GEED 10053

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

College of Science

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 Chapter 2

LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

OUTLINE

1. Propositions

2. Arguments

3. Sets

4. Quantifications

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LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are able to:
i. Determine and classify propositions;
ii. Apply logical connectives in operating propositions;
iii. Characterize sets and related notions
iv. Perform set operations and solve related problems
vi. Determine and classify quantifications of propositions over a set
vi. Determine and establish validity of arguments

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A. PROPOSITIONS

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Propositions

Proposition

A proposition is a declarative sentence that can be determined to be either

true or false, but not both at the same time. The truth value of a proposition
refers to its state as either true or false.

A proposition will be denoted by lower case letters p, q, r , ....

We denote a true truth value by T and a false truth value by F .

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Propositions
Example 1
Determine which of the following is a proposition or not.

1. a tall tree 6. Please, stay with me.

2. The cat is a mammal. 7. Get out!

3. Basketball players are handsome. 8. 12 + 8 = 5.

4. 1000000 is a large number. 9. There is life in other planets.

5. Who am I? 10. x + 1 is an integer.

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Propositions

Truth Table p q r
T T T
The truth table T T F
p q
of a proposition is T F T
p T T
a tabular presen- T F F
T T F
tation of all truth F T T
F F T
values the given F T F
proposition can F F
F F T
have. F F F

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Propositions

Negation

Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, written ∼ p and read as

”not p”, is the proposition that is true if p is false, and, is true otherwise.

Its truth table is given by

p ∼p
T F
F T

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Propositions

Example 2

1. Let p : 5 > 0. Then, ∼ p : 5 6> 0.

Since, p is T , then ∼ p is F .

2. Let q : A vampire bat is a bird.

Then, ∼ q : A vampire bat is not a bird.
Since q is F , then ∼ q is T .

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Propositions

Disjunction and Conjunction

Let p and q be propositions.

The disjunction of p and q, written p ∨ q and read as ”p or q,” is the
proposition that is false when p and q are both false, and, is true otherwise.
We call p and q as disjuncts.

The conjunction of p and q, written p ∧ q and read as ”p and q,” is the

proposition that is true when p and q are both true, and, is false otherwise.We
call p and q as conjuncts.

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Propositions

The truth tables for disjunction and conjunction are given by

p q p∨q p∧q
T T T T
T F T F
F T T F
F F F F

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 Propositions
Example 3
Let Solution:
Note that p and r are T while q and s are
p :3>0 F.
q :7+8=3 1. p∨ ∼ s: Either 3 > 0
r : The dog is a mammal. or a vampire bat is not a bird.
s : A vampire bat is a bird. ∴ p∨ ∼ s is T .

Form the following propositions and

determine its truth value. 2. q ∨ s : Either 7 + 8 = 3 or a vampire
bat is a bird.
1. p∨ ∼ s 3. ∼ r ∧ q q ∨ s is F .
2. q ∨ s 4. p ∧ r
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 Propositions
Example 3
Let Solution:
Note that p and r are T while q and s are
p :3>0 F.
q :7+8=3 3. ∼ r ∧ q : The dog is not a mammal
r : The dog is a mammal. and 7 + 8 = 3.
s : A vampire bat is a bird. ∼ r ∧ q is F .

Form the following propositions and

determine its truth value. 4. p ∧ r : 3 > 0 and
the dog is a mammal.
1. p∨ ∼ s 3. ∼ r ∧ q p ∧ r is T .
2. q ∨ s 4. p ∧ r
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 Propositions

Exclusive Or

Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, written p ∨ q, is

the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true.
Its truth table is given by
Note that in the ordinary language
p q p∨q structure, ’or’ and ’ex or’ does not show
T T F any distinct characteristics. One should
T F T critically examine if the two disjunts can
F T T happen at the same time.
F F F

