Chapter II

Wave Interference and Normal Modes

A. Wave Interference

When two or more waves overlap in the same region of space, the resulting effect is called
interference. The resulting amplitude can be either larger or smaller than the amplitude of each individual wave,
depending on whether the waves are in phase or out of phase. When the waves are in phase, the result is called
constructive interference; when they are one-half angle out of phase; it is called destructive interference. When
two waves overlap the displacement at any point is the algebraic sum of the displacement, of the corresponding
points of the overlapping waves. In other words, the wave function y(x, t) that describes the resulting motion in
this situation is obtained by adding the two wave functions for the two separate waves.

Constructive interference occurs when the path difference r2 – r1 of two waves is equal to the integral
multiple of the wavelength  that is given by the equation
r2 – r1 = n  (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ) (2-1)
Destructive interference occurs when the path difference r2 – r1 equals that of the half-integral number
of wavelength  that is
 1
r2 – r1 =  n +   (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …) (2-2)
 2

Exercise 2.1. Using sample problem 2.1, at what distances from B will there be constructive interference?
(Ans. 4.34 m, 1.84 m, 0.86 m, 0.26 m)

B. Standing Waves on a String

A standing wave is produced by two trains of waves traveling in opposite directions. It doesn’t appear
to be moving in either direction of the medium. By the principle of superposition, the amplitude of the standing
wave is the algebraic sum of the instantaneous amplitudes of the individual waves.

In a standing wave we can see points that never move at all. These points are called nodes. At a node
the displacement of two waves always equal and opposite and cancel each other out. Midway between the nodes
are the points of greatest amplitude, called the antinode. At the antinode, the displacement of two identical
waves gives a large resultant displacement.

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 Fig. 2-1. Standing waves on a string with nodes at the center and at
the ends. Antinodes are located midway between two succeeding
nodes.

Consider an incident wave traveling to the left with a wave function

y1(x, t) = A sin ( t + k x). (2-3)

When this wave reaches the boundary, reflection occurs. The reflected wave is described by

y2(x, t) = – A sin ( t – k x). (2-4)

Note that the change of sign corresponds to the phase shift of 180 o or π radians. These two waves interfere and
the result of their superposition is the sum of their wave functions.

y(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t) = A sin ( t + k x) – A sin ( t – k x) = 2A sin kx cos t

This equation describes the wave function of a standing wave. We can also write this as

y(x, t) = ASW sin kx cos t , where ASW = 2A. (2-5)

This means the standing wave amplitude ASW is twice the amplitude of either of the original traveling wave.

To find the positions of the nodes, set sin kx in equation (2-5) equal to zero to give a zero
displacement. The nodes therefore are at
n n
x= = , (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…). (2-6)
k 2
Unlike a traveling wave, standing wave doesn’t transfer energy from one end to the other. The two waves carry
equal amount of power in opposite direction. There is a local flow of energy from each node to the adjacent
nodes and back, but the average rate of energy transfer is zero at every point.

C. Normal Modes of a String

When there are two boundary points or surfaces, we get repeated reflections. In such situation we find
that sinusoidal waves can occur only for certain special frequencies, which are determined by the properties of
the medium.

Consider a string fixed at both ends. If it is bowed, a transverse disturbance will travel to both ends
where reflections will occur. Displacement nodes will be formed at both ends and at every half-wavelength. We
can satisfy this condition by adjusting the string length to fit an integral number of half-wavelengths or by
setting up a particular wave whose half-wavelengths will fit into the fixed length of the string. This standing
wave can exist only if its wavelength satisfies
n
L=n (n = 1, 2, 3, …) (2-7)
2
The corresponding frequencies are
v
fn = (n = 1, 2, 3, …) (2-8)
n

Each frequency and its associated vibration pattern are called normal modes. The fundamental frequency is the
smallest frequency (the n = 1 case) f1 that correspond to the largest wavelength 1 = 2L.

