PERSONALITY TRAITS AS

DETERMINANTS OF KIDULT MEDIA

PURCHASE INTENTIONS AND
LIKABILITY
Aantal woorden: 12.657

Anna Vandenhaute Sarah Venken

Stamnummer: 01203677 Stamnummer: 01205736

Promotor: Prof. dr. Anneleen Van Kerckhove

Co-promotor: Drs. Jolien Vandenbroele

Masterproef voorgedragen tot het bekomen van de graad van:

Master of Science in de Bedrijfseconomie

Afstudeerrichting: Bedrijfseconomie

Academiejaar: 2017- 2018

VERTROUWELIJKHEIDSCLAUSULE

PERMISSION
Ondergetekenden verklaren dat de inhoud van deze masterproef mag geraadpleegd en/of
gereproduceerd worden, mits bronvermelding.

Namen studenten: Anna Vandenhaute & Sarah Venken

Samenvatting

In de huidige maatschappij staat het beeld van jong zijn en plezier maken meer dan ooit centraal.
De hedendaagse millennial-generatie is dan ook een erg hedonistische generatie die steeds op
zoek is naar manieren om aan verantwoordelijkheden te ontsnappen. Dit vertaalt zich in een
waanzinnige populariteit van onder andere game consoles, animatiefilms en young-adult fictie.
Een belangrijk onderdeel hiervan is kidult media, namelijk boeken en films die bedoeld zijn voor
kinderen of jongvolwassenen, maar die ook volwassenen aantrekken. Deze studie onderzoekt de
onderliggende persoonlijke redenen van de aantrekking naar kidult media. Met andere woorden
gaan we na welke karaktereigenschappen en in welke mate deze karaktereigenschappen
correleren met en effect hebben op de likability en de aankoopintentie van kidult media. Hierbij
bouwen we verder op bestaande studies naar media voorkeuren gerelateerd aan persoonlijkheid
(uses & gratifications approach), maar kiezen we specifiek voor kidult media en voor specifieke
persoonlijkheidskenmerken in plaats van de typische Big Five persoonlijkheidskenmerken. Op
basis van de literatuur kozen we voor volgende vijf karaktereigenschappen: escapisme,
speelsheid, nostalgie, zelfcontrole en angst voor negatieve beoordeling (sociale remming). Aan
de hand van twee specifieke voorbeelden van kidult media (Harry Potter boeken en Cinderella
film) bevroegen we de likability en aankoopintentie. De persoonlijkheidskenmerken werden
bevraagd op basis van bestaande meetinstrumenten.

De resultaten van dit onderzoek zijn eerder bescheiden. Zo konden de resultaten enkel op
productniveau geïnterpreteerd worden en dus niet voor kidult media in het algemeen. Hierdoor
konden onze hypothesen slechts gedeeltelijk bevestigd worden. Voornamelijk de likability en
aankoopintentie van Harry Potter toonden verschillende correlaties met de
persoonlijkheidskenmerken, waaronder escapisme, zelfcontrole, speelsheid en sociale remming.
De likability van Cinderella vertoonde enkel correlaties met escapisme en sociale remming; de
aankoopintentie van Cinderella correleerde geen enkele keer significant met de
persoonlijkheidsvariabelen. Het effect van de persoonlijkheidskenmerken op likability en
aankoopintentie van kidult media was vrij klein; enkel escapisme blijkt een voorspellende factor
te zijn voor de likability en aankoopintentie van Harry Potter. Eerder onverwacht toonde ook
geslacht een voorspellende factor te zijn voor Cinderella likability en aankoopintentie, en kon
leeftijd eveneens als voorspellende factor geïnterpreteerd worden voor de aankoopintentie van
zowel Harry Potter als Cinderella.

I
Woord vooraf

Met deze Masterproef beëindigen we onze opleiding Master in de Bedrijfseconomie. Het

schrijven van deze Masterproef ging meer dan eens gepaard met verschillende uitdagingen,
waarvoor we steeds konden steunen op de hulp van anderen. We willen hen hier dan ook graag
voor bedanken.

In de eerste plaats willen we onze promotor Drs. Jolien Vandenbroele graag bedanken voor de
hulp in het vormen van een concreet onderwerp, de nuttige en deskundige feedback tijdens het
schrijfproces en de vele tijd die ze geïnvesteerd heeft in het begeleiden van onze Masterproef.
Daarnaast willen we ook graag onze familie en vrienden bedanken die ons gedurende het proces
voortdurend gesteund hebben en ons geholpen hebben bij het nalezen van de Masterproef. Ook
willen we graag de respondenten bedanken die de tijd hebben vrijgemaakt om onze vragenlijst
zorgvuldig in te vullen.

Tot slot willen we ook even terugblikken op onze samenwerking gedurende het afgelopen jaar.
We konden steeds op elkaars steun en kennis vertrouwen gedurende het hele schrijfproces om zo
onze gezamenlijke Masterproef te kunnen beëindigen.

II
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Samenvatting ............................................................................................................................. I

Woord vooraf........................................................................................................................... II

List of tables............................................................................................................................. V

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1

2. Theoretical framework...................................................................................................... 3
2.1 The infantilization of the market: kidult consumption .......................................................... 3
2.2 The postmodern phenomenon of the kidult............................................................................ 4
2.3 Kidult media ............................................................................................................................ 6
2.4 Personality & media preferences ............................................................................................ 9

3. Approach & hypotheses .................................................................................................. 13

3.1 Approach & purpose ............................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Hypotheses............................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.1 Trait 1: Desire to escape reality......................................................................................... 14
3.2.2 Trait 2: Playfulness ........................................................................................................... 15
3.2.3 Trait 3: Proneness to nostalgia .......................................................................................... 15
3.2.4 Trait 4: Self-control .......................................................................................................... 16
3.2.5 Trait 5: Social inhibition ................................................................................................... 17

4. Research methodology .................................................................................................... 19

4.1 Procedure .............................................................................................................................. 19
4.2 Scales ..................................................................................................................................... 20
4.3 Participants ........................................................................................................................... 22
4.4 Statistical analyses................................................................................................................. 23

5. Results & discussion ........................................................................................................ 24

5.1 Correlations personality traits and kidult media ................................................................. 24
5.2 Multivariate analyses ............................................................................................................ 27
5.2.1 Regression analysis of personality traits on kidult media ................................................... 27
5.2.2 Comparison significant predictors of kidult media with control media............................... 28

6. General discussion & conclusion .................................................................................... 30

6.1 Theoretical contributions ...................................................................................................... 30
6.2 Limitations & future research .............................................................................................. 33
6.3 General conclusion ................................................................................................................ 35

III
7. Bibliography .................................................................................................................... VI

8. Appendices ..................................................................................................................... XII

8.1 Appendix 1: Pretest ............................................................................................................. XII
8.2 Appendix 2: Survey ......................................................................................................... XVIII
8.3 Appendix 3: Reliability checks....................................................................................... XXXII
8.4 Appendix 4: Correlations .............................................................................................. XXXIV
8.5 Appendix 5: Regressions ............................................................................................ XXXVIII
8.6 Appendix 6: MANOVA ..................................................................................................... XLII
8.7 Appendix 7: Calculations beta weights ............................................................................ XLIX

IV
List of tables

Table 1: Demographic variables of the sample of the survey

Table 2: Correlations between personality traits and kidult media likability and purchase
intention

Table 3: Correlations personality traits

V
1. Introduction

In today’s world, being young is not a transitory phase, but rather a global lifestyle choice.
Contemporary societies are experiencing a new phenomenon in which infantile behavior has
become an aspirational model to follow; an ideal of being carefree, of having fun, of being
uncommitted. The contemporary generation Y adult or millennial practices a considerate
immaturity; a sensible escape from the responsibilities and other defining elements of adulthood.
In today’s reality, there are forty-years old husbands devouring hours playing their kids’ video
games, politicians acting out like teenagers, young adults still living at home after college,
watching cartoons and reading comics, afraid of obstacles to their independence such as
marriage, mortgages, and having kids (Bernardini, 2014, p. 40).

Childish attitudes and adolescent lifestyle models are endlessly promoted by the media, urging
the ‘kidult’ to indulge in a consumer-based culture of ‘play’ (Kane, 2005, p. 157). This inability
to move beyond the adolescent stage of life results in adult involvement in children’s areas such
as game consoles, animated films and adolescent fiction. Moreover, the most successful box
office movies are childish, ‘ageless’ comedies; adults wear clothing styled for the young, and the
fields of cosmetic surgery and beauty products promising eternal youth have grown substantially
(Bernardini, 2014, p. 41). At the heart of this growing culture of infantilization lies the kidult; a
twenty to thirty-something primarily attracted to recreations and pursuits normally associated
with childhood and adolescence. A particular aspect of kidult entertainment is kidult media,
which are books and novels that are intended for children and young adults, but which attract
adults’ attention as well. Although this is not a new phenomenon, the rising popularity of this
genre in the past decades was definitely boosted by the extraordinary success of J. K. Rowling’s
Harry Potter (Beckett, 2009, p. 1).

The key objective of this study is to understand which personality traits correlate with and which
might even determine one’s attraction and purchase behavior towards kidult media. While some
of the existing work identifies the potential impact of personality traits, which guided the
development of many trait inventories, including the well-known Big Five model (McCrae &
Costa, 1999), many research also focuses on factors related to time, costs and benefits, and
shopping motivations (Faber & O’Guinn, 1992). Therefore an understanding of how personality
traits affect (kidult) shopping behavior is an underdeveloped yet interesting area of study.

1
Many factors attract consumers towards kidult consumption, which have been elaborated on in
various studies over the last years (Holbrook, 1993; Bernardini, 2014). In this postmodern
society, the kidult consumerism phenomenon blossoms in which individuals try to return to their
safer, childlike worlds to relieve themselves from the pressures of stress, anxiety, responsibility,
and try to escape their repetitive, pragmatic boring daily lives (Crawford, 2009, p. 53). It can also
be understood as a symptom of a broader social rejection of accountability and emotional and
intellectual maturity. This study therefore intends to determine the personality factors
influencing kidult media likability and purchase intention. The core question addressed in this
thesis is who likes kidult media and values those books and movies which are not, or at least not
primarily, forwarded to adults. We will, in other words, examine the issue of which and to what
extend personality traits determine one’s willingness to purchase, watch, or read kidult media.

Combining multiple personality constructs linked to hedonic and experiential consumption

(Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), and to media preference in general, this study seeks to
understand likability and purchase intention towards kidult media using personality constructs.
Building on existing research, this study further aims to develop an index of personality traits
useful for predicting consumer intentions towards kidult media. The proposed model will be
subsequently tested, ideally indicating that each of the personality traits demonstrate to have
significant influence and predicting power on kidult preferences even having controlled for
socio-demographic data. Overall, with the study results we aspire to demonstrate that personality
is definitely a highly relevant parameter to include in studies on kidult entertainment.

The paper begins with a situational overview of kidult media in its wider infantilized culture
context, pointing to its relevance. Following is a brief review of the dispositional factors applied
to predict the likability and willingness to purchase crossover fiction. In doing so, the study
provides an overview of what is known of kidult consuming, but also explores the few
correlations examined to date. Particularly, the study supports our proposition that an integrative
consumer behavior model of kidult consumption is needed.

2
2. Theoretical framework

2.1 The infantilization of the market: kidult consumption

In “The Infantilization of the Postmodern Adult and the Figure of Kidult”, Bernardini (2014)
offers a noteworthy analysis on the growing phenomenon of the infantilization of culture as a
more recent aspect of postmodernity. According to Bernardini, the postmodern adult today is
characterized by an unparalleled infantilist nature, outdating the classic social paradigms of
adulthood and maturity (Bernardini, 2014, p. 40). The classic paradigm does no longer seem to
be pursued in a contemporary culture where social disapproval of chasing leisure and
childlike/childish play has seemingly been reduced, and additionally, infantile and adolescent
attitudes and lifestyles are perpetually promoted by the media (Bernardini, 2014, p. 41).

In today’s culture, where it is perfectly acceptable to deny one’s own age, there are youngsters
who want to be adults and in reverse adults who want to be young. Additionally, “The traditional
stages of the life cycle”, Bernardini argues, “to which the social sciences still refer, (have been)
progressively postponed and altered: the age of childhood has been shortened; adolescence today
begins way before puberty and for many seems to last forever” (Bernardini, 2014, p. 41). This
indicates that age boundaries, together with attitudes and lifestyles, have become indefinable and
fluid. Bernardini (2014) proposes that the combination of media, market and advertising played a
fundamental role in this transformation of the life stages by gradually lowering the criteria of
measurement of youth, which provided people who are become older with more possibilities for
a younger impression.

Evidence of this proposal can be found all over: the language of politics and newscasts has been
simplified and washed-out, video games have become increasingly popular amongst adults, the
most successful box-offices are childish comedies or cartoons, adults dress like teenagers, and
the rejuvenating beauty industry has grown steadily (Linn, 2004; Barber, 2007). “The actor-
consumer of this system”, Bernardini explains, “tends to childishness without pleasure, to
indolence without innocence, dresses without formality, has sex without reproducing, works
without discipline, plays without spontaneity, buys without a purpose, and lives without
responsibility, wisdom or humility” (Bernardini, 2014, p. 41). Barber (2007) outlines this
promoted ‘infantilist ethos’ as a successful collaboration between the societal postponement of
the classic indicators of maturity with the global market. Bernardini (2014) proposes that the

3
infantilist adult, or the kidult, is in fact created by the market itself in order to facilitate the
promotion of goods which were until recently only targeted to youngsters and children.

Quickly then follows the question; why regress towards youth? First of all, whereas the demand
for adult services and goods are proven to be endless (Del Vecchio, 1997), the needs of children
and young people are not: lacking utilitarian value, “the child evaluates only the playful aspects
of the object and does not voluntarily limit the desire for new goods” (Bernardini, 2014, p. 42).
Secondly, the adult itself was once a child and teenager. These intrinsic memories are always
present and therefore the market can always rely on the nostalgic effect. Especially in today’s
culture of uncertainty and chaos, an individual is more likely to revisit memories of stability of
past experiences. Lastly, the young lifestyle is extremely universal. Thus, from a purely
economic point of view, the young – both actual and presumed, or physically and mentally –
represent the most interesting target group profit wise since they allow the sale of substantially
identical products in essentially different realities. The child, in other words, has acquired a new
marketing value as the prototypic figure of consumption.