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Propositions
Example 4
1. The sentence
A positive integer is either odd or even,
is a true ex or proposition.
2. The sentence
A student either passes or fails in his enrolled subject,
is a true ex or proposition.
3. Let p : 11 is prime and q : 13 is odd. The proposition p ∨ q is false.
4. The sentence
15 is either exclusively a multiple of 4 or a power of 3.
is a false.
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 Propositions

Conditional or Implication

Let p and q be propositions. A conditional or an implication of p with

q, written p → q and read as either ”if p then q” or ”p implies q”, is the
proposition that is false when p is true and q is false, and, is true otherwise.
Its truth table is given by

We call p as premise, precedent or p q p→q

hypothesis while q as consequent, T T T
subsequent or conclusion. T F F
F T T
F F T
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 Propositions
Example 5
Let
Solution:
p :3>0 Note that p and r are T while q and s are
q :7+8=3 F.
r : The dog is a mammal. 1. p → q : If 3 > 0, then 7 + 8 = 3.
p → q is false.
s : A vampire bat is a bird.

Form the following propositions and

2. ∼ s → r : A vampire bat is not a bird
determine its truth value.
implies that the dog is a mammal.
1. p → q : 3. q → (r ∧ s) : ∼ s → r is true.
2. ∼ s → r : 4. (∼ s ∨p) → q :
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 Propositions
Example 5 Solution:
Let Note that p and r are T while q and s are
F.
p :3>0 3. q → (r ∧ s) : If 7 + 8 = 3, then the
q :7+8=3 dog is a mammal and a vampire bat
r : The dog is a mammal. is a bird.
s : A vampire bat is a bird. Note that (r ∧ s) is false. So,
q → (r ∧ s) is true.
Form the following propositions and 4. (∼ s ∨ p) → q : If either a vampire
determine its truth value. bat is not a bird or 3 > 0, then 7 + 8
= 3.
1. p → q : 3. q → (r ∧ s) : Observe that (∼ s ∨ p) is true. Thus,
2. ∼ s → r : 4. (∼ s ∨p) → q : (∼ s ∨ p) → q is false.
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Propositions

Other ways to express the conditional p → q:

1. p implies q 6. q whenever p
2. p only if q 7. q when p
3. p is sufficient for q
4. q is necessary for p 8. q follows from p
5. q if p 9. q provided that p

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Propositions

Other Forms of Conditional

Given a conditional p → q. The conditional

1. q → p is called the converse of p → q.
2. ∼ p →∼ q is called the inverse of p → q.
3. ∼ q →∼ p is called the contrapositive of p → q.

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Propositions
Example 6 Given the false conditional

If 3 > 0, then 7 + 8 = 3,

its converse is the true conditional

If 7 + 8 = 3, then 3 > 0,

its inverse is the true conditional

If 3 6> 0, then 7 + 8 6= 3,

and its contrapositive is the false conditional

If7 + 8 6= 3, then 3 6> 0.

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Propositions
Example 7 Given the true conditional

If Japan is an African nation, then bamboo is a grass,

its converse is the false conditional

If bamboo is a grass, then Japan is an African nation,

its inverse is the false conditional

If Japan is not an African nation, then bamboo is not a grass,

and its contrapositive is the true conditional

If bamboo is not a grass, then Japan is not an African nation.

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Propositions

Biconditional or Equivalence

Let p and q be propositions. A biconditional or an equivalence of p and q,

written p ↔ q and read as either ”p if and only if q” or ”p is equivalent to q”,
is the proposition that is true when p and q have the same truth values, and, is
false otherwise.

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Propositions
Its truth table is given by
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Other ways to express this biconditional statement p → q:

1. ”p is necessary and sufficient for q”
2. ”if p then q, and conversely”
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 Propositions
Example 8
Let Solution:
Note that p and r are T while q and s are
p :3>0
F.
q :7+8=3
1. p ↔ q : 3 > 0 if and only if
r : The dog is a mammal. 7 + 8 = 3.
s : A vampire bat is a bird. p ↔ q is false.