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Fundamental or first harmonic:
v 1 F
f1 = =
2L 2L 

Second harmonic or first overtone:

 v   1 F 
f = 2  = 2  = 2 f1
2
 2L   2L  

Third harmonic or second overtone:

 v   1 F
f = 3  = 3  = 3 f1
3
 2L   2L  

In general the nth harmonic is given by

 v  n F
f =n = = nf1 (2-9)
n  2L  2L 

Exercise 2.2. A string fastened at both ends has successive resonances with wavelengths of 0.54 m for the nth
harmonic and 0.48 m for the (n + 1)th harmonic. a) Which harmonics are these? b) What is the length of the
string? (Ans. 8th and 9th, 2.16 m)

D. Longitudinal Standing Waves and Normal Modes

For sound waves in an air column or pipe, a closed end is a displacement node and a pressure antinode.
And the open end is a displacement antinode and a pressure node. For an open pipe (a pipe open at both ends),
the normal mode frequencies are
nv
fn = (n = 1, 2, 3,…) (2-10)
2L
Here all harmonics are present.

For a closed or stopped pipe (a pipe open at one end and closed at the other), the normal mode
frequencies are
nv
fn = (n =1, 3, 5, 7,…) (2-11)
4L
Only the odd-harmonics are present.

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 Fundamental Fundamental

Second harmonic Third harmonic

Third harmonic Fifth harmonic

Fig. 2-2. Standing-wave patterns in an open pipe. Fig. 2-3. Standing-wave patterns in a closed or
stopped pipe.

Exercise 2.3. The normal range of hearing is about 20 to 20,000 Hz. What is the greatest length of an organ
pipe that would have its fundamental note in the audible range if (a) it is closed at one end and (b) it is open at
both ends? (Ans. (a) 4.3 m, (b) 8.6 m)

E. Resonance

When a periodically varying force is applied to a system having normal modes, the system vibrates as
that of the force; this is called forced oscillation. If the force frequency is equal to one of the normal mode
frequencies, the amplitude of the resulting forced oscillation can become very large; this phenomenon is called
resonance.

PROBLEM–SOLVING STRATEGY

In visualizing nodes and antinodes in standing waves, it is always helpful to draw diagrams. For a string you can draw the
shape at one instant and label the nodes N and antinodes A. For longitudinal waves, it is not easy to draw the shape, but you
can still label the nodes and antinodes. The distance between two adjacent nodes or two adjacent antinodes is always λ/2,
and the distance between a node and the adjacent antinode is always λ/4.

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PROGRAMMED QUIZ

1 Draw the resultant of the two waves. 1

2 What is this called? 2 Maximum destructive interference.

3 Identify points ABCDE. 3 A, C, E are nodes; B and D are antinodes.

4 Draw a string with a minimum number of nodes. 4

5 This corresponds to what frequency? 5 Fundamental.

6 Draw the first and second overtones for the above 6
string.

first overtone

second overtone
7 What is the wavelength in each case in terms of the 7 λ1 = 2L (fundamental)
length of the string? λ2 = L (first overtone)
2L
3 = (second overtone)
3
8 What are the three frequencies equal to? v v 3v
8 f1 = , f2 = , f3 =
2L L 2L
9 The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe is v 344 m / s
200Hz. If the speed of sound in air is 344 m/s, what is 9 L= = = 0.86 m = 86.0 cm
the length of the pipe? 2 f1 2(200 Hz )
10 What is the frequency of the first overtone (second 10 f2 = 2 f1 = 2 ( 200 Hz ) = 400 Hz
harmonic)?
11 Find the tension of a steel string, L = 1.0 m and μ = 11
0.004 kg/m, whose fundamental frequency is middle
C (262 vibrations per second).
2
( )
F = f1 4 L  = ( 262 Hz ) (4) (1.0 m ) (0.004 kg.m) =1.1 kN
2 2 2