Interestingly so, the market has not swerved production toward the child-customer; rather, “it has
found in the irrationally consumerist nature of the child the ideal customer” (Bernardini, 2014,
p.43). The adult or kidult remains the main target group, not only for his economic resources – as
opposed from children – but also because of the massive presence in the population. The market
promotion of infantilization has therefore the following aspiration: to nurture the retrogression of
childish desires of the adult consumer to enhance the ‘irrationally consumerist nature of the
child’.

2.2 The postmodern phenomenon of the kidult

The kidult is a new socio-cultural figure of the twenty-first century; a contemporary twenty to
thirty-something ‘child’ who acclaims certain youth values while denying his/her actual age,
showing no motivation whatsoever in building archetypal adult markers such as independence,
work stability, and a family to settle down with (Crawford, 2009, Bernardini, 2014). Certainly,
previously well-established paradigms of adulthood and responsibility can no longer be used to
characterize today’s average practices. Indeed, “in the conditions of ongoing political, economic,
demographic and socio-cultural transformations becoming an adult, mature person has new
connotations” (Dvornyk, 2016, p. 2). Today, the conventional adult as a prototype of stability,

4
proficiency, responsibility and certainty has been transformed from an idea into a hardly
imaginable ideal (Crawford, 2009). As a result, the response to this new reality are infantilism,
escapism and dependency that frame the new socio-psychological figure; the kidult (Bernardini,
2014).

Though the kidult or ‘adultescent’ is predominantly a Western European and North American
phenomenon, there is uprising talk of ‘boomerang kids’ in Canada, the ‘Nesthocker’ in
Germany, “KIPPERS” (Kids In Parents’ Pockets Eroding Retirement Savings) in the UK,
‘kawaii’ in Japan, and ‘mammone’ in Italy (Mitchell, 2006). After the baby boom period, the
birth rate in the Western world has been gradually decreasing and, as a consequence of this, the
average age has climbed sturdily and, alarmingly so, still tends to grow. Young people continue
to make up less and less of the world’s population and are in fact located elsewhere; namely, in
the Second and Third World. In addition to demographic data, researchers (Bernardini, 2014;
Cross, 2008) postulate that the age boundaries between the various age groups are becoming less
distinct and readable: adults, children, and elderly are taking on aspects of each other’s behavior.

Nowadays, kidultism tends to become a standard, apprehensible and acceptable practice of

postmodern everyday life, where pleasure, indulgence and leisure are perceived as intrinsic
means of personal development and contentment (Cross, 2008). Staying young and
childlike/childish, or “growing young” as Montagu (1989) phrases it, has become a conventional
strategy of coping with the unstable social conditions and unclear future dominating the twenty-
first century. In these unstable times, adults/kidults favor the incredibly universal youth culture
and its specific products, regardless of both age and nationality. This limbo, the in-between child
and adult, has been called the “emerging adulthood” (Arnett, 2003), or “extended adolescence”
(Pimentel, 2013), or even the “Odyssey years” (Brooks, 2007).

Numerous and various explanations have been postulated for the kidult phenomenon. Some link
the kidult culture of entertainment with the fact that more and more twenty-something’s still live
at home with their parents, leading to an abundance of leisure time, childishness and thus a
prolonged adolescence (Pimentel, 2013). In a previous generation, their recreations would have
been associated with children. The kidult, in other words, is childish because he now can be, and
hopes to avoid responsibility for as long as possible by remaining absorbed in his own pleasures.
This explanation concurs with the ‘Peter Pan syndrome’ (Crawford, 2009, p. 45), which is
characterized by difficulty with commitment in general and corresponding interest in the
recreations and pursuits traditionally associated with childhood. Others explain it by focusing

5
their attention on those professionals who aim to reduce stress and escape from the pressure and
hassle of their work, family obligations, and other social responsibilities. Kidult consumption
acts as a retreat from pragmatism; as a “mixture of therapy and anti-depressant” (Kane, 2005, p.
156). For others, it is a chance to recapture the carefree raptures of childhood; kidult
consumerism here appeals on the nostalgia effect underlying the postmodern individual living in
dimensions of uncertainty and insecurity. After all, as Gary Cross points out (2008), in a society
as frantic and unreliable as the postmodern one, the individual recognizes stability and security
in the memory of past experiences.

In any case, it is clear that the kidult generation is integrated by adults demonstrating purchasing
habits and interests traditionally belonging to the children or teen segment. However, it is not
just millennials. While millennials (Generation Y) account for 50% of the spend among grown-
ups buying toys for themselves, Generation X-ers account for around a third and Baby Boomers
account for 18%. According to Kelly (2017) from The Telegraph, “the ‘middle aged’ bracket of
34-50 may be least likely to buy their own toys – as they’re most likely to have young children
themselves – but baby boomers account for a fifth of the ‘kidult’ market spend”. By targeting a
wide age range, the kidult market is in fact a tactical means to reach masses. Furthermore, the
kidult market is not a niche anymore as NPD research has shown that it has grown 65% in value
terms since 2012. It increased by 21% in 2016 alone, evidencing its high potential and relevance
in today’s society (ALL GROWN UP?, 2017).

2.3 Kidult media

The phenomenon of the kidult is especially popular in the entertainment sector, including fiction
novels, films and series, video games, et cetera. In this context, the term kidult can refer both to a
particular type of movie or novel and to the audience that these movies and novels attract
(Brown, 2017, p. 1). The concept of the kidult has commercial origins, since it was used as a
marketing tool already in the 1950s in the entertainment sector, and therefore it is a relatively
modern phenomenon (Brown, 2016, p. 21). On top of that, the kidult is not gender or age-
specific (Brown, 2016, p. 21). This becomes clear when distinguishing kidult media from the
classical ‘family’ entertainment (Brown, 2016, p. 21). Both types of entertainment attract people
of different ages. The difference, however, lies in the composition of its audiences. Whereas
family media attracts children and their parents, and thereby considering them as separate

6
entities, kidult media implies an undifferentiated audience including both children and adults of
all ages, considering them as a single entity, who are all motivated by universal entertainment
requirements (Brown, 2016, p. 21-22).

A lot of research on the kidult phenomenon has been done in especially literary studies, where
they have adopted the more neutral term of crossover fiction. Rachel Falconer argues that J.K.
Rowling’s Harry Potter series is the main catalyst of the rising popularity of children and young
adult literature among adult readers: “In Britain and elsewhere” she explains, “there followed an
extraordinary period in which children’s literature exploded into the mainstream of popular and
literary culture” (Falconer, 2009, p. 1). This is shown, for example, by the fact that only one year
after the children’s publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, an adult edition of
the book was released, with only the cover picture changed. The extraordinary popularity and
success landed Harry Potter on the cover of the Time Magazine in the fall of 1999 along with a
caption informing readers that ‘he’s not just for kids’, making crossover fiction literally front-
page news (Beckett, 2009, p. 1). The particular Time issue additionally announced crossover
fiction as the prominent genre of the new millennium. With J.K. Rowling, children’s literature
moved from the side-line to the center of the literary world.

Although there is a remarkably increasing popularity of kidult media in the first decade of the
twenty-first century due to the so-called ‘Pottermania’, this phenomenon of crossover media is
not new. Already in the eighteenth century there was a tendency of hybridizing categories of
child and adult fiction, for example Robinson Crusoe (1719) by Daniel Defoe and Gulliver’s
Travels (1726) by Jonathan Swift (Falconer, 2009, p. 11). Other famous examples of kidult
fiction before the twenty-first century are Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865), Peter Pan
(1911), The Lord of the Rings (1954), and Watership Down (1972). In the film and television
industry as well, the kidult phenomenon was already recognized during the 1950s in which
especially Ray Harryhausen’s movies played a crucial part (Brown, 2017). The difference with
previous kidult media was, however, that for the first time novels and films were marketed and
promoted as kidult media.

Present western societies nevertheless seem to have embraced the kidult phenomenon as never
before. In the last two decades adult interest in children’s and young adult literature and films
has skyrocketed. The top-grossing twenty films of all time, for example, include several child-
orientated releases such as Minions ($1.5 billion), Frozen ($1.2 billion), Toy Story 3 ($1 billion)
and Jurassic Park ($1 billion) (Brown, 2017, p. 21). Although these are mainly animated films

7
that supposedly target a child-orientated audience, only twelve per cent of the frequent
moviegoers in North America in 2012 were children aged 2-11 according to statistics by the
Motion Picture Association of America (Brown, 2017, p. 21). Nowadays, modern western
societies are definitely dominated by a youth- or even kidult-orientated cultural aesthetic
(Brown, 2012, p. 197-198).

There have been put forward various explanations as to why adults massively began to read
and/or watch children’s literature and/or movies over the past decades. The most frequently
expressed opinion is that kidult media is a sign of adult ‘infantilisation’ (Falconer, 2009, p. 3).
This can also be seen in the popularity of several other kidult accessories, such as PlayStation,
roller blades, et cetera (Falconer, 2009, p. 3). A major difficulty with the concept of the kidult is
that the term has become politically loaded (Brown, 2016, p. 20). Many critics consider kidults
as the “adult who wants to be a child” (Brown, 2016, p. 20). This tendency of infantilization is
often negatively received in the media, with many critics claiming that for adults to entertain
themselves with kidult media is “degrading and infantilising” (Falconer, 2009, p. 43).

Another explanation for the popularity of kidult media is the notion of escapism. Many critics
often diagnose popular crossover books and films as mere escapist rubbish and the adults reading
and/or watching them are often accused “of seeking nothing but escapism between their covers”
(Beckett, 2009, p. 255). Independent journalist David Aaronovitch, for example, argues that
“kidulthood is a way of avoiding reality rather than of understanding it. Kidulthood wishes to
escape the world rather than to engage with it” (Aaronovitch, 2001, p. 5). This escapist label is
predominantly attached to massively popular fantasy media such as Harry Potter and The Lord
of the Rings (Beckett, 2009, p. 255). Some critics argue that this trend is a direct result of today’s
overly hectic lifestyle which draws adults to lighter reading. Maeyee Lee, for example, argues
that “adults are using crossovers to destress quickly in bite-sized moments snatched from frenetic
schedules” (Beckett, 2009, p. 255). People are thus attracted to kidult media in order to escape
their reality of responsibilities and uncertainty, and to ‘break free’.

Many believe today’s society to be full of immature and infantilized adults (kidults), who are the
driving force behind the kidult trend. However, even though indeed the rise in child-to-adult
crossovers is partly due to this new market of adults indulging in childish culture, adults of all
ages are reading children’s books and watching children’s movies. Thus, while kidult media has
definitely contributed to the infantilization of the market and its marketing techniques, we must
look to broader factors in order to explain why children’s and young adult fiction and films have

8
found an enthusiastic and widespread audience amongst adults. Many critics argue that adults
turn to children’s books and movies out of nostalgia, which might evoke childhood memories
(Beckett, 2009, p. 257). Mark Lawson from The Guardian for example, argues that “the
infantilism of the kidult generation is not just a denial of ageing. As entertainment for adults
tends to become bleaker and more distressing – which reflects the lives of many people – there is
also comfort blanker hunger for lost innocence. Only this could explain the adult audience for
Harry Potter (which, unlike The Simpsons and Wallace and Gromit, isn’t written on two levels)”
(Lawson, 2000, p. 24). This widespread nostalgia amongst today’s society is often attributed to
globalization (Beckett, 2009, p. 257). Mike Featherstone (1993) marks a typical phase of
nostalgia in the late twentieth-century, which many commentators associate with post-
modernism. Typical for the postmodern period, according to him, is that “they encourage the
adult to be childlike again, and allow the child to play with stimulated ranges of adult
experiences” (Featherstone, 1993, p. 180).

Besides this tendency of nostalgia, there are also changing dynamics in present Western societies
about what it means to be an adult. Janice Shaw argues that “this generation has grown up in a
society that offers little financial or marital security, and instead prioritizes short-term goals and
rewards” (Shaw, 2008, p. 79). Adults are becoming more reluctant to form long-term
commitments that previously defined adulthood in Western societies, including stable
employment, a spouse and children, and independent living (Shaw, 2008). People are doing less
what is expected of them and choose a lifestyle that pleases themselves best, as also Ben
Summerskill has noticed in his article in The Observer: “A generation ago, middle-aged men
who read children’s books would have been regarded as mildly dodgy if they were not reading
them to share the experience with a son or daughter. Now millions of young men, with no
children at all, are buying Harry Potter. Less social anxiety about other people’s preconceptions
has meant more relaxed consumers buying what they fancy, not what they ought to”
(Summerskill, 2000, p. 20).

2.4 Personality & media preferences

Although mass communication theorists have dedicated considerable attention on the potential
mediating role of personality, little contemporary research however has examined this issue
(Palmgreen, Wenner, & Rosengren, 1985; Weaver, 1991). Indeed, research on media
consumption barely ever includes personality aspects. This may be considered as a major

9
drawback, because, from the uses and gratification approach it is supported that next to social
background aspects, psychological attributes have demonstrated to be of great relevance. This
uses and gratifications approach understands audience members as active media users, with
individuals choosing to consume media based on their perceived needs and the degree to which
the media can successfully address those needs (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973). According to
Alice Hall (2005), this approach has marked the beginning of extensive research on many
different variables as antecedents of people’s use of mass media, including loneliness (Finn &
Gorr, 1988), the extent of control and need for cognition (Henning & Vorderer, 2001), sensation
seeking (Conway & Rubin, 1991), shyness (Finn & Gorr, 1988), and task orientation (Sherry,
2001).

In addition to examining gratifications across different media formats, in the same line a large
area of research has also studied specific entertainment genres or content characteristics.
Typically, those kinds of studies provide insights into the types of individual differences that
may be useful predictors for variance in entertainment selection and gratifications. For example,
research on consumption of media violence generally implies such content is more likely to be
viewed by individuals higher on such traits as aggressiveness, sensation seeking, or psychoticism
(Aluja-Fabregat & Torrubia-Beltri, 1998; Zuckerman & Litle, 1986). Indeed, the results of a
variety of studies support the premise that motivational personality traits are linked to viewer
preferences (Zillmann & Bryant, 2002). Research has shown, for example, that aggressive
children are attracted to aggressive television programs (Freedman, 1984), sex-oriented people
are attracted to programs with sexual themes (Greenberg & Woods, 1999; Ward & Rivadeneyra,
1999) and curious people like to watch the news (Perse, 1992).

