the Iberian Peninsula was the impetus for the U.S.’s

push to form an alliance with the Franco regime.10 It was determined by the Pentagon that the

current state of Spain’s armed forces effectiveness and readiness was extremely inadequate and

outdated in all regards. It was determined they would only be able to hold off an invasion force

through the Pyrenees mountains via the Iberian Peninsula for no more than two weeks. Despite

objections from its Western allies, the U.S. felt for these reasons that it was imperative to

establish relations with Spain to improve the defense of Western Europe and the Mediterranean.11

In September of 1953, President Eisenhower went forward with a major new alliance

with the Franco regime, The Pact of Madrid. In the agreement, the U.S. pledged millions of

dollars to Spain to help rebuild their economy in return for four U.S. military bases in the region:

9
Gomez-Escalonilla, et al. La apertura internacional deEspaña Entre el franquismo y la democracia
(1953-1986) pg. 264
10
Gomez-Escalonilla, et al. La apertura internacional deEspaña Entre el franquismo y la democracia
(1953-1986) pg. 271
11
Leon-Aguinaga & Escalonilla The Deployment of U.S. Military Assistance to Franco’s Spain: Limited Modernization
and Strategic Dependence Section 2
Naval Station Rota, Morón Air Base, Torrejón Air Base and Zaragoza Air Base. The goal of this

pact was to complete Europe’s containment barrier against Soviet communist expansion.

This agreement was a major step in US-Spanish relations and marked the beginning of

formal international relations between the Franco regime and the U.S. Following the initiation of

the military agreement, scientific and technical development was suddenly stimulated in Spain

for the first time in decades. Material and intellectual resources were now shared and accessible

to the scientific community in Spain. Furthermore, the development of human capital within the

industry was now made easier than ever. The 1953 agreement included the initiation of the

Military Assistance Training Program and the Technical Exchange Program which were both

central in helping Spain modernize their armed forces and aeronautic industry.12 In 1959,

President Eisenhower made an official state visit to Madrid where he met with Francisco Franco,

toured Torrejon Air Base, and reaffirmed his commitment to maintaining relations with Spain.

This visit came just before the turn of a decade in which US-Spanish relations would reach new

and unprecedented levels.

Despite these benefits, the U.S. was aware that the existing sentiments of many segments

of the Spanish population would not be supportive of their military presence in Spain.

Furthermore, they were also keenly aware that the Spanish populace was not yet ready for

democracy as their society prioritized individualism and harbored resentment towards any

outside interference in Spain, especially if it risked further violence or political instability that

could lead to another civil war.13 Therefore, they instituted a behind-the-scenes propaganda

program and information campaign aimed at extolling the virtues of American contributions to

12
Miret & Puig, Science, Culture and National Identity in Francoist Spain, 1939-1959, pg. 375-377
13
Gomez-Escalonilla, et al. La apertura internacional deEspaña Entre el franquismo y la democracia
(1953-1986) pg. 273
the Western world. One of the key aspects of these campaigns was the promotion of American

advancements in aeronautics and aerospace technology through the U.S. Information Services

(USIS).

The USIS was a government agency tasked with promoting American interests and

values abroad. In Spain, the USIS sought to promote American aeronautic and aerospace

advancements as a way to demonstrate US technological superiority and to promote a more

positive opinion of the United States amongst the population.The USIS used a range of

propaganda techniques to promote American aeronautic and aerospace advancements in Spain.

These techniques included the distribution of publications, films, and exhibitions that highlighted

U.S. technological achievements in these fields. The USIS also sponsored lectures and

conferences featuring American experts in aeronautics and aerospace technology to showcase

American advancements and to promote greater understanding between the two countries.

One of the key events promoted by the USIS was the 1957 International Aerospace

Exhibition held in Madrid. The exhibition showcased American advancements in aerospace

technology, including rockets, missiles, and satellites. The exhibition was a major success and

drew large crowds of Spaniards eager to learn more about American technological achievements

in this field. The USIS also promoted American aeronautic and aerospace advancements through

cultural exchange programs. These programs brought American scientists and engineers to Spain

to share their knowledge and expertise with Spanish counterparts, helping to build additional

relations between the two nations and to promote greater cooperation in the field of aerospace

technology.
 The 1960’s saw a continued thawing of Spanish isolation and increased cultural and

scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Spain. The Institut d'Estudis Nord-americans (IEN)

developed a formal relationship with the United States State Department in 1957 which led to the

subsidization of some of its programs and the development of a close relationship with USIS.

USIS provided funding and other forms of support to IEN, which allowed the institute to expand

its programs and activities.14 By the 1960’s, IEN entered its second decade offering a variety of

new programming aimed at increasing cultural and academic exchanges. The American English

language classes they began offering in 1960 were hugely popular and have served over 400,000

students in the six decades since. Additionally, they offered support to students to organize social

and cultural activities through which committees were organized for which elections were held-

complete with debates and secret ballots. This was a significant experience of American culture

in a country that was governed by a dictatorship at the time.

INTA also witnessed a huge leap in its scope of activity in the 1960’s. The world had

entered the space age and the institute in turn now realigned its focus to aerospace. This began in

1960 with an agreement with the U.S. that enabled NASA to build a space monitoring station to

support their Mercury project in Maspalomas. The station was operational within a year and fully

operated by NASA staff initially, but it allowed INTA personnel that were present to gain

valuable experience and technical expertise.15 As the decade progressed, the number of INTA

personnel given operational responsibility at Masapalomas steadily increased. This was the first

of many NASA led projects that INTA would play a part in over the next two decades.

14
Marti, et al. El Instituto de Estudios Norteamericanos de Barcelona, 1951-1962, pgs. 51-54
15
Miret & Puig, Science, Culture and National Identity in Francoist Spain, 1939-1959, pg. 380
 These early relations with the U.S. and NASA were far more advanced than Spain’s

existing relations with other European nations. Despite the lack of formal relations with the

European Union, Spain was granted permission to send a delegation, which included INTA staff,

to be observers in the meetings during which the European Organization for Space Research

(ESRO) was being formed. INTA allowed Spain to build and reinforce politically motivated

relationships with the U.S. and Europe at a time when Spain’s diplomatic relations were still

nascent, and their admittance to the EU as a member state was not permitted.

Franco’s lack of support for scientific and cultural development initially hindered Spain's

ability to advance, yet many people erroneously believed that Spain was incapable of

participating in scientific and cultural exchanges with other nations. However, the field of

astronautics helped launch Spain onto the world stage and played a key role in the development

of Spanish-American relations in the 1950s and 60s. Despite the Franco regime's restriction of

scientific industries, the Spanish scientific community still desired to advance their research and

seek out international collaboration. Foreign professors and researchers significantly contributed

to the growth of Spain's scientific community, marking a noteworthy step in international

collaboration in a time of significant isolation.

The scientific and cultural communities in Spain during the Franco regime defied the

regime's constraints and continued to advance their fields with the help of international

collaboration. The establishment of institutions such as INTA and IEN played a critical role in

bringing Spanish-American relations closer. By acknowledging the contributions of the

scientific and cultural communities during the Franco regime, we can gain a more nuanced

understanding of the period's complexities and appreciate the role of international collaboration

in promoting scientific and technological progress.