12 A pipe which is closed at one end is vibrating in v1 T1

the first overtone. The frequency of the tone is 440 =
v2 T2
Hz. Calculate the velocity of the sound in air at 20oC 12
if the velocity at 0oC is 331 m/s. T2 293.17 K
v2 = v1 = (331 m / s) = 343 m / s
T1 273.15 K
13 Calculate the length of the above pipe.  v 343 m / s
13 L = = = = 0.195 m
4 4f 4(440 Hz )

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STEP BY STEP SOLUTIONS OF SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Sample Problem 2.1

Two identical loudspeakers are located at points A and Answer:
B, 2.00 m apart. The loudspeakers are driven by the 9.00 m, 2.71 m, 1.27 m, 0.53 m, 0.02 m
same amplifier and produce sound waves with a
frequency of 784 Hz. Take the speed of sound in air to
be 344 m/s. A small microphone is moved out from
point B along a line perpendicular to the line
connecting A and B (line BC in the figure). At what
distances from B will there be destructive
interference?

Tabulate the given data

rBC = x, rAC = x 2 + 4.00m 2
f = 784 Hz, v = 344 m / s
What is the wavelength? v 344 m / s
= = = 0.439 m
f 784 Hz
What is the condition for destructive interference to  1
occur? rAC − rBC = x 2 + 4.00m2 − x =  n +  
 2
Solve for x. 2
 1 
4.00m2 −  n +   
x=  2 
, (n = 0,1, 2,3,...)
 1
2 n + 
 2
What are the values of x?  1  
2
4.00m2 −  0 +  (0.439 m) 
n = 0, x =  2  = 9.00 m
 1
2  0 +  (0.439 m)
 2
2
 1  
4.00m2 − 1 +  (0.439 m) 
n =1, x =  2   = 2.71 m
 1 
2 1 +  (0.439 m)
 2
2
 1 
4.00m2 −  2 +  (0.439 m) 
  2  = 1.27 m
n = 2, x =
 1
2  2 +  (0.439 m)
 2
2
 1  
4.00m2 −  3 +  (0.439 m) 
  2   = 0.53 m
n = 3, x =
 1
2  3 +  (0.439 m)
 2
2
 1 
4.00m2 −  4 +  (0.439 m) 
n = 4, x =  2   = 0.02 m
 1
2  4 +  (0.439 m)
 2

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Sample Problem 2.2
A steel wire 1.0 m long having a mass of 5.0 g is Answer:
under tension of 500 N. What is the fundamental 158 Hz, 59
frequency of vibration? How many overtones can
be heard by a person capable of hearing frequencies
up to 9480 Hz?
Tabulate the given data. L = 1.0 m, m = 5.0 g = 0.005 kg, F = 500 N
What is the mass per unit length of the wire? m 0.005 kg
 = = = 0.005 kg / m
L 1.0 m
Calculate the fundamental frequency.
1 F 1 500 N
f1 = = = 158 Hz
2L  2(1.0 m) 0.005kg / m
Find the number of harmonics that the person is fn 9480 Hz
capable of hearing. n= = = 60
f1 158 Hz
How many overtones is this? 60 – 1 = 59 overtones ( 9480 Hz is the 59th overtone)
Sample Problem 2.3
Find the fundamental frequency and the first two Answer:
overtones of a pipe 40.0 cm long a) if the pipe is a) 430 Hz, 860 Hz, 1290 Hz
open at both ends; b) if the pipe is closed at one b) 215 Hz, 645 Hz, 1075 Hz
end. Take the speed of sound in air to be 344 m/s. c) 46th, 93rd
c) For each of the above cases, what is the number
of the highest harmonic that may be heard by a
person who can hear frequencies from 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz?
Tabulate the given data. L = 40.0 cm, v = 344 m/s
frequency range = [20 Hz, 20,000 Hz]
What are the normal modes (natural frequencies) v
for an open pipe (open at both ends)? fn = n = nf1 ; n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …
2L
Calculate the first three harmonics for an open pipe. v 344 m / s
f1 = = = 430 Hz (first harmonic)
2 L 2(0.40 m )
f 2 = 2 f1 = 2( 430 Hz ) = 860 Hz (first overtone)
f 3 = 3 f1 = 3(430 Hz) = 1290 Hz (second overtone)
What are the normal modes (natural frequencies) v
for a closed/stopped pipe (closed at one end)? fn = n = nf1 ; n = 1, 3, 5, 7, …
4L
Calculate the first three harmonics for a closed v 344 m / s
f1 = = = 215 Hz (first harmonic)
4(0.40 m )
pipe.
4L
f 3 = 3 f1 = 3(215 Hz ) = 645 Hz (first overtone)
f 5 = 5 f1 = 5(215 Hz ) = 1075 Hz (second overtone)
Calculate the highest harmonic for an open pipe. fn 20, 000 Hz
n= = = 46 (round off n to the lower
f1 430 Hz
integer)
Calculate the highest harmonic for a closed pipe. f 20, 000 Hz
n= n = = 93 (round off n to the lower
f1 215 Hz
odd integer)

