Sea Waves and Hydropower – Part A

Alberto Bianchi
 Textbook 2

file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/Laymans%20Guide%20to%20Hydro_ES
HA%20(2).pdf
Introduction
7

"... Technology can play an important, if not

decisive, role in five crucial areas:
• sustainable and renewable energy systems;
• healthy and sustainable food systems;
• circular business models of business,
societies and communities;
• a sustainable urban future (....);
• sustainable transport systems.
These five areas of change are the
prerequisites for sustainable conservation of all
the Earth's ecosystems ... “
“What is needed is a set of measures for
sustainable energy, ranging from
improvements in energy efficiency to
biomass, to energy from wave, wind, solar
and various degrees of nuclear.»
 Electricity Consumption 11
Daily load diagram

1. VERY EASY TO BE
TRANSPORTED
2. IMPOSSIBLE TO BE
ACCUMULATED
Domestic Users Industrial Users Services
 Electricity Consumption 12
Daily load diagram

Daily diagram of the hourly load in the Italian system in the 3rd Wednesday of each month

Demand Output Import

Electricity Consumption 14
Yearly load diagram

Electric Italian System - 2004

Electricity Consumption 16
Electric systems interconnection

Total
ENEL

North
and
Central

South and
Islands
Electricity Consumption 18
Tariff
 Electricity Consumption 20
Satisfaction of the needs

Total
Requirement
Import Thermo
Total
Production Total Hydro

Geothermal
Reservoir

PV Basin Hydro

Wind River hydro

Renewable Energies 21
Wind
Renewable Energies 25
Photovoltaic (PV) /Solar
Earth’s Infrared Radiation Energy 27
https://spectrum.ieee.org/earths-infrared-radiation-new-renewable-
energy-frontier

Scholars at the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences believe that the Earth's heat, which
spreads through space, can produce renewable energy. The study was published in the scientific
journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. and the idea that this can be realized
comes from the mind of the Italian Federico Capasso, who has been working in the United States for
years.
Two systems have been developed by Harvard University to capture and exploit the Earth's thermal
energy. These devices are called EEH (Emissive Energy Harvester) and are able to produce energy
by emitting thermal radiation towards the sky. What the scholars do is calculate the thermodynamic
power that is available and plot it, "using the location of Oklahoma as a case study." These are two
different devices to advance the idea that infrared thermal radiation will produce electricity for the
Earth. The first is a thermal EEH (similar to the production of solar thermal energy) and the second
is instead comparable to the operation of the photovoltaic.
Salinity gradient Energy 39
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_power#:~:text=Osmotic%20power%2C%20s
alinity%20gradient%20power,rely%20on%20osmosis%20with%20membranes

Osmotic power, salinity gradient power or blue energy is the energy available from the difference in
the salt concentration between seawater and river water. Two practical methods for this are reverse
electrodialysis (RED) and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO). Both processes rely
on osmosis with membranes. The key waste product is brackish water. This byproduct is the result
of natural forces that are being harnessed: the flow of fresh water into seas that are made up of salt
water.
In 1954, Pattle[1] suggested that there was an untapped source of power when a river mixes with the sea,
in terms of the lost osmotic pressure, however it was not until the mid ‘70s where a practical method
of exploiting it using selectively permeable membranes by Loeb [2] was outlined.
The method of generating power by pressure retarded osmosis was invented by Prof. Sidney Loeb in
1973 at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel.[3] The idea came to Prof. Loeb,
in part, as he observed the Jordan River flowing into the Dead Sea. He wanted to harvest the energy
of mixing of the two aqueous solutions (the Jordan River being one and the Dead Sea being the
other) that was going to waste in this natural mixing process.[4] In 1977 Prof. Loeb invented a
method of producing power by a reverse electrodialysis heat engine.[5]
The technologies have been confirmed in laboratory conditions. They are being developed into
commercial use in the Netherlands (RED) and Norway (PRO). The cost of the membrane has been
an obstacle. A new, lower cost membrane, based on an electrically modified polyethylene plastic,
made it fit for potential commercial use.[6] Other methods have been proposed and are currently
under development. Among them, a method based on electric double-layer
capacitor technology[7] and a method based on vapor pressure difference.
 Salinity gradient Energy 40

Basics of salinity gradient power

Salinity gradient power is a specific renewable energy alternative that creates
renewable and sustainable power by using naturally occurring processes. This
practice does not contaminate or release carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
(vapor pressure methods will release dissolved air containing CO2 at low
pressures—these non-condensable gases can be re-dissolved of course, but
with an energy penalty). Also as stated by Jones and Finley within their article
“Recent Development in Salinity Gradient Power”, there is basically no fuel
cost.
Salinity gradient energy is based on using the resources of “osmotic pressure
Difference between fresh water and sea water.”[9] All energy that is proposed to use salinity gradient
technology relies on the evaporation to separate water from salt. Osmotic pressure is the "chemical
potential of concentrated and dilute solutions of salt".[10] When looking at relations between high osmotic
pressure and low, solutions with higher concentrations of salt have higher pressure.
Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is pressure-
retarded osmosis (PRO). Within PRO seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber where the pressure is
lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semipermeable
membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a
turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a
more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a
membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semipermeable membrane. As a result of the
osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the
membrane in order to dilute solution A".[11] The pressure drives the turbines and power the generator that
produces the electrical energy. Osmosis might be used directly to "pump" fresh water out of The
Netherlands into the sea. This is currently done using electric pumps.
Salinity gradient Energy 41