These types of research aim to contribute to the on-going investigation of the ways personality
may affect individuals’ media use patterns. Most of the existing research on media preference
relies on the typically universal models of human personality, including H. J. Eysench’s Big
Three model and the Big Five model (Hall, 2005, p. 378). These universal models offer a
typology on personality including the most fundamental personality traits (Hall, 2005, p. 378).
The Big Three Model identifies three fundamental ‘superfactors’ of personality being
Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism (Eysenck, 1985; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985; Hall,
2005, p. 378). Extraversion refers to being social, cheery and outgoing; it opposites with being
shy, introspective and less prone to seek external stimulation (Hall, 2005, p. 380; Finn, 1997, p.
510). Neuroticism includes a person’s level of anxiousness and emotional stability, implying that

10
people with high levels of Neuroticism are often characterized as moody, worried and tense
(Hall, 2005, p. 381; Finn, 1997, p. 511). Lastly, Psychoticism refers to egocentricity, impulsivity,
and a lack of concern about social norms (Hall, 2005, p. 382). Besides Extraversion and
Neuroticism, the Five-factor model on the other hand also incorporates three other personality
factors, including Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (Hall, 2005, p. 378).
However, these personality factors are less relevant to this study.

Since specific media genres differ in the gratification opportunities they offer audiences, media
preferences for specific genres within media may be sensitive to audience members’ personality
attributes. There has been plenty of research to whether preferences for specific genres within
media are sensitive to audience members’ personality attributes. The work of Weaver, Brosius,
and Mundorf (1993), for example, found that those with high scores on Extraversion indicated a
greater preference for sexual-comedy films than did those in the low or intermediate groups.
Previous research has also found Psychoticism to be related to pleasure or exposure to various
media genres that are often seen as transgressive, including hard-rock music (Robinson, Weaver,
& Zillmann, 1996), horror movies (Weaver, 1991) and action adventure movies (Aluja-Fabregat
& Torrubia-Beltri, 1998). It has also been discovered to be associated with an aversion towards
tragedy films (Weaver et al., 1993) and television comedy (Weaver, 1991).

Previous research not only has focused on the relation between personality and movie or
television preferences; there has also been done some research on particular book reading
interests. According to Kraaykamp and Van Eijck (2005), “reading interests are likely to reflect a
person’s psychological needs rather than structural socio-economic constraints” (Kraaykamp &
Van Eijck, 2005, p. 1676; Tirre & Dixit, 1995). Based on the Five-factor model, they found that
each of the Big Five personality traits affected media preferences, except Extraversion. People
who are emotionally unstable, for example, tend to be affected by the reading of romantic novels
(Kraaykamp & Van Eijck, 2005, p. 1686). This means that people who suffer from anxiety look
for escape in typically popular reading. Openness, on the other hand, relates negatively to the
preference of romantic novels (Kraaykamp & Van Eijck, 2005, p. 1686). Both Friendliness and
Conscientiousness negatively affect the reading of literary novels (Kraaykamp & Van Eijck,
2005, p. 1686).

These results are restricted, however, since the results from these universal personality trait
models remain rather abstract. According to Zuckerman, Kuhlman and Camac (1988), it is the
purpose of the media preference research to determine the level at which personality

11
characteristics should be evaluated. In order to predict particular behaviors, in other words, it
might be more valuable to measure more specific personality traits instead of measuring these
general and less significant personality traits imposed by the Big Three or the Big Five models
(Zuckerman et al., 1988, p. 105-106; Hall, 2005, p. 394). As Hall indicates herself, it might be
more relevant to undertake additional research in order to “consider the way in which more
specific traits are related to media use” (Hall, 2005, p. 394). Therefore, instead of using
theoretically predetermined variable constructs such as the Big Three or the Big Five Model, we
created a personality construct that identifies a few items which may account for a significant
portion of the kidult attractiveness variance. Further reliability and validation measures may lead
to the creation of a personality index with several variables that account for the diversity and
complexity of this genre preference.

12
3. Approach & hypotheses

3.1 Approach & purpose

The importance of individual differences in media effects has been observed in research
surrounding traditional media and becomes in this evolving digital age more relevant than ever.
Present research in media psychology has generally assumed that entertainment selection is
dominated by hedonic concerns which reflect a preoccupation with pleasure and enjoyment
(Vorderer, Klimmt, & Ritterfeld, 2004). In this paper, we suggest that kidult entertainment
preferences are not only linked to intrinsic playfulness but are instead composed of multiple
individual differences linked to media choices. The idea that individuals choose kidult media as a
response to contemporary life would provide an important step in understanding the universal
appeal of entertainment that, at first glance, seems childish and superficial, but it would also
provide insight into what are the unique, attractive elements that accompany kidult
entertainment.

With this rationale in mind, the overall purpose of this paper is to examine the feasibility of our
proposal by combining personality scales that reflect hedonic amongst other inspirations for
kidult entertainment consumption, examining the relationship between these measures, and
examining whether these preferences predict affinities for this particular type of entertainment.
To those ends, we first conducted an extensive review of existing conceptualizations and
measurements in light of theories, perspectives, and developments in personality research linked
to media genres. Of interest here are the defining characteristics of persons who engage in
hedonic kidult consumption. Our starting point is the phenomenon of the kidult. As we have
discussed, as a central figure in the general infantilization of the market, we postulate that the
kidult will be a definite consumer of kidult products. The kidult’s driving characteristics are
desire to escape, playfulness and proneness to nostalgia, as was also discussed before. In cases
such as this, where little empirical data or theoretical structure is present a priori to guide the
selection of predictors, choices were made on the basis of our judgments and literature tradition.
The specific variables selected were chosen on the basis of their a priori reasoned link to kidult
consumption. The reasoning, and the hypotheses it gave rise to, are described below. In
summary, this work sought to investigate the impact of the traits Playfulness, Escapism,
Nostalgia, Self-control and Social inhibition on the selection of the particular type of media
genre that is kidult media. We will examine which personality traits are associated (correlated)
with kidult consumption and moreover, which variables might predict kidult consumption.

13
3.2 Hypotheses

3.2.1 Trait 1: Desire to escape reality

In today’s hectic world, escaping one’s responsibilities and deadlines, aiming to reduce stress
and pressure, has become one of the prominent explanations for kidult consumption, as we also
discussed before. Such escapist behavior may even function as a way of self-medicating
depression. According to Hirschman (1983), consumers undertake hedonic activities in order to
escape from their everyday reality, leading them to appreciate alienating experiences.
Occurrences at work or other unpleasant life experiences put people in need of escaping,
preferably to something or someplace remote from familiarity. Hirschman identifies escapism as
a type of hedonic behavior and proposes that “individuals may engage in activities to escape
unpleasant realities and to distract themselves from unhappy events” (Hirschman, 1983, p. 64).
Escapism, in other words, deals with activities in order to flee from a reality that the individual
finds difficult or is unable to deal with adequately. Escapism offers the individual an opportunity
to a more desirable state of being than the one that is presently experienced. Hence, an activity
may be undertaken not for its intrinsic qualities, but rather as an anxiety reduction mechanism, as
will also be discussed later on. Star Wars, Harry Potter, and Lord of the Rings - prime examples
of kidult media - are categorically escapist fantasies, offering uncomplicated escapism, facile
optimism and dazzling spectacle. Indeed, the study of Warmelink, Harteveld & Mayer (2009)
proposes escapism as a useful concept in games and gaming research, which is a large aspect of
kidult culture. Additionally, the research of Henning & Vorderer (2001) asserts escapism – more
specifically, individual-psychological escapism, which refers to aspects of the personality – as an
enriching approach toward television viewing. We postulate therefore that the trait may influence
media preference in that those who demonstrate high levels of desire to escape reality may be
more likely to choose this media genre than those low in desire to escape reality. This would
suggest that the higher the desire to escape one’s reality, the higher the purchase intention and
likability of kidult media.

H1a: Higher scores in the desire to escape reality will positively correlate with likability of
kidult products.

H1b: Higher scores in the desire to escape reality will positively correlate with purchase
intention of kidult products.

14
3.2.2 Trait 2: Playfulness

The kidult figure hopes to avoid responsibility for as long as possible by remaining absorbed in
his own pleasures; the recreations and pursuits traditionally associated with childhood. As they
are hedonic, kidult products or experiences are valued more subjective and personal than their
utilitarian counterpart. Furthermore, they result more from fun and playfulness than from task
completion (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). Augmented arousal, increased involvement,
perceived freedom and fantasy fulfillment could all indicate a hedonically valuable consuming
experience (Hirschman, 1983). Certainly, Lu & Wang’s research (2008) indicated playfulness as
one of the motivations for playing in relation to Internet gaming. Therefore, the higher the
playfulness trait, the higher the attraction towards hedonic experiential (kidult) consumption.

H2a: Higher scores in playfulness will positively correlate with likability of kidult products.

H2b: Higher scores in playfulness will positively correlate with purchase intention of kidult
products.

3.2.3 Trait 3: Proneness to nostalgia

Nowadays, nostalgia is understood as symptom of a more widespread post-modern condition

(Jameson, 1991). In today’s society - frenetic, unreliable and harried – one finds steadiness and
security in the memories of past experiences. Post-modern nostalgia is “a means of the subject
positioning itself in language, positioning itself in relation to a sense of the past and/or a sense of
home or community” (Higson, 2014, p. 120). In addition, it is also a fundamental feature of
contemporary cultural production and marketing (Higson, 2014, p. 120).

Nostalgia often involves a longing to return to a recollected ideal childhood, a time of innocent
pleasures and the close community of family and friends – a specific rendering of home and
homeliness. The present is marked as an unsatisfactory, inadequate, perhaps even a degenerate
place. This version of nostalgia is mainly about memory; about remembering a past time, or
values, people, conditions or things associated with that time. “The process of remembering in
this version of nostalgia is closely attached to the desire to return in thought or in fact to that
earlier time – even while it is clear such a return can only be a fantasy” (Higson, 2014, p. 123).

15
In this process, the past is understood as a time and place of contentment, a place more perfect
and more desirable than the present; where the past is no longer lost or irrecoverable, but
exceptionally within reach – one simply purchases the cars, books, sweets or toys in which one is
interested. Boym calls this “the souvenirisation of the past” (Boym, 2001, p. 38). Higson (2014)
explains this as follows: post-modern nostalgia, he argues, recycles images, objects and styles
associated with the relatively recent past, making the irrecoverable past attainable. A key aspect
of the culture of nostalgia is indeed the business of nostalgia. As Reynolds points out, “in the
second half of the twentieth century, nostalgia became steadily more and more bound up with
popular culture” and at the same time became “thoroughly entwined with the consumer-
entertainment complex” (Reynolds, 2011, xxix). As stated by Holbrook (1993), nostalgia-
proneness should lead consumers to favor products with strong nostalgic appeal, therefore,
regarding this study, it is a highly relevant trait.

H3a: Higher scores in proneness to nostalgia will positively correlate with likability of kidult
products.

H3b: Higher scores in proneness to nostalgia will positively correlate with purchase intention of
kidult products.

3.2.4 Trait 4: Self-control

An additionally relevant trait when researching the likability and purchase intention of kidult
media is self-control. Self-control, also called self-regulation, can be described as “the self’s
capacity to alter its own states and responses and replaces it with another” (Baumeister, 2002, p.
670). Self-control not only includes the ability to alter one’s inner response, but also the ability
to override undesired dominant behavioral tendencies (Tangney, Baumeister & Boone, 2004, p.
274). Thus, self-control is not only about regulating one’s own behavior, emotions and thoughts,
but also about “breaking habits, resisting temptation and keeping good self-discipline” (De
Ridder, Lensvelt-Mulders, Finkenauer, Stok, & Baumeister, 2012, p. 77; Tangney et al., 2004, p.
275). A distinction can be made between high and low self-control. Low self-control often lies at
the basis of several societal problems such as impulsive buying, procrastination, obesity, et
cetera (De Ridder et al., 2012, p. 76). High self-control, on the other hand, is considered as a key

16
element for success, since people with high self-control usually have better interpersonal
relationships, fewer emotional and psychological problems and higher self-esteem and self-
acceptance (Baumeister, 2002, p. 674).

Whether a person has a high or low level of self-control is an overall significant element in the
field of consumer behavior. In consumer behavior, self-control represents a consumer’s ability to
resist one’s own desires and temptations. Interesting here is the “I really shouldn’t” dilemma
posed by Baumeister (2002), which emphasizes this typical aspect of desire in the self-control
trait. In terms of kidult media, as typically hedonic products, this can be translated in the
hypothesis that consumers with a high level of self-control are probably less likely to like and
purchase crossover media, since crossover fiction and films will especially attract people who
tend to yield to their inner desires.

H4a: Higher scores of self-control will negatively correlate with likability of kidult media.

H4b: Higher scores of self-control will negatively correlate with purchase intention of kidult
media.

3.2.5 Trait 5: Social inhibition

Today, many people suffer from social anxiety due to the never-ending pressure that lies on their
shoulders. This has profound consequences on their lives and their social functioning. Typical
characteristics of people who suffer from social anxiety are avoidance of social interactions,
more worrying, less confidence about their relationships, and a constant avoidance of
disapproval (Watson & Friend, 1969). People with social anxiety are typically quiet in groups,
shy when they meet new people and withdrawn in unfamiliar social settings (Stein & Stein,
2008). They are usually characterized with low self-esteem and high self-criticism (Stein &
Stein, 2008).

However, this typical behavior of social avoidance and distress is only one dimension of social
anxiety. More relevant for consumer behavior and our research in particular is the other
dimension of social anxiety, namely one’s fear of negative evaluation. Watson & Friend (1969,
p. 449) define this as the “apprehension about others’ evaluations, distress over their negative

17
evaluations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively”. Central here is
the fear of losing social approval of others, rather than a negative self-evaluation or revealing
one’s inferiority (Watson & Friend, 1969). In today’s society, many people are constantly
looking for others’ validation and want to please other people as much as possible. The rising
popularity of kidult media might show an important dynamic in this context. Kidult media might
be a means to escape this pressure of social approval. Again, the notion of escapism seems to be
an important aspect here. On top of that, the fact that many adults increasingly read or watch
kidult novels or movies in particular might be an incentive that people are becoming more
relaxed about the social approval of others. Therefore, we argue that it might be valuable to
investigate the link between social inhibition and kidult media in this research. We expect that
people who show a high level of fear of negative evaluation will report a higher level of
likability and purchase intention of kidult media.

H5a: Higher scores for social inhibition will positively correlate with likability of kidult media.