Form the following propositions and

determine its truth value. 2. s ↔∼ r : A vampire bat is a bird if
and only if the dog is not a mammal.
1. p ↔ q 3. q ↔ (r ∧ s) s ↔∼ r is true.
2. s ↔∼ r 4. (∼ s ∨ p) ↔ q
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 Propositions
Example 8 Solution:
Let Note that p and r are T while q and s are
p :3>0 F.
q :7+8=3 3. q ↔ (r ∧ s) : 7 + 8 = 3 if and only if
the dog is a mammal and a vampire
r : The dog is a mammal. bat is a bird.
s : A vampire bat is a bird. Note that (r ∧ s) is false. So,
q ↔ (r ∧ s) is true.
Form the following propositions and
determine its truth value. 4. (∼ s ∨ p) ↔ q : Either a vampire bat
is not a bird or 3 > 0, if and only if 7
1. p ↔ q 3. q ↔ (r ∧ s) + 8 = 3. Observe that (∼ s ∨ p) is
2. s ↔∼ r 4. (∼ s ∨ p) ↔ q true. Thus, (∼ s ∨ p) ↔ q is false.
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Propositions

Simple and Compound Propositions

A proposition is said to be simple if it is free from any logical connectives. A

proposition is said to be compound if it is formed by several propositions joined
by any logical connective.

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Propositions

Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency

A proposition is said to be
1. a tautology iff the generated truth values are always true.
2. a contradiction iff the generated truth values are always false.
3. a contingency iff it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

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Propositions

Example 9
Consider the compound proposition ((p → q) ∧ p) → q.

p q p→q (p → q) ∧ p ((p → q) ∧ p) → q
T T
T F
F T
F F

∴ ((p → q) ∧ p) → q is a .

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Propositions
Example 10
Consider the compound proposition (p → (q ∧ r )) ↔ ((p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (p∧ ∼ r )).
p q r q∧r p→ ∼q ∼r p∧ ∼ q p∧ ∼ r (p∧ ∼ q)∨ ↔
(q ∧ r ) (p∧ ∼ r )
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
∴ (p → (q ∧ r )) ↔ ((p∧ ∼ q) ∨ (p∧ ∼ r )) is a . 30/35
Propositions

Example 11
Consider the compound proposition ∼ (p ∨ q) ↔ (∼ p∨ ∼ q).

p q p∨q ∼ (p ∨ q) ∼p ∼q ∼ p∨ ∼ q ∼ (p ∨ q) ↔ (∼ p∨ ∼ q)
T T
T F
F T
F F

∴∼ (p ∨ q) ↔ (∼ p∨ ∼ q) is a .

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Propositions

Logical Implication and Logical Equivalence

If a conditional p → q is a tautology, then it is called a logical implication.

It is written as p ⇒ q and read as ”p logically implies q”.

If a biconditional p ↔ q is a tautology, then it is called a logical equivalence.

It is written as p ⇔ q and read as ”p is logically equivalent to q”.

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Propositions

Example 12 2. Consider ∼ (∼ p) ↔ p.
p ∼ p ∼ (∼ p) ∼ (∼ p) ↔ p
1. ((p → q) ∧ p) → q is a tautology. T
∴ ((p → q) ∧ p) ⇒ q F

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Propositions

3. Consider the proposition (p → (q ∧ r )) ↔ ((p → q) ∧ (p → r )).

p q r q∧r p→ (p → q) (p → r ) (p → q)∧ ↔
(q ∧ r ) (p → r )
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

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References

1. Angel, A.R., Abbott, C.D. & Runde, D.C. (2012). A Survey of

Mathematics with Applications. Pearson Education Inc.
2. Lippman, D. (2017). Math in Society. Pierce College Ft Steilacoom
3. Rosen, K.. (2012). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. McGraw Hill
4. Smith, K.J. (1998). Nature of Mathematics. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company
5. Statzkow, R. & Bradshaw, R. (1995). The Mathematical Palette. Saunders
College Publishing

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