Efficiency
A 2012 study on efficiency from Yale university concluded that the
highest extractable work in constant-pressure PRO with a seawater
draw solution and river water feed solution is 0.75 kWh/m3 (2.7 kJ/L)
while the free energy of mixing is 0.81 kWh/m3 (2.9 kJ/L) — a
thermodynamic extraction efficiency of 91.0%.[12]
Methods
While the mechanics and concepts of salinity gradient power are still
being studied, the power source has been implemented in several
different locations. Most of these are experimental, but thus far they
have been predominantly successful. The various companies that
have utilized this power have also done so in many different ways as
there are several concepts and processes that harness the power
from salinity gradient.
Salinity gradient Energy 42

Pressure-retarded osmosis
One method to utilize salinity gradient
energy is called pressure-retarded
osmosis.[13] In this method, seawater is
pumped into a pressure chamber that is
at a pressure lower than the difference
between the pressures of saline water
and fresh water. Freshwater is also
pumped into the pressure chamber
through a membrane, which increase
both the volume and pressure of the
chamber. As the pressure differences Simple PRO power generation scheme
are compensated, a turbine is spun,
providing kinetic energy.]
 Salinity gradient Energy 43

This method is being specifically studied by

the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to
2.85 GW would be available from this process in
Norway.[14] Statkraft has built the world's first prototype PRO
power plant on the Oslo fjord which was opened by Princess
Mette-Marit of Norway[15] on November 24, 2009. It aimed to
produce enough electricity to light and heat a small town
within five years by osmosis. At first, it did produce a
minuscule 4 kilowatts – enough to heat a large electric kettle,
but by 2015 the target was 25 megawatts – the same as a
small wind farm.[16] In January 2014 however Statkraft
announced not to continue this pilot.[17] Statkraft found that
with existing technology, the salt gradient was not high
enough to be economic, which other studies have agreed
on.[18] Higher salt gradients can be found in geothermal
brines and desalination plant brines,[19] and SaltPower, a
Danish company, is now building its first commercial plant
with high salinity brine.[20] There is perhaps more potential in
integrating Pressure Retarded Osmosis as an operating
mode of reverse osmosis, rather than a stand-alone
technology.[21
 44

A second method being developed and studied

is reversed electrodialysis or reverse dialysis,
which is essentially the creation of a salt battery.
This method was described by Weinstein and
Leitz as “an array of alternating anion and cation
exchange membranes can be used to generate
electric power from the free energy of river and
sea water.”
The technology related to this type of power is
still in its infant stages, even though the principle
was discovered in the 1950s. Standards and a
complete understanding of all the ways salinity
gradients can be utilized are important goals to
strive for in order to make this clean energy
source more viable in the future. RED-prototype of REDstack at the Afsluitdijk
in The Netherlands
Salinity gradient Energy 45

Capacitive method
A third method is Doriano Brogioli's[7] capacitive method, which is relatively new and has so
far only been tested on lab scale. With this method energy can be extracted out of the
mixing of saline water and freshwater by cyclically charging up electrodes in contact with
saline water, followed by a discharge in freshwater. Since the amount of electrical energy
which is needed during the charging step is less than one gets out during the discharge
step, each completed cycle effectively produces energy. An intuitive explanation of this
effect is that the great number of ions in the saline water efficiently neutralizes the charge
on each electrode by forming a thin layer of opposite charge very close to the electrode
surface, known as an electric double layer. Therefore, the voltage over the electrodes
remains low during the charge step and charging is relatively easy. In between the charge
and discharge step, the electrodes are brought in contact with freshwater. After this, there
are less ions available to neutralize the charge on each electrode such that the voltage
over the electrodes increases. The discharge step which follows is therefore able to deliver
a relatively high amount of energy. A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged
capacitor, there is a mutually attractive electric force between the electric charge on the
electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged
electrode, osmotic pressure must do work. This work done increases the electrical potential
energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that capacitance is a function of ion
density. By introducing a salinity gradient and allowing some of the ions to diffuse out of the
capacitor, this reduces the capacitance, and so the voltage must increase, since the
voltage equals the ratio of charge to capacitance.
Renewable Resources 48
Regimes

Rivers

Wind Solar Radiation

Renewable Resources 50
Regimes
HYDROELECTRIC
Hydrological Regime POWER Yearly load diagram
PLANT
Traditional hydropower plants 55
Principle of operation of a hydroelectric plant

p V2
H = z+ +
γ 2g

VA2 /2g

Available specific energy

pA/γ
A

H
HA
zA

VB2 /2g
pB/γ B HB
zB
z=0

p A − pB VA2 − VB2
H = (z A − z B ) + + ≅ z A − zB W = γqH
γ 2g
Traditional hydropower plants 58
Principle of operation of a hydroelectric plant