H5b: Higher scores for social inhibition will positively correlate with purchase intention of
kidult media.

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4. Research methodology

4.1 Procedure

In this study, kidult media genre preferences will be measured by looking at specific examples of
books and movies. Following the uses and gratifications approach, differentiation is to be
expected between these areas (less relevant for our study), and additionally expected to occur
within these areas because of the effect of individual personality differences. Each category will
therefore be divided into 2 types: kidult and control.

In order to test our hypotheses, we developed a survey in which we question the five particular
personality traits as well as the likability and purchase intention of four particular books and
films. We selected one kidult book (Harry Potter) and one kidult movie (Cinderella), and also
one control book (De Vliegeraar) and one control movie (12 Years a Slave). In order to find the
most relevant examples and to be certain we included all relevant personality traits in our
research without overlooking any important traits, we conducted a pretest. We collected a sample
of 38 respondents. In the first part of the pretest, we presented fourteen examples of books and
films/TV series to our respondents, out of which ten were actual examples of kidult media and
four were control examples. We provided a short definition of kidult media to our respondents
and we asked them on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree)
whether the presented films/TV series and novels were examples of kidult media. To interpret
the responses, we used paired sample t-tests and compared all the kidult books and films with the
control examples. We concluded that the means of only one combination of films/TV-series
were not significantly different, namely the combination of the TV series Gossip Girl and the
movie Bridget Jones’s Diary (means 4.58 = 3.89, p = .109). All the other combinations of
control and kidult media were statistically different. In order to use the best examples in our
survey, we selected the kidult media with the highest means (Harry Potter (M = 6.21, SD =
1.018) as kidult book and Cinderella (M = 5.45, SD = 1.032) as kidult movie) and the control
media with the lowest means (De Vliegeraar (M = 3.11, SD = 1.607) as control book and 12
Years a Slave (M = 2.29, SD = 1.431) as control film). We also compared both the kidult film
and book with the control film and book in order to be certain that these were statistically
different as well (both p = .001).

In the second part of our pretest, we wanted to examine whether we did not leave out any
important personality traits that could be related to kidult media. Therefore, we asked our

19
respondents whether they had already read and/or watched kidult books and/or films and, in case
they did, why. We offered them several possibilities, such as “because it is amusing”, “because it
is a way to escape reality” or “to pamper oneself”, et cetera. The question was measured on a
seven-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The results mostly
match with our expectations. The scores of playfulness (M = 5.82, SD = .673), escapism (M =
5.03, SD = 1.403) and nostalgia (M = 4.68, SD = 1.387) for example were rather high. We also
asked them how they perceive people who like the entertainment of kidult media and again
offered them several possibilities based on our selected personality traits (they are spontaneous,
playful, nostalgic, et cetera). This was measured on the same seven-point Likert scale. These
results mainly align with our expectations on personality traits as well. The personality traits
nostalgia (M = 5.21, SD = .911), playfulness (M = 4.97, SD = 1.241) and escapism (M = 4,87,
SD = 1.234) score rather high, whereas the level of self-control (M = 2.71, SD = 1,250) is rather
low. Remarkably, the influence of fear of negative evaluation is considered rather low (M = 3.24,
SD = 1.283), although we predict that a higher level of fear of negative evaluation will positively
correlate with kidult media and likability. Both questions included an option to enter a response
themselves in case they thought of something else. This, however, brought no extra results for
our questionnaire. The detailed results of the pretest can be found in appendix 1.

Based on this pretest, we were able to design our questionnaire. After questioning demographic
variables such as gender and age, we were able to start off our actual questionnaire. We first
presented the four selected books and films at random to our respondents and questioned their
likability and purchase intention of the four selected examples. Then we questioned the five
selected personality traits, including playfulness, nostalgia, escapism, self-control and social
anxiety. The personality scales were measured in randomized blocks; the items within each scale
were measured in a random order. The detailed content of our survey can be found in appendix
2.

4.2 Scales

To measure the likability of the books and films, we used an adaptation of the four-item scale for
attitude toward a brand (Ab) from Batra and Stayman (1990) and Batra and Stephens (1994).
The items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree). The coefficient alpha is .971 (Harry Potter) for this scale, and therefore can be found

20
reliable. For purchase intention, we relied on the 1-item seven-point Likert scale by Whitlark,
Geurts and Swenson (1993), which ranges from 1 (definitely will not buy) to 7 (definitely will
buy).

To measure the playfulness trait, we used the relatively recent OLIW scale by Proyer (2017).
This is a 28-item questionnaire which consists of four central components; namely, other-
directed, light-hearted, intellectual and whimsical. It includes statements such as “I am a
lighthearted person” and “I have close friends with whom I can just fool around and be silly”, et
cetera (Proyer, 2017). The items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), as suggested by Proyer (2017), with a Cronbach’s coefficient
alpha of .836.

To assess proneness to nostalgia, the eight-item Nostalgia scale by Holbrook and Schindler
(1994) is used. With a reliability coefficient of .723, this scale is found reliable. The nostalgia
trait was also measured on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree). Examples of items of this questionnaire are “Things used to be better in the good old
days” and “We are experiencing a decline in the quality of life” (Holbrook & Schindler, 1994).

The measurement of self-control is based on the Brief Self-Control Scale by Tangney et al.
(2004). This thirteen-item scale is relevant over a wide range of domains including achievement
and task performance, impulse control, psychological adjustment, interpersonal functioning and
moral emotions. This questionnaire includes items such as “I am good at resisting temptation”
and “I wish I had more self-discipline” (Tangney et al., 2004). The thirteen items of this scale
were measured on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), as
suggested by the authors. The construct has a reliability coefficient .857.

To measure the trait of social inhibition, we used the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation scale,
which is based on the Fear of Negative Evaluation scale by Watson and Friend (1969), but
adapted to a shorter version by Leary (1983). This twelve-item scale is highly reliable (a = .906).
The items were measured on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all characteristic of me) to 5
(extremely characteristic of me). Examples of statements are “I am afraid that others will not
approve of me” and “I often worry that I will say or do the wrong things” (Watson & Friend,
1969; Leary, 1983).

Escapism was measured on the basis of the three-item scale by O’Guinn and Faber (1989). We
measured the three items on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly

21
agree). The items include “I daydream a lot”, “When I go to the movies, I find it easy to lose
myself in the film” and “I often think of what might have been” (O’Guinn & Faber, 1989). This
scale has an internal reliability coefficient of .599, which is rather low. This is a much lower
score than what O’Guinn and Faber (1989) measured (a = .781), which may indicate that the
scale has either become outdated or has not been translated accurately. Since O’Guinn and Faber
have demonstrated the validity of the scale, we nevertheless continued to work with it.

4.3 Participants

In total, we collected a sample of 463 respondents. After cleaning our data and removing the
surveys that were incomplete, we remained with a sample of 316 respondents. 28.8% of the
sample were male and 71.2% were female. These respondents were between 17 and 74 years old.
The mean age of the respondents is about 32 years old (M = 32.14, SD = 15.63).

Table 1: Demographic variables of the sample of the survey

Variable Frequency Percentage
Gender Man 91 28.8%
Woman 225 71.2%
Missing 0 0%
Age <20 37 11.7%
20-29 165 52.2%
30-39 26 8.2%
40-49 13 4.1%
50-59 49 15.5%
60-69 23 7.3%
>70 3 0.9%
Missing 0 0%

22
4.4 Statistical analyses

Before we started our statistical analyses, we checked our data for outliers. Based on the visual
presentation of boxplots, we were able to conclude that there were no outliers in our data.

A bivariate correlation (Pearson) analysis was conducted to find out which of the five personality
trait variables significantly correlate with either kidult media likability or kidult media purchase
intention. We also included the demographic variables in this analysis. We conducted a second
bivariate correlation analysis with only the personality trait variables in order to investigate the
mutual correlations of the personality traits.

Four regression analyses were conducted in order to determine the predictive value of the
personality trait variables and the demographic variables on the likability and purchase intention
of kidult media. As an extra assessment, we also conducted two MANOVA analyses. In the first
MANOVA we included the kidult dependent variables, in the second MANOVA we included
the control dependent variables. By using two MANOVA analyses, we were able to examine
whether the beta weights of the kidult and control variables significantly differentiated from each
other, which functioned as an extra control.

23
5. Results & discussion

5.1 Correlations personality traits and kidult media

A bivariate correlation (Pearson) analysis was conducted in order to determine the relations
between the personality traits and kidult media likability and purchase intention. Table 2
provides an overview of the results of the correlations. We additionally controlled for age and
gender.

Table 2: Correlations between personality traits and kidult media likability and purchase
intention
Independent Likability Purchase intention
variables Harry Potter Cinderella Harry Potter Cinderella
Age -.197** -.124* -.269** -.167**
Gender .032 .396** .050 .239**
Escapism .300** .161* .313** .096
Playfulness .120* -.109 .129* -.061
Nostalgia .038 .002 .024 .084
Self-control -.156** -.007 -.159** .011
Social .138* .211** .100 .090
inhibition
*p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01

First of all, there is a positive correlation between the trait escapism and likability of the selected
examples of kidult media. People who have a higher level of escapism tend to like kidult media
better. Hypothesis 1a can thus be confirmed, meaning that a higher level of escapism positively
correlates with kidult media likability. The second part of hypothesis 1 on kidult media purchase
intention, however, can only be confirmed for the example of Harry Potter. The higher one’s
level of escapism, the higher one’s tendency to purchase Harry Potter books. The willingness to
purchase Cinderella only marginally significantly correlates with escapism (p = .087).

Secondly, there is a positive correlation between playfulness and the likability and purchase
intention of Harry Potter. This means that the more playful a person is, the more that person will
tend to like and buy Harry Potter books. Cinderella likability and purchase intention on the other
hand, do not correlate significantly with playfulness. Moreover, the insignificant correlations
with Cinderella are even negative. Based on these results, we can only partially confirm our

24
second hypothesis which predicted a positive correlation between playfulness and kidult media
likability and purchase intention for Harry Potter, and not for Cinderella.

Remarkably, our third personality trait nostalgia does not correlate significantly with any of the
dependent variables. This implies that hypothesis 3 which predicted a positive correlation
between a higher level of nostalgia and kidult media likability and purchase intention has to be
rejected.

The personality trait self-control again only correlates significantly with the likability and
purchase intention of the specific example of Harry Potter, just as was the case with playfulness.
This implies that the higher one’s level of self-control, the higher one’s tendency to like and buy
Harry Potter books. Consequently, hypothesis 4 that high levels of self-control negatively
correlate with kidult media likability and purchase intention can only partially be confirmed for
Harry Potter likability and purchase intention, since there are no significant correlations with
Cinderella likability and purchase intention. Because this was also the case for the personality
trait playfulness, this issue implies that there is a structural difference between the two kidult
examples, which will be discussed more thoroughly in the general discussion.

Finally, there is a significant correlation between the personality trait social inhibition and kidult
media likability. The more a person experiences a fear of negative evaluation, the more that
person will tend to like kidult media. This confirms hypothesis 5a that higher levels of social
inhibition positively correlate with kidult media likability. However, these people do not
necessarily tend to buy kidult media, as there are no significant correlations with kidult media
purchase intention. Hypothesis 5b that higher levels of social inhibition would positively
correlate with purchase intention of kidult media thus cannot be confirmed based on our results.

Considering the demographic variables, there seems to be a negative significant correlation

between age and the likability and purchase intention of kidult media. The younger, the more
people tend to like and buy kidult media. Remarkably, there is also a significant correlation
between gender and the likability and purchase intention of Cinderella, which means that women
tend to like and buy Cinderella more. Because these control variables do seem to relate to the
independent variables – which we did not foresee – we will include them in further analyses.

Finally, there are also significant correlations between the personality trait variables themselves.
Table 3 provides an overview of the correlations between the trait variables only.

25
Table 3: Correlations personality trait variables
Playfulness Nostalgia Escapism Self- Social
Control inhibition
Playfulness 1
Nostalgia .032 1
Escapism .176** .010 1
Self- -.299* -.015 -.340** 1
Control
Social -.277** -.086 .278** -.175** 1
inhibition
*p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01

Besides nostalgia, all the personality traits correlate significantly with each other. Most of these
significant correlations are rather self-explanatory and evident. The negative significant
correlations between self-control and playfulness, and self-control and escapism, for example,
are rather straightforward since playful and escapist people will probably tend to be less self-
controlled.

An interesting significant correlation is between self-control and social inhibition. The fact that
self-control and social inhibition negatively correlate is consistent with the research of Tangney
et al. (2004). According to them, problems with self-control can cause several psychological
difficulties, including anxiety and anger, but on the other hand, emotional distress can also cause
difficulties with one’s self-control because the suffering of distress might burden the individual’s
regulatory capacity (Tangney et al., 2004, p. 277). On top of that, people with a high level of
self-control typically report a high level of self-esteem and self-acceptance, which is not the case
for people who suffer from fear of negative evaluation (Tangney et al., 2004, p. 312).

The positive correlation between escapism and social inhibition fits with the study of Kraaykamp
and Van Eijck (2005) who found that emotionally unstable people tend to look for means to
escape tension and stress. Finally, the positive correlation between playfulness and escapism is
consistent with existing studies on consumer behavior and experiential value that consider
escapism as part of playful behavior, because it allows people to get away from everyday
demands (Huizinga, 1955; Mathwick, Mathotra & Rigdon, 2001).

26
5.2 Multivariate analyses

5.2.1 Regression analysis of personality traits on kidult media

In order to verify whether the variables, both trait variables and age and gender, could
independently and significantly predict the likability and purchase intention of kidult media,
several regression analyses were conducted.

Regression 1: Harry Potter Likability

An additional regression was conducted, with Harry Potter likability as dependent, and all traits
variables, age, and gender as independent variables, which verified that the model correlates to
the Harry Potter likability with 32.8%. 10.7% of the variance in the Harry Potter likability is
explained by the score of the escapism trait, R2= .087, F(7) = 5.299, p ≤ .000. The escapism trait,
exclusively, significantly predicts the likability of Harry Potter (β = .247). There were no socio-
demographic effects.

Regression 2: Harry Potter Purchase intention

A regression analysis ran with Cinderella likability as dependent variable, and all traits variables,
age, and gender as independent variables, validating that the model correlates to Harry Potter
purchase intention with 35.4%. In this model, 12.6% of the difference in Harry Potter purchase
intention is explicated by the escapism trait and the age, adjusted R2= .106, F(7) = 6.318, p ≤
.000. Both the trait escapism score (β = .244) and age (β = -.173) significantly predict the
purchase intention for the kidult example of Harry Potter.