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 Score: _______
Name: _____________________________________________________ Date: ________

MULTIPLE CHOICE # 2. (3 points each number) Write the letter of the correct answer on the space
provided. Show your complete solution or explanation for each problem. Correct letter of choice without
solution/explanation will only gain 1 point.

____ 1. A string whose length is 1 m is fixed at both ends and vibrates according to the equation y(x, t) = 0.04
sin x cos 2t where the units are SI. The total number of nodes exhibited by the string is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 5

____ 2. Two speakers face each other at a distance of 1 m and are driven by a common audio oscillator. A first
minimum in sound intensity is found 16.1 cm from the midpoint. If the velocity of sound is 330 m/s,
find the frequency of the oscillator.
(a) 256 Hz (b) 1024 Hz (c) 512 Hz (d) 341 Hz (e) 683 Hz

____ 3. A string is connected to a tuning fork whose frequency is 80.0 Hz and is held under tension by 0.500
kg. The tuning fork causes the string to vibrate as shown. The mass per unit length for the string is
(a) 9.45  10–4 kg/m
(b) 6.80  10–3 kg/m
(c) 4.34 kg/m
(d) 6.00  10–3 kg/m
(e) 3.85  10–2 kg/m

____ 4. A string 2.0 m long has a mass of 2.4  10–2 kg. When fixed at both ends, it vibrates with a
fundamental frequency of 150 Hz. The speed of a transverse wave in the string is
(a) 3.6 m/s (b) 75 m/s (c) 0.30 km/s (d) 0.60 km/s (e) 0.63 km/s

____ 5. A stretched string is fixed at points 1 and 5. When it is vibrating in its first harmonic frequency, the
nodes of the standing wave are at points
(a) 1 and 5 only.
(b) 1, 3, and 5.
(c) 2 and 4.
(d) 2, 3 and 4.
(e) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

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____ 6. The fundamental frequency of a pipe that has one end closed is 256 Hz. When both ends of the same
pipe are opened, the fundamental frequency is
(a) 64.0 Hz (b) 128 Hz (c) 256 Hz (d) 512 Hz (e) 1.02 kHz

____ 7. The wave function y(x,t) for a standing wave on a string fixed at both ends is given by
y(x,t) = 0.080 sin 6.0x cos 600t where the units are SI. The wavelength of this standing wave is
(a) 6.00 m (d) 1.05 m
(b) 0.010 m (e) impossible to tell given this information about the standing wave.
(c) 600 m

____ 8. A pipe produces successive harmonics at 300 Hz and 350 Hz. Calculate the length of the pipe and state
whether it is closed at one end or not. Assume the speed of sound to be 340 m/s.
(a) 1.7 m, closed one end (d) 3.4 m, open both ends
(b) 4.0 m, closed one end (e) 8.0 m, closed one end
(c) 4.0 m, open both ends