𝑊𝑊 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 E = ∫ 𝑊𝑊 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
Head
Traditional hydropower plants 60
Principle of operation of a hydroelectric plant

A q B
Specific potenial energy
Intake conservation

Transformation into
specific pressure
energy
Transformation
into mechanic C
energy
Renewable Energy Concept 63

E = G×s ?
s
Renewable Energy Concept 65

Traditional Hydroelectric Power Plant

HEAD
 Renewable Energy Concept 67
100.000.000 years

10.000.000 years

1.000.000 years

H2O
100.000 years

8,5 DAYS 10.000 years

H2O 1.000 years

100 years FOSSILE
ENERGY
10 years
SOURCES
1 year
3 months
HUMAN LIVE

RENEWABLE
ENERGY
SOURCES
THE WATER CICLE
Overview of currents and waves with respect to 68
conversion and related hydro-machinery

+
P -
T

Ec

Ec
12 HOURS
Overview of currents and waves with respect to 69
conversion and related hydro-machinery

+
P -
T

12 HOURS
Distinctive Features of 71

Hydropower Systems

• Flow-based hydroelectric power plants

• Waves energy converting hydroelectric power plants

• Sea water thermic gradient hydreolectric power plants

• Osmosis

Distinctive features

Traditional hydropower systems Wave energy converters

Energy is transferred through an
A rotating machinery is always present
intermediate sub-system to another
activated by the environmental fluid
fluid, or without a fluid
Traditional hydropower plants 73
Principle of operation of a hydroelectric plant

kgf⋅m J kWh
1 m3
H2O E 1000Hd 9810⋅1⋅Hd 2,725⋅1000-3Hd=Hd/367

E⋅η 2,125⋅1000-3Hd=Hd/470≅
780Hd 7650Hd
[η≅0,78] ≅ Hd/500
m 500

1 m3
H2O
+kWh 1=
=0,86 kcal

m 367
kWh 1
+0,86° C

0,1 kW 0,5 kW 2 kW 158 kW

Hydrodynamic Value and Hydrodynamic Curve 81

W = γqH = γcAH ≈ AH = VI [ L3 ]
Hydrodynamic Value Curve

Power W
Hydrodynamic Value
4.000

16
3.500
Hydrodynamic Value VI [km3]

14
3.000
Power W [kWh]

12

× 𝛾𝛾 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)
2.500
10

2.000
8

1.500
6

1.000
4

500
2

0
0 500 1.000
1.000 1.500
1.500 2.000
2.000 2.500
2.500

Altitude
Altitude H [m
H [m a.s.l.]
a.s.l.]
Hydroelectric use of a River basin 87
Scheme of hydroelectric plants in Alta Valtellina (A2A)
Hydroelectric use of a River basin 88
Scheme of hydroelectric plants in Alta Valtellina (A2A)
Traditional hydropower plants 96
Head [m]

• Low h < 10÷50

• Middle 10÷50 < h < 100÷250

• High 100÷250 < h < 1000

• Very high h > 1000

Traditional hydropower plants 98
Discharge [m3/s]

• Small Q < 10

• Middle 10 < Q < 100

• Big 100 < Q < 1000

• Very big Q > 1000

Traditional hydropower plants 100
Power [MW]

• Big W > 10

• Small 3 < W < 10

• Mini 1<W<3

• Micro 0,1<W < 1

• Pico W<0,1

Piccole derivazioni ≤ 3000 kW < Grandi derivazioni

(R.D. 11 dicembre 1933, n. 1775, L. 24 gennaio 1977, n. 7)
Traditional hydropower plants 103
Scheme

• Run or River Hydro

• Basin Hydro

• Reservoir Hydro

• Pumped Storage Hydro

• Sea Flow-based Hydro

Traditional hydropower plants 105
Power [MW]

Mini and Micro Big Plant

Plant

RESERVOIR 0 m3 RESERVOIR 29 X 109 m3

NET HEAD 5,6 m

NET HEADE
110 m

MENAZZI POVER STATION (UD) ITAIPU - BRASIL

Traditional hydropower plants 107
Power [MW]

Mini and Micro Big Plants

Plants
POWER = 270 kW x 1 UNIT POWER = 715 MW x 18 UNITS

YEARLY ENERGY YEARLY ENERGY

1,70 GWh 93428 GWh

ALTA CARNIA – (UD - ITALY) ITAIPU - BRASIL

Run or River Hydro 109

Forbay or Headpond

c = gy [y = uniform flow depth]

Run or River Hydro 111
Run or River Hydro 113

Isola Serafini (PC) – River Po

Run or River Hydro 114
Run or River Hydro 116

Isola Serafini (PC) – River Po

Basin Hydro 118

Valchiavenna (SO - Italy)

Scheme of Reservoir Hydros 120
Reservoir Hydro 122

Power Station at the Toe of the Dam