Regression 3: Cinderella Likability

A regression analysis was conducted, with Cinderella likability as dependent, and all traits
variables, age, and gender as independent variables. The regression verified that this model
correlates to the Cinderella likability with 43.1%. However, none of the selected personality
traits were able to predict the likability of Cinderella.

27
Regarding socio-demographics, 18.6% of the variance in likability of kidult example Cinderella
is explained by gender, adjusted R2= .167, F(7) = 10.050, p ≤ .000. Gender, exclusively,
significantly predicts the likability of Cinderella (β = .366).

Regression 4: Cinderella Purchase intention

A second regression, with Cinderella purchase intention as dependent and all traits, age, and
gender as independent variables, established that this model correlates to the Cinderella purchase
intention with 30.8%. In this model, 9.5% of the difference in Cinderella purchase intention is
explicated by gender and age, adjusted R2= .074, F(7) = 4.604, p ≤ .000. Both gender (β = .210)
and age (β = -.220) are significant predictors of the purchase intention of Cinderella.

5.2.2 Comparison significant predictors of kidult media with control media

In addition to determining which variables significantly predict the kidult dependent variables, as
an extra assessment we conducted further studies to determine whether or not these predictors
significantly differ from the control examples. We conducted a Multivariate Analysis of
Variance (MANOVA). A second MANOVA was conducted to confirm whether or not the
significant predictors found were significantly different from the control examples. More
concretely, we compared the significant betas of the kidult examples to the betas of the
corresponding control betas. This way, we test that particular significant predictors predict solely
kidult examples, and not the control examples (De Vliegeraar book and 12 Years a Slave movie).

The first table of multivariate tests authenticates coherence of significant variables gender (p =
.000), age (p = .003) and escapism (p = .001) with all four of the kidult’s dependent variables,
being Harry Potter likability, Harry Potter purchase intention, Cinderella likability, and
Cinderella purchase intention. However, a reliability analysis verifies that these dependent
variables overall lack in coherence (kidult likability a = .150, kidult purchase intention a = .268)
and therefore cannot be scaled.

To determine whether or not those standardized beta weights are significantly different from
each other, their corresponding 95% confidence intervals were estimated via bias corrected
bootstrap (1000 re-samples). In the event that the confidence intervals overlap by less than 50%,

28
the beta weights are considered statistically, significantly different from each other (p < .05;
Cumming, 2009). Half of the average of the overlapping confidence intervals was calculated and
added to the beta weight lower bound estimate. When this result exceeds the upper bound
estimate, the difference between the standardized beta weights is not considered statistically
significantly different from each other. When this result is lower than the upper bound estimate,
the standardized beta weights are considered statistically significantly different from each other.

For the kidult book example, Harry Potter, our regression analysis showed that escapism
significantly predicts kidult media likability and purchase intention of Harry Potter. When
comparing the Harry Potter kidult book with the control book De Vliegeraar, we find a
significant difference between the beta weights of Harry Potter likability with escapism and De
Vliegeraar likability with escapism. This shows that escapism significantly predicts the likability
and purchase intention of kidult media, kidult books particularly, as opposed to more neutral
books like De Vliegeraar.

For the kidult movie example, Cinderella, we found that the beta weight of gender with
Cinderella likability significantly differs from the beta weights of 12 Years a Slave likability
with gender. There was also a significant difference between the beta weights of Cinderella
purchase intention with gender and 12 Years a Slave purchase intention with gender. This
validates that gender significantly predicts both likability and purchase intention of kidult
movies, as opposed to more neutral movies such as 12 Years a Slave. The detailed calculations
can be found in appendix 7.

29
6. General discussion & conclusion

6.1 Theoretical contributions

This study intended to provide an answer to our central research question: which and to what
extent do personality factors affect kidult media likability and purchase intention? With this
research we aimed to contribute to existing research about how personality characteristics of
consumers may shape the media preference of kidult media specifically. Whereas previous
research has mainly relied on the Big Three or Big Five models, this study was based on five
more specific personality traits. Based on our results, we can conclude that our particular
selected personality characteristics affect kidult media likability and purchase intention, however
only to a certain extent.

This study has demonstrated that particularly the personality trait escapism appears to affect
kidult media likability and purchase intention, and in particular the example of Harry Potter. The
fact that escapism almost completely significantly correlates with kidult media preference and
that it has been verified a significant trait predictor of the kidult preference of Harry Potter, fits
with previous research on escapism (Hirschman, 1983; Henning & Vorderer, 2001), signifying
that persons with higher scores on the proneness to escapism trait have higher preference
towards kidult media. For decades, escape has been identified as the primary motivation for
seeking out all sorts of entertainment (uses and gratifications research, Blumler & Katz, 1974).
This motivation to escape is primarily based on hedonistic concerns and is thus aimed to elicit
enjoyment. That is, consumers often seek out pleasurable experiences that allow them to
satisfyingly escape from the pressures and demands of today’s hectic world (Oliver & Raney,
2011).

Although the tendency of escapism can be considered as a motivation for all kinds of fictional
media, our study has demonstrated on the basis of the comparison of the beta weights that people
prefer kidult media as a means of escapism over our control media (De Vliegeraar and 12 Years
a Slave), which might be more intellectually-satisfying media. This is consistent with Beckett
(2009) who states that it is especially the fantasy and kidult genre which offers a possibility of
escaping and destressing from one’s responsibilities and chaotic schedules. This can also explain
the difference in effect of the correlations. The effect of the correlation is remarkably higher for
Harry Potter than for Cinderella. This implies that people who desire to escape their realities tend
to like and buy Harry Potter more than Cinderella. This difference between the two examples is

30
remarkable since fairy tales are usually considered as the historical precedent of the kidult
crossover genre (Beckett, 2009, p. 2). Harry Potter is nevertheless generally considered as the
prototype example of the kidult genre since its overwhelming popularity announced a new age in
the entertainment industry in the last decades, which probably contributes to the difference in
effect as well (Beckett, 2009, p. 251).

Playfulness on the other hand demonstrated to have a positive correlation with Harry Potter
likability and purchase intention, but did not appear as predicting factor of kidult media likability
and purchase intention. The positive correlation with Harry Potter can nevertheless be considered
as a confirmation of Holbrook and Hirschman’s (1982) argument that the use of hedonic
products such as kidult media results from playfulness and fun. Remarkable as well was the
negative, though not significant, correlation between playfulness and Cinderella likability and
purchase intention. A possible explanation might be that, although Cinderella is a fairy tale and
definitely belongs to the kidult media genre, it is also a very romantic story. There is no evidence
how the romantic genre relates to playfulness. Both the studies of Hall (2005) and Kraaykamp
and Van Eijck (2005), for example, did not find effects of Extraversion, one of the Big Five
personality traits that playfulness probably relates best to, on media preferences.

A possible explanation that playfulness does not influence kidult media preference is that kidult
books and movies are not nearly as entertaining as they are a means to escape. The diversion lies
in fact in the escape faculties rather than being an actual game, sport or leisure activity. A better-
fit trait might have been sensation-seeking: sensation-seeking (SS) has indeed emerged as a
meaningful variable in understanding how people choose media content as studies show that it is
part of a very selective orientation to media use (Perse, 1996). According to Zuckerman (1994),
sensation-seeking is a biologically-based personality trait that defines individuals' characteristic
inclinations for and willingness to search for fresh, diverse, and strong stimuli and/or
experiences, that is, experiences with great arousal potential. High sensation seekers become
easily bored and therefore prefer stimulating experiences and environments. This would suggest
that persons who score high on the sensation-seeking trait would be associated positively with
exiting kidult media preference.

In contrast to other research, this study has remarkably demonstrated that nostalgia shows no
significant correlations with kidult media likability and purchase intention nor that it can be
interpreted as a predicting factor. This implies that the often-used argument that adults turn to
children’s fiction media out of nostalgia cannot be confirmed by our data. Adults are not

31
necessarily attracted to kidult media because it evokes childhood memories or because of the
globalization tendency as many critics argue, but possibly because these media often focus on
transformation, life change, metamorphosis and maturation, which attracts both younger and
older people (Beckett, 2009, p. 258). Another explanation for the difference in results with other
research on nostalgia, for example from Schindler & Holbrook’s (2003) is the contrast in
methodology: Schindler & Holbrook’s sample, consisting of 225 respondents, ranges from 16 to
94, wherein senior respondents vouch for a much bigger part of the sample than our study,
providing much more nuance. Additionally, even though the nostalgia score, derived from the
translated nostalgia scale, proved to be reliable (a = .723), due to translation some of the nuance
may be squandered.

The results of the personality trait self-control were rather modest. Self-control only significantly
correlated with Harry Potter likability and purchase intention, which confirms the theory that
people who are lacking self-control are more likely to yield to temptation of hedonic activities
(Baumeister, 2002; Kivetz & Simonson, 2002). However, playfulness did not demonstrate to be
a predictive factor for kidult media likability and purchase intention. Unlike playfulness,
nostalgia, and escapism, there were no previous studies linking self-control to media genre
preference, but rather was added based on our judgments. However, it confirmed to be fruitless.

Social inhibition, finally, demonstrated to positively correlate with kidult media likability, but
cannot be interpreted as predicting factor of kidult media likability and purchase intention. This
correlation between likability and social inhibition can be explained on the basis of the
significant correlation of social inhibition with escapism. People who suffer from anxiety and
emotional instability typically search for ways to escape their feelings of stress and tension
(Kraaykamp & Van Eijck, 2005, p. 1677). Watching movies or reading books provides an
excellent means to escape their suffering of social inhibition, as was also mentioned before. The
fact that the effect of the correlation between likability of Cinderella and social inhibition is even
higher than the effect of Harry Potter likability might indicate that emotionally unstable people
tend to like typically romantic kidult media even more (Kraaykamp & Van Eijck, 2005, p. 1686).

This research also demonstrated the unexpected predictive value of demographic variables age
and gender on kidult media likability and purchase intention. Gender has been determined as a
predictor of both the likability and purchase intention of kidult example Cinderella (and not
Harry Potter). Additionally, beta weights comparison verified that gender is a significant
predictor for the kidult example of Cinderella likability, and not for the likability of control

32
examples De Vliegeraar and 12 Years a Slave. Similarly, gender is a predictor for Cinderella
purchase intention, which is statistically significantly not the case for 12 Years a Slave. We
postulate that this means that Cinderella is a less applicable and correct example of kidult media;
which is considered to be for all ages. Where the kidult initially used to be regarded as rather a
masculine phenomenon (Cross, 2008; Hymowitz, 2012), more recent publications (Montagu,
1989; Noxon, 2003; Brown, 2016) do not draw those firm gender distinctions, reflecting broader
acceptance that kidultism is not exclusively a male affliction. However, adult Cinderella
likability and purchase intention seems to be stigmatized on the basis of gender. The fact that
Cinderella is also a romantic story might influence this issue.

The negative predicting force between age and kidult media purchase intention (both Cinderella
and Harry Potter) is peculiar. On the other hand, age does not seem to influence the kidult media
likeability, which confirms previous studies on the subject (Beckett, 2009; Bernardini, 2014;
Falconer, 2009). The kidult is considered to be of all ages: he “might be eight, eighteen, thirty-
eight or eighty” (Canby, 1988). A possible explanation for the deviation might be the millennial
adult lifestyle in which younger people are more emerged. Youngsters are more likely to
participate in the contemporary culture of consumerism, whereas older people, whether male or
female, are less inclined to possess these forms of entertainment (Barber, 2007). Moreover,
kidult likability scores significantly trumped the scores of kidult purchase intention. Arguably,
one of the limitations of the analyses is that the concept of buying (or paying for) movies and
books has become outdated in today’s world of downloading, borrowing and loaning. This
would imply that measuring and studying purchase intentions for media such as films and novels
may become increasingly invaluable in the future.

6.2 Limitations & future research

With these contributions and interpretations in mind, it is also important to recognize the
limitations of the present research. It should be stressed that the personality and control variables
never explained more than 18% of the variance in the measured outcomes. A potential
explanation for the results is that the study measured the wrong personality traits or measured the
right traits at the incorrect level of specificity. Characteristics identified by Zuckerman et al.
(1988) as lower order personality factors include activity, impulsivity, and conformity. These
characteristics, while less well established than the ‘superfactors’, may also be worth further

33
investigation. An additional, definite drawback of our study is the use of rather narrow, and thus
non-inclusive, categories of media genres: kidult media on the one hand, and more neutral and
intellectual media as control variables on the other. Due to the limited scope of our study,
however, we were not able to offer further nuance.

In this study, we have conceptualized the motivations for certain entertainment preference in
terms of enduring traits. Even though we also believe that such motivations may vary from
moment-to-moment within individuals, the focus of this present study is on more stable
dispositions and preferences. Therefore, future research may benefit from exploration this genre
preference not only based on traits, but also on states that may fluctuate from one time to the
next.

Additionally, we note a potential liability in the use of student samples who may be more
interested in pursuing and exploring entertainment, rather than scrutinizing its underlying
reasons. However, our study did include a diverse age range (both students and not) which
provided evidence that the general structure of intrinsic kidult entertainment motivations that we
suggest are present throughout the life span. Related to this concern about samples, however, is
the fact that our research was conducted in Belgium. Given that Western European populations
may have different entertainment preferences—and perhaps less hedonistic ones—than do other
cultures, for example the United States, future comparative studies are essential (Klimmt &
Vorderer, 2009).

Overall, findings of this study suggest that the roles that audience members’ personalities play in
media genre preference may be played out in the context of specific gratifications that media
genres are perceived to offer. Therefore, investigating how audiences’ personality attributes
interact with the gratifications that are considered to be offered by particular media genres may
be a considerable step forward in developing a coherent theory of personality’s impact on media
use. Indeed, our results suggest that this area of study may benefit from combining personality
factors with consumers’ perceptions of the functions or gratifications that particular media fulfill,
since the impact of personality traits may depend on the audiences’ perception of the
gratifications offered by this particular genre. As personality traits are the nexus of beliefs,
values, and attitudes, and guide our cognitive and affective interactions (Weaver, Brosius, &
Mundorf, 1993), this area of research is positively in need of more thorough exploration.