____ 9. A string with mass density equal to 0.0025 kg/m is fixed at both ends and at a tension of 290 N.
Resonant frequencies are found at 558 Hz and the next one at 744 Hz. To what harmonic does the
558 Hz resonance correspond?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 5

____ 10. The air in a closed organ pipe vibrates as shown. The length of the pipe is 3.0 m. The frequency of
vibration is 80 Hz. The speed of sound in the pipe is approximately
(a) 80 m/s
(b) 0.16 km/s
(c) 0.24 km/s
(d) 0.32 km/s
(e) 0.96 km/s

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PROBLEM SET # 2

1. A clarinet, which is essentially a tube that is open at one end, is properly tuned to concert A (440 Hz)
indoors, where the temperature is 20ºC and the speed of sound is 340 m/s. The musician then takes the
instrument to play an outdoor concert, where the temperature is 0ºC and the speed of sound is 331 m/s.
What is the frequency of the A played on the cold clarinet? (Ignore any thermal changes in the body of the
clarinet itself.)

2. A new musical instrument consists of a metal can with length L and diameter L/10. The top of the can is cut
out, and a string is stretched across this open end of the can.
a) The tension in the string is adjusted so that the first-overtone for longitudinal sound waves in the
air column in the can equals the frequency of the third-harmonic standing waves on the string.
What is the relationship between the speed vt of transverse waves on the string and the speed va of
sound waves in the air?
b) What is the fundamental frequency of the transverse waves on the string if the velocity of sound in
the air column is 344 m/s and L = 1.0 m?
c) If the tension in the string is doubled, what is the new fundamental frequency of the standing
waves on the string?

3. Leo, an engineering student, is ordered to determine the depth of water well using an audio oscillator of
adjustable frequency. Two successive resonant frequencies are heard at 52 Hz and 60 Hz. After careful
examination, he assesses the speed of sound during that time to be 344 m/s.
a) What two harmonics are these resonant frequencies?
b) What is the depth of the well?
c) What is the fundamental resonance frequency of the well?

4. A solid aluminum sculpture is hung from a steel wire. The fundamental frequency for standing waves on
the wire is 210 Hz. The sculpture is then immersed in water so that one-fourth of its volume is submerged.
What is the new fundamental frequency? (ρsteel = 7,800 kg/m3, B = ρfluid Vdisplaced g)

5. The string has free end at x = 0.

a) Show that the incident traveling wave of the form y1(x ,t) = A sin (t – kx) gives rise to a standing
wave form y(x ,t) =2A sin t cos kx.
b) Show that the standing wave has an antinode at its free end (x = 0).
c) Find the maximum displacement, maximum speed, and maximum acceleration of the free end of
the string.

6. A wooden plank is placed over a pit that is 10.0 m wide. A physics student stands in the middle of the
plank and begins to jump up and down such that she jumps upward from the plank two times each second.
The plank oscillates with large amplitude, with maximum amplitude at its center.
a) What is the speed of transverse waves on the plank?
b) At what rate does the student have to jump to produce large-amplitude oscillations if she is
standing 2.50 m from the edge of the pit?
(Note: The transverse standing waves of the plank have nodes at the two ends that rest on the ground on
either side of the pit.)

7. The atomic mass of iodine is 127 g/mol. A standing wave in iodine vapor at 400 K has nodes that are 6.77
cm apart when the frequency is 1000 Hz. At this temperature, is iodine vapor monatomic or diatomic?
Explain your reasoning.

Answers: 1. 428.35 Hz
2. (a) va = 20vt (b) 86.0 Hz (c) 121.62 Hz
3. (a) 13th and 15th harmonics (b) 21.5 m (c) 4.00 Hz
4. 206.6 Hz
5. (c) 2A, 2ωA, 2ω2A
6. (a) 40.0 m/s (b) 4 jumps/s
7. diatomic

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 Quiz # 2
Score: _______
Name: _____________________________________________________ Date: ________

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