34
6.3 General conclusion

In this study, we elaborated on how media preferences are related to personality traits, built on
the uses and gratification research tradition. In this view it is understood that individuals differ in
their psychological and social characteristics, and that media holds diverse contents. Media
behavior, therefore, is realized in a match of individual and content characteristics.

Based on our research we can conclude that personality characteristics affect kidult media
likability and purchase intention to a certain extent. However, there are two important remarks.
First of all, the results of our two examples of kidult media Harry Potter and Cinderella
frequently differentiated from each other, with Harry Potter performing as main example of the
kidult genre. Consequently, we had to interpret our results based on specific product level and
could not discuss our results on the level of kidult media likability and purchase intention in
general.

Secondly, the extent of effect of the personality traits on kidult media likability and purchase
intention differs between the personality factors. On the one hand, we can confirm most of our
hypotheses on specific product level, meaning that most of the personality traits correlate
significantly with at least one of the two products, except for nostalgia. Measuring the predicting
value of the personality trait variables on the other hand, we found our results to be rather
modest. Only escapism performs as predictor of Harry Potter likability and purchase intention,
together with gender for Cinderella likability and purchase intention, and age for purchase
intention of kidult in general. Escapism is thus the only personality trait that thoroughly affects
Harry Potter likability and purchase intention.

35
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X
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a basic dimension of personality.

XI
8. Appendices

8.1 Appendix 1: Pretest

1) Paired sample t-test: films and TV series

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 Kidult Star Wars 4,97 38 1,515 ,246
Kidult Bridget Jones 3,89 38 1,914 ,311
Pair 2 Kidult Star Wars 4,97 38 1,515 ,246
Kidult 12 Years a Slave 2,29 38 1,431 ,232
Pair 3 Kidult Toy Story 4,87 38 1,818 ,295
Kidult Bridget Jones 3,89 38 1,914 ,311
Pair 4 Kidult Toy Story 4,87 38 1,818 ,295
Kidult 12 Years a Slave 2,29 38 1,431 ,232
Pair 5 Kidult Cinderella 5,45 38 1,032 ,167
Kidult Bridget Jones 3,89 38 1,914 ,311
Pair 6 Kidult Cinderella 5,45 38 1,032 ,167
Kidult 12 Years a Slave 2,29 38 1,431 ,232
Pair 7 Kidult Frozen 5,08 38 1,600 ,260
Kidult Bridget Jones 3,89 38 1,914 ,311
Pair 8 Kidult Frozen 5,08 38 1,600 ,260
Kidult 12 Years a Slave 2,29 38 1,431 ,232
Pair 9 Kidult Gossip Girl 4,58 38 1,750 ,284
Kidult Bridget Jones 3,89 38 1,914 ,311
Pair 10 Kidult Gossip Girl 4,58 38 1,750 ,284
Kidult 12 Years a Slave 2,29 38 1,431 ,232

Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Kidult Star Wars & Kidult 38 ,074 ,661
Bridget Jones
Pair 2 Kidult Star Wars & Kidult 12 38 -,021 ,899
Years a Slave
Pair 3 Kidult Toy Story & Kidult 38 -,190 ,252
Bridget Jones
Pair 4 Kidult Toy Story & Kidult 12 38 -,182 ,273
Years a Slave
Pair 5 Kidult Cinderella & Kidult 38 -,058 ,731
Bridget Jones
Pair 6 Kidult Cinderella & Kidult 12 38 -,273 ,097
Years a Slave
Pair 7 Kidult Frozen & Kidult 38 ,020 ,903
Bridget Jones
Pair 8 Kidult Frozen & Kidult 12 38 -,116 ,486
Years a Slave
Pair 9 Kidult Gossip Girl & Kidult 38 ,019 ,911 Page 1
Bridget Jones
Pair 10 Kidult Gossip Girl & Kidult 38 -,155 ,353
12 Years a Slave

XII
 Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95%
Confidence ...
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower
Pair 1 Kidult Star Wars - Kidult 1,079 2,352 ,382 ,306 1,852
Bridget Jones
Pair 2 Kidult Star Wars - Kidult 12 2,684 2,107 ,342 1,992 3,377
Years a Slave
Pair 3 Kidult Toy Story - Kidult ,974 2,880 ,467 ,027 1,920
Bridget Jones
Pair 4 Kidult Toy Story - Kidult 12 2,579 2,511 ,407 1,754 3,404
Years a Slave
Pair 5 Kidult Cinderella - Kidult 1,553 2,226 ,361 ,821 2,284
Bridget Jones
Pair 6 Kidult Cinderella - Kidult 12 3,158 1,980 ,321 2,507 3,809
Years a Slave
Pair 7 Kidult Frozen - Kidult 1,184 2,470 ,401 ,372 1,996
Bridget Jones
Pair 8 Kidult Frozen - Kidult 12 2,789 2,268 ,368 2,044 3,535
Years a Slave
Pair 9 Kidult Gossip Girl - Kidult ,684 2,569 ,417 -,160 1,529
Bridget Jones
Pair 10 Kidult Gossip Girl - Kidult 2,289 2,426 ,394 1,492 3,087
12 Years a Slave

Paired Samples Test

Paired ...
95% Confidence
Interval of the ...
Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Pair 1 Kidult Star Wars - Kidult 1,852 2,827 37 ,008
Bridget Jones
Pair 2 Kidult Star Wars - Kidult 12 3,377 7,854 37 ,000
Years a Slave
Pair 3 Kidult Toy Story - Kidult 1,920 2,084 37 ,044
Bridget Jones
Pair 4 Kidult Toy Story - Kidult 12 3,404 6,332 37 ,000
Years a Slave
Pair 5 Kidult Cinderella - Kidult 2,284 4,299 37 ,000
Bridget Jones
Pair 6 Kidult Cinderella - Kidult 12 3,809 9,832 37 ,000
Years a Slave
Pair 7 Kidult Frozen - Kidult 1,996 2,956 37 ,005
Bridget Jones
Pair 8 Kidult Frozen - Kidult 12 3,535 7,582 37 ,000
Years a Slave Page 1
Pair 9 Kidult Gossip Girl - Kidult 1,529 1,642 37 ,109
Bridget Jones
Pair 10 Kidult Gossip Girl - Kidult 3,087 5,817 37 ,000
12 Years a Slave

XIII
2) Paired sample t-test: novels

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 Kidult Hunger Games 5,39 38 1,198 ,194
Kidult De vliegeraar 3,11 38 1,607 ,261
Pair 2 Kidult Hunger Games 5,39 38 1,198 ,194
Kidult Vele hemels boven 3,24 38 1,584 ,257
de zevende
Pair 3 Kidult Twilight 5,03 38 1,325 ,215
Kidult De vliegeraar 3,11 38 1,607 ,261
Pair 4 Kidult Twilight 5,03 38 1,325 ,215
Kidult Vele hemels boven 3,24 38 1,584 ,257
de zevende
Pair 5 Kidult Fault in Our Stars 4,97 38 1,423 ,231
Kidult De vliegeraar 3,11 38 1,607 ,261
Pair 6 Kidult Fault in Our Stars 4,97 38 1,423 ,231
Kidult Vele hemels boven 3,24 38 1,584 ,257
de zevende
Pair 7 Kidult Lord of the Rings 4,87 38 1,563 ,253
Kidult De vliegeraar 3,11 38 1,607 ,261
Pair 8 Kidult Lord of the Rings 4,87 38 1,563 ,253
Kidult Vele hemels boven 3,24 38 1,584 ,257
de zevende
Pair 9 Kidult Harry Potter 6,21 38 1,018 ,165
Kidult De vliegeraar 3,11 38 1,607 ,261
Pair 10 Kidult Harry Potter 6,21 38 1,018 ,165
Kidult Vele hemels boven 3,24 38 1,584 ,257
de zevende

Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Kidult Hunger Games & 38 ,188 ,257
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 2 Kidult Hunger Games & 38 -,022 ,895
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 3 Kidult Twilight & Kidult De 38 -,065 ,699
vliegeraar
Pair 4 Kidult Twilight & Kidult Vele 38 -,235 ,156
hemels boven de zevende

Pair 5 Kidult Fault in Our Stars & 38 ,013 ,938

Kidult De vliegeraar
Page 1
Pair 6 Kidult Fault in Our Stars & 38 -,033 ,844
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 7 Kidult Lord of the Rings & 38 ,285 ,082
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 8 Kidult Lord of the Rings & 38 ,133 ,426
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 9 Kidult Harry Potter & Kidult 38 -,113 ,499
De vliegeraar
Pair 10 Kidult Harry Potter & Kidult 38 -,250 ,131
Vele hemels boven de
zevende

XIV
 Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95%
Confidence ...
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower
Pair 1 Kidult Hunger Games - 2,289 1,814 ,294 1,693 2,886
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 2 Kidult Hunger Games - 2,158 2,007 ,326 1,498 2,818
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 3 Kidult Twilight - Kidult De 1,921 2,148 ,349 1,215 2,627
vliegeraar
Pair 4 Kidult Twilight - Kidult Vele 1,789 2,292 ,372 1,036 2,543
hemels boven de zevende

Pair 5 Kidult Fault in Our Stars - 1,868 2,133 ,346 1,167 2,570
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 6 Kidult Fault in Our Stars - 1,737 2,165 ,351 1,025 2,448
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 7 Kidult Lord of the Rings - 1,763 1,895 ,307 1,140 2,386
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 8 Kidult Lord of the Rings - 1,632 2,072 ,336 ,951 2,313
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 9 Kidult Harry Potter - Kidult 3,105 1,997 ,324 2,449 3,762
De vliegeraar
Pair 10 Kidult Harry Potter - Kidult 2,974 2,086 ,338 2,288 3,659
Vele hemels boven de
zevende

Paired Samples Test

Paired ...
95% Confidence
Interval of the ...
Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Pair 1 Kidult Hunger Games - 2,886 7,778 37 ,000
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 2 Kidult Hunger Games - 2,818 6,628 37 ,000
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 3 Kidult Twilight - Kidult De 2,627 5,512 37 ,000
vliegeraar
Pair 4 Kidult Twilight - Kidult Vele 2,543 4,814 37 ,000
hemels boven de zevende

Pair 5 Kidult Fault in Our Stars - 2,570 5,400 37 ,000

Kidult De vliegeraar Page 1
Pair 6 Kidult Fault in Our Stars - 2,448 4,946 37 ,000
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 7 Kidult Lord of the Rings - 2,386 5,736 37 ,000
Kidult De vliegeraar
Pair 8 Kidult Lord of the Rings - 2,313 4,854 37 ,000
Kidult Vele hemels boven
de zevende
Pair 9 Kidult Harry Potter - Kidult 3,762 9,585 37 ,000
De vliegeraar
Pair 10 Kidult Harry Potter - Kidult 3,659 8,788 37 ,000
Vele hemels boven de
zevende

XV
3) Paired sample t-test: Cinderella, De Vliegeraar, Harry Potter & 12 Years a Slave

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 Kidult Cinderella 5,45 38 1,032 ,167
Kidult De vliegeraar 3,11 38 1,607 ,261
Pair 2 Kidult Harry Potter 6,21 38 1,018 ,165
Kidult 12 Years a Slave 2,29 38 1,431 ,232

Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 Kidult Cinderella & Kidult 38 -,176 ,291
De vliegeraar
Pair 2 Kidult Harry Potter & Kidult 38 -,154 ,355
12 Years a Slave

Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences
95%
Confidence ...
Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower
Pair 1 Kidult Cinderella - Kidult De 2,342 2,057 ,334 1,666 3,018
vliegeraar
Pair 2 Kidult Harry Potter - Kidult 3,921 1,880 ,305 3,303 4,539
12 Years a Slave

Paired Samples Test

Paired ...
95% Confidence
Interval of the ...
Upper t df Sig. (2-tailed)
Pair 1 Kidult Cinderella - Kidult De 3,018 7,019 37 ,000
vliegeraar
Pair 2 Kidult Harry Potter - Kidult 4,539 12,857 37 ,000
12 Years a Slave

4) Descriptives pretest (part 2)

Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Page 1
Amuseer ik me 34 4 7 5,82 ,673
Voel ik me terug kinds 34 2 7 4,68 1,387
Verwen ik mezelf 34 2 7 5,26 1,286
Doe ik niet wat er van me 34 1 6 3,47 1,331
verwacht wordt
Ontsnap ik aan de realiteit 34 2 7 5,03 1,403

Geef ik me over aan een 34 2 7 5,09 1,379

guilty pleasure
Andere 1 6 6 6,00 .
Valid N (listwise) 1

Page 1

XVI
 Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Zijn spontane personen 38 3 6 4,95 ,957
Zijn genotzuchtig; doen wat 38 2 7 5,08 1,124
ze willen en maken graag
plezier
Zijn nostalgisch en denken 38 3 7 5,21 ,811
vaak terug aan de goeie
oude tijd
Zijn perfectionistisch 38 1 6 3,13 1,095
Zijn dromers die graag aan 38 2 7 4,87 1,234
de werkelijkheid
ontsnappen
Hechten veel belang aan 38 1 6 3,24 1,283
wat andere mensen over
hen denken
Zijn erg toegevend en mild 38 1 6 4,37 1,101
voor andere personen

Doen wat ze willen en 38 1 7 3,95 1,355

hebben niet graag
verantwoordelijkheden
Zijn erg speels en hechten 38 2 7 4,97 1,241
veel belang aan plezier
maken
Zijn controle freaks die 38 1 5 2,71 1,250
graag controle over zichzelf
en anderen, en over de
situatie hebben
Andere mogelijke 2 4 4 4,00 ,000
karaktereigenschappen
Valid N (listwise) 2

Page 1

XVII
8.2 Appendix 2: Survey
Beste,

Alvast bedankt voor uw interesse en deelname aan deze vragenlijst! Dit zal 5-10 minuten in
beslag nemen.
Gelieve zo eerlijk mogelijk te antwoorden. De vragen worden anoniem verwerkt.

Met vriendelijke groeten,

Anna Vandenhaute & Sarah Venken
Master Bedrijfseconomie

Heeft u eerder onze pre-test ingevuld?

o Ja (1)
o Nee (2)
Wat is uw geslacht?

o Man (1)
o Vrouw (2)
Wat is uw leeftijd?

_______________________

Hierna krijgt u enkele voorbeelden van films en boeken te zien. Indien u ze niet kent, kan u de
beschrijving eronder lezen. Gelieve aan te duiden in welke mate u akkoord bent met de
stellingen hieromtrent.

XVIII
In het verhaal van Cinderella, ofwel Assepoester, volgen we het lot van de jonge Ella, wier vader
opnieuw trouwt na de dood van Ella's moeder. Omdat ze haar liefhebbende vader wil steunen,
verwelkomt Ella haar nieuwe stiefmoeder Lady Tremaine en haar dochters Anastasia en Drisella
met open armen. Als Ella's vader echter ook onverwacht sterft, wordt ze het slachtoffer van haar
jaloerse en gemene nieuwe familie.

Helemaal Eerder
Niet Eerder Helemaal
niet niet Neutraal Akkoord
akkoord akkoord akkoord
akkoord akkoord (4) (6)
(2) (5) (7)
(1) (3)
Ik vind de
film
Cinderella
leuk (1)
o o o o o o o
Ik apprecieer
de film
Cinderella (2) o o o o o o o
Ik sta gunstig
tegenover de
film
Cinderella (3)
o o o o o o o
Cinderella is
een
aantrekkelijke
film (4)
o o o o o o o

In het verhaal van Cinderella, ofwel Assepoester, volgen we het lot van de jonge Ella, wier vader
opnieuw trouwt na de dood van Ella's moeder. Omdat ze haar liefhebbende vader wil steunen,
verwelkomt Ella haar nieuwe stiefmoeder Lady Tremaine en haar dochters Anastasia en Drisella
met open armen. Als Ella's vader echter ook onverwacht sterft, wordt ze het slachtoffer van haar
jaloerse en gemene nieuwe familie.

Eerder
Absoluut Eerder
Waarschijnlijk niet Neutraal Waarschijnlijk Absoluut
niet kopen
niet kopen (2) kopen (4) kopen (6) kopen (7)
kopen (1) (5)
(3)
Ik ga de
film
Cinderella...
(1)
o o o o o o o

Solomon Northup, zoon van een vrijgemaakte slaaf en zelf vrij man, trouwt in 1829, dan 21, in
Saratago, New York en krijgt drie kinderen. Hij heeft een karig bestaan als timmerman; ook zijn
vrouw werkt en hij speelt op feesten als violist. In januari 1841 bieden twee mannen hem
goedbetaald werk aan als violist in een rondreizend circus. Hij gaat mee naar Washington en
wordt gedrogeerd wakker in een slavendepot. In New Orleans als slaaf verkocht, werkt hij twaalf

XIX
jaar op diverse plantages, vaak onder onmenselijke omstandigheden. Begin 1853 komt hij door
juridische actie van buitenaf vrij.

Helemaal Eerder
Niet Eerder Helemaal
niet niet Neutraal Akkoord
akkoord akkoord akkoord
akkoord akkoord (4) (6)
(2) (5) (7)
(1) (3)
Ik vind de
film 12 Years
a Slave leuk
(1)
o o o o o o o
Ik apprecieer
de film 12
Years a Slave
(2)
o o o o o o o
Ik sta gunstig
tegenover de
film 12 Years
a Slave (3)
o o o o o o o
12 Years a
Slave is een
aantrekkelijke
film (4)
o o o o o o o

Solomon Northup, zoon van een vrijgemaakte slaaf en zelf vrij man, trouwt in 1829, dan 21, in
Saratago, New York en krijgt drie kinderen. Hij heeft een karig bestaan als timmerman; ook zijn
vrouw werkt en hij speelt op feesten als violist. In januari 1841 bieden twee mannen hem
goedbetaald werk aan als violist in een rondreizend circus. Hij gaat mee naar Washington en
wordt gedrogeerd wakker in een slavendepot. In New Orleans als slaaf verkocht, werkt hij twaalf
jaar op diverse plantages, vaak onder onmenselijke omstandigheden. Begin 1853 komt hij door
juridische actie van buitenaf vrij.

Eerder
Absoluut Eerder
Waarschijnlijk niet Neutraal Waarschijnlijk Absoluut
niet kopen
niet kopen (2) kopen (4) kopen (6) kopen (7)
kopen (1) (5)
(3)
Ik ga de
film 12
Years a
Slave... o o o o o o o
(1)

De serie verhaalt chronologisch de puberteit en de adolescentie van leerling-tovenaar Harry

Potter en zijn beste vrienden Ronald Wemel en Hermelien Griffel, met wie hij samen studeert
aan Zweinsteins Toverschool. Het hoofdverhaal concentreert zich op Harry's gevecht tegen de
duistere tovenaar Heer Voldemort, die Harry's ouders vermoordde in een poging

XX
onsterfelijkheid te verwerven en de tovergemeenschap aan zich te onderwerpen.

Helemaal Eerder
Niet Eerder Helemaal
niet niet Neutraal Akkoord
akkoord akkoord akkoord
akkoord akkoord (4) (6)
(2) (5) (7)
(1) (3)
Ik vind de
boeken van
Harry Potter
leuk (1)
o o o o o o o
Ik apprecieer
de boeken
van Harry
Potter (2)
o o o o o o o
Ik sta gunstig
tegenover de
boeken van
Harry
PotterIk vind
de boeken
van Harry
o o o o o o o
Potter
aantrekkelijk
(3)
De Harry
Potter-reeks
zijn
aantrekkelijke o o o o o o o
boeken (4)

De serie verhaalt chronologisch de puberteit en de adolescentie van leerling-tovenaar Harry

Potter en zijn beste vrienden Ronald Wemel en Hermelien Griffel, met wie hij samen studeert
aan Zweinsteins Toverschool. Het hoofdverhaal concentreert zich op Harry's gevecht tegen de
duistere tovenaar Heer Voldemort, die Harry's ouders vermoordde in een poging
onsterfelijkheid te verwerven en de tovergemeenschap aan zich te onderwerpen.

Eerder
Absoluut Eerder
Waarschijnlijk niet Neutraal Waarschijnlijk Absoluut
niet kopen
niet kopen (2) kopen (4) kopen (6) kopen (7)
kopen (1) (5)
(3)
Ik ga de
boeken
van
Harry
Potter...
o o o o o o o
(1)

XXI
De welgestelde Amir en maatje Hassan, zoon van huisbediende Ali, hebben rond 1975 een mooie
jeugd in de Afghaanse hoofdstad Kabul. Ze doen mee aan de vliegerfeesten, genieten van
westerse invloeden, weten van de heersende politieke en culturele verhoudingen. Maar er gaat
tussen Amir en Hassan iets heel erg mis en zij verliezen elkaar uit het oog. Na de Russische inval
in Afghanistan (1980) vluchten vader en zoon naar de VS, waar ze een nieuw leven opbouwen.
Amir gaat studeren en vindt de vrouw van zijn dromen. Maar alles verandert als een vroegere
huisvriend hem in 2001 vraagt naar Pakistan te komen. Dan breekt de hel los. Geheimen worden
prijsgegeven en via het nu vreselijke Kabul, waar de Taliban hun schokkende praktijken
uitoefenen, keert een bijna gebroken Amir terug naar Amerika.

Helemaal Eerder
Niet Eerder Helemaal
niet niet Neutraal Akkoord
akkoord akkoord akkoord
akkoord akkoord (4) (6)
(2) (5) (7)
(1) (3)
Ik vind het
boek De
vliegeraar
leuk (1)
o o o o o o o
Ik
apprecieer
het boek De
vliegeraar o o o o o o o
(2)
Ik sta
gunstig
tegenover
het boek De
vliegeraar
o o o o o o o
(3)
De
Vliegeraar is
een
aantrekkelijk o o o o o o o
boek (4)

De welgestelde Amir en maatje Hassan, zoon van huisbediende Ali, hebben rond 1975 een mooie
jeugd in de Afghaanse hoofdstad Kabul. Ze doen mee aan de vliegerfeesten, genieten van
westerse invloeden, weten van de heersende politieke en culturele verhoudingen. Maar er gaat
tussen Amir en Hassan iets heel erg mis en zij verliezen elkaar uit het oog. Na de Russische inval
in Afghanistan (1980) vluchten vader en zoon naar de VS, waar ze een nieuw leven opbouwen.
Amir gaat studeren en vindt de vrouw van zijn dromen. Maar alles verandert als een vroegere
huisvriend hem in 2001 vraagt naar Pakistan te komen. Dan breekt de hel los. Geheimen worden
prijsgegeven en via het nu vreselijke Kabul, waar de Taliban hun schokkende praktijken
uitoefenen, keert een bijna gebroken Amir terug naar Amerika.

XXII
 Eerder
Absoluut Eerder
Waarschijnlijk niet Neutraal Waarschijnlijk Absoluut
niet kopen
niet kopen (2) kopen (4) kopen (6) kopen (7)
kopen (1) (5)
(3)
Ik ga het
boek De
vliegeraar...
(1)
o o o o o o o

Geef aan in welke mate u akkoord bent met volgende stellingen.

Helemaal niet Niet akkoord Helemaal

Neutraal (3) Akkoord (4)
akkoord (1) (2) akkoord (5)
Ik kan
verleiding
goed weerstaan
(1)
o o o o o
Ik heb moeite
om slechte
gewoontes af
te leren (2)
o o o o o
Ik ben lui (3)
o o o o o
Ik zeg
ongepaste
dingen (4) o o o o o
Ik doe
bepaalde
dingen die
slecht voor mij
zijn, als ze
o o o o o
leuk zijn (5)
Ik weiger
dingen die
slecht voor me
zijn (6)
o o o o o
Ik wou dat ik
meer
zelfdiscipline
had (7)
o o o o o
Mensen
zeggen dat ik
een ijzersterke
zelfdiscipline o o o o o
heb (8)

XXIII
Plezier en fun
houden me
soms van mij
werk (9)
o o o o o
Ik heb moeite
om me te
concentreren
(10)
o o o o o
Ik ben in staat
om effectief
naar een
doelstelling op
lange termijn
o o o o o
te werken (11)
Soms kan ik
mezelf niet
tegenhouden
iets te doen
waarvan ik
weet dat het
o o o o o
niet goed is
(12)
Ik doe vaak
dingen zonder
na te denken
over de
alternatieven
o o o o o
(13)

Geef aan in welke mate volgende stellingen kenmerkend zijn voor u.

Kenmerkt mij Kenmerkt mij

Kenmerkt mij Kenmerkt mij Kenmerkt mij
absoluut niet middelmatig
eerder niet (2) eerder wel (4) absoluut (5)
(1) (3)
Ik maak me
zorgen over
wat anderen
van mij
denken, ook al
weet ik dat dit
o o o o o
geen verschil
maakt (1)
Het doet me
niets wanneer
ik weet dat
mensen een
o o o o o

XXIV
ongunstige
indruk van mij
hebben (2)
Ik heb vaak
schrik dat
mensen mijn
tekortkomingen
zullen
o o o o o
opmerken (3)
Ik maak me
zelden zorgen
over welke
indruk ik nalaat
op iemand
o o o o o
anders (4)
Ik ben bang dat
anderen mij
niet zullen
goedkeuren (5)
o o o o o
Ik ben bang dat
anderen mijn
fouten zullen
zien (6)
o o o o o
De opinies van
anderen over
mij doen me
niets (7)
o o o o o
Wanneer ik
met iemand aan
het praten ben,
ben ik bezorgd
over wat ze van
o o o o o
mij denken (8)
Ik maak me
doorgaans
zorgen over
welke indruk ik
nalaat op
o o o o o
anderen (9)
Als ik weet dat
iemand mij
veroordeelt,
heeft dat
weinig effect
o o o o o
op mij (10)
Soms denk ik
dat ik te begaan
ben met wat
anderen over
o o o o o

XXV
mij denken
(11)
Ik maak me
vaak zorgen dat
ik domme
dingen zeg of o o o o o
doe (12)

Geef aan in welke mate u akkoord bent met volgende stellingen.

Helemaal Eerder
Niet Eerder Helemaal
niet niet Neutraal Akkoord
akkoord akkoord akkoord
akkoord akkoord (4) (6)
(2) (5) (7)
(1) (3)
De dingen
worden niet
meer gemaakt
zoals vroeger o o o o o o o
(1)
Vroeger was
het allemaal
beter (2) o o o o o o o
Producten
worden steeds
meer prullerig
(3)
o o o o o o o
Technologische
vooruitgangen
verzekeren een
mooiere o o o o o o o
toekomst (4)
Door de jaren
heen gaat het
welzijn van de
mens steeds o o o o o o o
omhoog (5)
We ervaren
vandaag de dag
een
vermindering
in o o o o o o o
levenskwaliteit
(6)
Een hogere
welvaart zorgt
voor meer o o o o o o o

XXVI
geluk (7)
Moderne
economie
bouwt constant
aan een betere o o o o o o o
toekomst (8)

Geef aan in welke mate u akkoord bent met volgende stellingen.

Helemaal niet Niet akkoord Helemaal

Neutraal (3) Akkoord (4)
akkoord (1) (2) akkoord (5)

Ik dagdroom
vaak (1) o o o o o
Wanneer ik
naar een film
kijk, verlies ik
mij er
gemakklijk in
o o o o o
(2)
Ik denk vaak
aan wat had
kunnen
gebeuren (3)
o o o o o

Geef aan in welke mate u akkoord bent met volgende stellingen.

Helemaal Eerder
Niet Eerder Helemaal
niet niet Neutraal Akkoord
akkoord akkoord akkoord
akkoord akkoord (4) (6)
(2) (5) (7)
(1) (3)
Een discussie is
niets meer dan
een spel met en
het uitwisselen o o o o o o o
van ideeën (1)
Ik leef niet van
dag tot dag; ik
plan liever lang
genoeg op o o o o o o o
voorhand (2)
Ik kan mijn
speelsheid
gebruiken om o o o o o o o

XXVII
iets aardigs te
doen voor andere
mensen, of om
hen op te
vrolijken (3)
Ik hou ervan om
in te gaan "tegen
de stroom" (4) o o o o o o o
Ik hou niet van
taken waarbij je
eerst enkele
dingen moet
uitproberen
vooraleer je een
o o o o o o o
goede oplossing
vindt (5)
Ik maak me geen
zorgen over de
meeste dingen
die ik doe, want
er zal altijd wel o o o o o o o
een oplossing
zijn (6)
Zelfs als
volwassene hou
ik ervan om
goedbedoelde
grapjes uit te o o o o o o o
halen met
anderen (7)
Ik heb de
reputatie eerder
ongewoon of
flamboyant te o o o o o o o
zijn (8)
Als ik een nieuw
idee verder wil
uitwerken, doe
ik dit graag op
een speelse
o o o o o o o
manier (9)
Ik ben een
onbezorgd
persoon (10) o o o o o o o
Ik heb goede
vrienden met wie
ik gek en
onnozel kan o o o o o o o
doen (11)

XXVIII
Omdat ik niet
graag in een
bepaald "hokje"
wordt geduwd,
doe ik af en toe o o o o o o o
impulsieve
dingen (12)
Wanneer er een
probleem is,
maak ik een
strak schema om
tot een oplossing
te komen en zal
ik zelden het
o o o o o o o
probleem op
speelse wijze
benaderen (13)
Veel mensen
vatten hun leven
te serieus op; als
de dingen niet
gaan zoals je
verwacht, moet
o o o o o o o
je improviseren
(14)
Het leidt me af
wanneer mijn
collega's op het
werk gek doen
en mij erbij
willen betrekken.
Dit heeft geen
nut voor mij en
o o o o o o o
ik wil niet
meedoen in
zulke situaties
(15)
Ik hou er
doorgaans niet
van om mezelf te
laten
categoriseren en
ik heb in o o o o o o o
verschillende
opzichten mijn
eigen stijl (16)
Als ik iets
nieuws moet
aanleren onder
tijdsdruk probeer o o o o o o o
ik dat op een

XXIX
speelse manier te
doen - dit helpt
me te leren (17)
Afwachten is
meestal beter
dan tijd te
besteden aan het o o o o o o o
overpeinzen (18)
Ik vind het leuk
om dingen na te
doen met
vrienden die we
samen beleefd
hebben (bijv. een
grappig incident
o o o o o o o
dat we graag
willen
onthouden) (19)
Ik vind het leuk
mezelf te
omringen met
ongewone
mensen of
o o o o o o o
objecten (20)
Als je een
concrete taak
moet uitvoeren,
is er geen plaats
voor speelsheid.
Dit zorgt enkel o o o o o o o
voor afleiding
van het werk
(21)
Het gebeurt
soms (op het
werk of in vrije
tijd) dat ik iets
doe en niet goed
nadenk over de
o o o o o o o
mogelijke
gevolgen (22)
Ik kan mijn
gevoelens voor
mijn
romantische
partner goed
uitdrukken op
o o o o o o o
een speelse
manier (23)

XXX
Ik heb een
ongebruikelijke
gewoonte of een
ongewone hobby o o o o o o o
(24)
Ik vind altijd iets
om te doen en ik
verveel me nooit
(25)
o o o o o o o
Als ik kan
kiezen, werk ik
liever wat meer
chaotisch en
ongepland dan
alles op
voorhand tot in
o o o o o o o
het kleinste
detail te plannen
(26)
Ik hou niet van
gezelschapspelen
(bijv. een
kaartspel, spel
met
dobbelstenen) en
zo op speelse
o o o o o o o
wijze met
mensen om te
gaan (27)
Ik kan enkel
genieten van een
spel als de regels
iets
merkwaardigs,
onvoorspelbaars,
ongewoons of
verrassends o o o o o o o
toelaten (of als
ik de regels op
zo'n manier mag
veranderen!)
(28)

XXXI
8.3 Appendix 3: Reliability checks
1) Reliability kidult media likability

2) Reliability playfulness

3) Reliability nostalgia

XXXII
4) Reliability escapism

5) Reliability self-control

6) Reliability social inhibition

XXXIII
8.4 Appendix 4: Correlations

Correlations

Score
Gender Age Escapism Score Play
** * **
Gender Pearson Correlation 1 -,073 ,215 -,118 ,183
Sig. (2-tailed) ,198 ,000 ,036 ,001
N 316 316 316 316 316
Age Pearson Correlation -,073 1 -,411** -,196** ,028
Sig. (2-tailed) ,198 ,000 ,000 ,616
N 316 316 316 316 316
** ** **
Score Escapism Pearson Correlation ,215 -,411 1 ,176 ,010
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,002 ,863
N 316 316 316 316 316
Score Play Pearson Correlation -,118* -,196** ,176** 1 ,032
Sig. (2-tailed) ,036 ,000 ,002 ,570
N 316 316 316 316 316
Score Nostalgia Pearson Correlation ,183** ,028 ,010 ,032 1
Sig. (2-tailed) ,001 ,616 ,863 ,570
N 316 316 316 316 316
Score Self-Control Pearson Correlation -,007 ,488** -,340** -,299** -,015
Sig. (2-tailed) ,904 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,794
N 316 316 316 316 316
Score Social Inhibition Pearson Correlation ,206** -,359** ,278** -,277** -,086
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,126
N 316 316 316 316 316
Score Cinderella Likability Pearson Correlation ,396** -,124* ,161** -,109 ,002
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,027 ,004 ,052 ,973
N 316 316 316 316 316
Score Harry Potter Likability Pearson Correlation ,032 -,197** ,300** ,120* ,038
Sig. (2-tailed) ,573 ,000 ,000 ,032 ,501
N 316 316 316 316 316
Cinderella Purchase Pearson Correlation ,239** -,167** ,096 -,061 ,084
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,003 ,087 ,283 ,137
N 316 316 316 316 316
Harry Potter Purchase Pearson Correlation ,050 -,269** ,313** ,129* ,024
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,377 ,000 ,000 ,022 ,670
N 316 316 316 316 316

Page 1

XXXIV
 Correlations

Score Self- Score Social

Score Nostalgia Control Inhibition
** ** **
Gender Pearson Correlation ,183 -,007 ,206 ,396

Sig. (2-tailed) ,001 ,904 ,000 ,000

N 316 316 316 316
Age Pearson Correlation ,028 ,488** -,359** -,124*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,616 ,000 ,000 ,027

N 316 316 316 316
Score Escapism Pearson Correlation ,010 -,340** ,278** ,161**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,863 ,000 ,000 ,004

N 316 316 316 316
Score Play Pearson Correlation ,032 -,299** -,277** -,109

Sig. (2-tailed) ,570 ,000 ,000 ,052

N 316 316 316 316
Score Nostalgia Pearson Correlation 1 -,015 -,086 ,002

Sig. (2-tailed) ,794 ,126 ,973

N 316 316 316 316
Score Self-Control Pearson Correlation -,015 1 -,175** -,007

Sig. (2-tailed) ,794 ,002 ,905

N 316 316 316 316
Score Social Inhibition Pearson Correlation -,086 -,175** 1 ,211**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,126 ,002 ,000

N 316 316 316 316
Score Cinderella Likability Pearson Correlation ,002 -,007 ,211** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) ,973 ,905 ,000

N 316 316 316 316
** *
Score Harry Potter Likability Pearson Correlation ,038 -,156 ,138 ,084

Sig. (2-tailed) ,501 ,005 ,014 ,136

N 316 316 316 316
**
Cinderella Purchase Pearson Correlation ,084 ,011 ,090 ,560
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,137 ,847 ,110 ,000
N 316 316 316 316
**
Harry Potter Purchase Pearson Correlation ,024 -,159 ,100 ,071
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,670 ,005 ,076 ,208
N 316 316 316 316

Page 2

XXXV
 Correlations
Score Cinderella
Cinderella Score Harry Purchase
Likability Potter Likability Intention
** **
Gender Pearson Correlation ,396 ,032 ,239 ,050
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,573 ,000 ,377
N 316 316 316 316
* ** ** **
Age Pearson Correlation -,124 -,197 -,167 -,269
Sig. (2-tailed) ,027 ,000 ,003 ,000
N 316 316 316 316
Score Escapism Pearson Correlation ,161** ,300** ,096 ,313**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,004 ,000 ,087 ,000

N 316 316 316 316
Score Play Pearson Correlation -,109 ,120* -,061 ,129*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,052 ,032 ,283 ,022

N 316 316 316 316
Score Nostalgia Pearson Correlation ,002 ,038 ,084 ,024

Sig. (2-tailed) ,973 ,501 ,137 ,670

N 316 316 316 316
Score Self-Control Pearson Correlation -,007 -,156** ,011 -,159**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,905 ,005 ,847 ,005

N 316 316 316 316
Score Social Inhibition Pearson Correlation ,211** ,138* ,090 ,100

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,014 ,110 ,076

N 316 316 316 316
Score Cinderella Likability Pearson Correlation 1 ,084 ,560** ,071

Sig. (2-tailed) ,136 ,000 ,208

N 316 316 316 316
**
Score Harry Potter Likability Pearson Correlation ,084 1 -,034 ,787

Sig. (2-tailed) ,136 ,551 ,000

N 316 316 316 316
Cinderella Purchase Pearson Correlation ,560** -,034 1 ,162**
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,551 ,004
N 316 316 316 316
Harry Potter Purchase Pearson Correlation ,071 ,787** ,162** 1
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,208 ,000 ,004
N 316 316 316 316

Page 3

XXXVI
 Correlations
Harry Potter
Purchase
Intention
Gender Pearson Correlation ,050
Sig. (2-tailed) ,377
N 316
Age Pearson Correlation -,269**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000

N 316
Score Escapism Pearson Correlation ,313**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000

N 316
*
Score Play Pearson Correlation ,129

Sig. (2-tailed) ,022

N 316
Score Nostalgia Pearson Correlation ,024

Sig. (2-tailed) ,670

N 316
Score Self-Control Pearson Correlation -,159**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,005

N 316
Score Social Inhibition Pearson Correlation ,100
Sig. (2-tailed) ,076
N 316
Score Cinderella Likability Pearson Correlation ,071
Sig. (2-tailed) ,208
N 316
Score Harry Potter Likability Pearson Correlation ,787**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,000

N 316
Cinderella Purchase Pearson Correlation ,162**
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed) ,004
N 316
Harry Potter Purchase Pearson Correlation 1
Intention
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 316
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Page 4

XXXVII
8.5 Appendix 5: Regressions
1) Cinderella likability

XXXVIII
2) Cinderella purchase intention

XXXIX
3) Harry Potter likability

XL
4) Harry Potter purchase intention

XLI
8.6 Appendix 6: MANOVA

1) Kidult MANOVA

XLII
XLIII
XLIV
XLV
XLVI
XLVII
2) Control MANOVA

XLVIII
8.7 Appendix 7: Calculations beta weights

1) Harry Potter likability & escapism

• Beta Harry Potter likability: .247 (p = .001) (.127-.373)
• Beta Vliegeraar likability: .056 (p = .370) (-.063-.176)
• Beta 12 Years a Slave likability: .224 (p = .001) (.089-.346)

Lower Point Upper

HP L escapism .127 .247 .373
VL L escapism -.063 .056 . 176
.12 + .12 .127 + .06 = .187 >
M = .12 / 2 = .06 .176 => significant
verschil

Lower Point Upper

HP L escapism .127 .247 .373
12Y L escapism .089 .224 .346
.12 + .122 .127 + .0605 = .1875
M = .121 / 2 = .0605 < .346 => geen
significant verschil

2) Harry Potter purchase intention & escapism

• Beta Harry Potter purchase intention: .244 (p = .001) (.122-.352)
• Beta Vliegeraar purchase intention: .081 (p = .258) (-.046-.210)
• Beta 12 Years a Slave purchase intention: .133 (p = .051) (.010-.251)

Lower Point Upper

HP PI escapism .122 .244 .352
VL PI escapism -.046 .081 .210
.122 + .129 .122 + .06275 =
M = .1255 / 2 = .18475 < .210 =>
.06275 geen significant
verschil
Lower Point Upper
HP PI escapism .122 .244 .352
12Y PI escapism .010 .133 .251
.122 + .118 .122 + .60 = .182 <
M = .120 / 2 = .60 .251 => geen
significant verschil

XLIX
3) Cinderella likability & gender
• Beta Cinderella likability: .366 (p = .001) (.251-.486)
• Beta 12 Years a Slave likability: -.088 (p = .126) (-.194-.290)
• Beta Vliegeraar likability: .131 (p = .020) (.013-.240)

Lower Point Upper

C L gender .251 .366 .486
12Y L gender -.194 -.088 .290
.115 + .202 .251 + .079 = .33 >
M = .1585 / 2 = .079 .290 => significant
verschil
Lower Point Upper
C L gender .251 .366 .486
VL L gender .013 .131 .240
.115 + .109 .056 + .251 = .307 >
M = .112 / 2 = .056 .240 => significant
verschil

4) Cinderella purchase intention & gender

• Beta Cinderella purchase intention: .210 (p = .001) (.098-.307)
• Beta 12 Years a Slave purchase intention: .020 (p = .785) (-.102-.142)
• Beta Vliegeraar purchase intention: .102 (p = .079) (-.008-.213)

Lower Point Upper

C PI gender .098 .210 .307
12Y PI gender -.102 .020 .142
.112 + .122 .0585 + .098 = .1565
M = .117 / 2 = .0585 > .142 =>
significant verschil
Lower Point Upper
C PI gender .098 .210 .307
VL PI gender -.008 .102 .213
.112 + .111 .0557 + .098 = .1537
M = .1115 / 2 = < .213 => geen
.0557 significant verschil

L
5) Cinderella purchase intention & age
• Beta Cinderella purchase intention: -.220 (p = .002) (-.358-(-.083))
• Beta 12 Years a Slave purchase intention: -.065 (p = .351) (-.210-.071)
• Beta Vliegeraar purchase intention: .209 (p = .004) (.054-.343)

Lower Point Upper

C PI age -.358 -.220 -.083
12Y PI age -.210 -.065 .071
.138 + .136 -.358 + .0685 = -
M = .137 / 2 = .0685 .2895 < .071 =>
geen significant
verschil
Lower Point Upper
C PI age -.358 -.220 -.083
VL PI age .054 .209 .343
.138 + .134 -.358 + .068 = -.29 <
M = .136 / 2 = .068 .343 => geen
significant verschil

6) Harry Potter purchase intention & age

• Beta Harry Potter purchase intention: -.173 (p = .011) (-.304-(-.033))
• Beta Vliegeraar purchase intention: .209 (p = .004) (.054-.343)
• Beta 12 Years a Slave purchase intention: -.065 (p = .351) (-.210-.071)

Lower Point Upper

HP PI age -.304 -.173 -.033
VL PI age .054 .209 .343
.131 + .134 -.304 + .066 = -.238
M = .1325 / 2 = .066 < .343 => geen
significant verschil
Lower Point Upper
HP PI age -.304 -.173 -.033
12Y PI age -.210 -.065 .071
.131 + .136 -.304 + .0668 = -
M = .1335 / 2 = .237 < .071 => geen
.0668 significant verschil

LI