Basic Principles of the Cosmic Ray Neutron

Sensor for the Determination of

Snow Water Equivalent
Part II
Rebecca Gugerli 1,2
1Environmental Remote Sensing Laboratory, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
2Radar, Satellite and Nowcasting division, Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, Locarno-Monti, Switzerland

Training course on the cosmic ray neutron sensor technology for

snow water equivalent determination in the Andes and the
Himalaya, February and March 2022
Recap
• Snow water equivalent is important to assess snowfall and snow
accumulation in high mountain regions.
• Cosmic ray neutron sensors are suitable devices for glacierized high-
mountain regions.
Content
• What are cosmic rays?
• How do cosmic-ray neutron fluxes change in time and space?
• What are the physics behind cosmic ray neutron sensors?
• How can we derive snow water equivalent from cosmic ray neutron
sensors?
Cosmic rays
Cosmic rays

Source: https://www.iop.org/explore-physics/understanding-our-environment/cosmic-rays#gref
Cosmic rays

Source: https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/207353-cosmic-ray-induced-radiation-powered-life-in-subsurface-pockets-of-the-universe
Cosmic rays

Source: https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/207353-cosmic-ray-induced-radiation-powered-life-in-subsurface-pockets-of-the-universe
Source: Barrantes et al. (2018)
Cosmic rays
• Viktor Hess
• several balloon flights in 1912
• up to 5350 m a.s.l.
Hess (1912) Kohlhörster (1913,1914)

Source: Carlson & De Angelis (2010) Source: Association Pro ISSI (2003)
Cosmic rays
• Viktor Hess
• several balloon flights in 1912
• up to 5350 m a.s.l.
• Hess & Anderson won Nobel
prize in physics in 1936 for the
discovery of cosmic rays.

Source: Association Pro ISSI (2003)

Cosmic rays
• What are cosmic rays?
• ~90% protons
• ~9% alpha particles
• ~1% heavier nuclei
Cosmic rays
Where do they come from?
• Originate mainly in the galaxy
• Can also originate from the sun
(solar cosmic rays)

Source: Association Pro ISSI (2003)

Source: https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/st/2018/03/19/cosmic-rays-messengers-from-space/
Cosmic rays
Solar and geomagnetic fields
have to be penetrated by the
charged particles.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/PIA16938-RadiationSources-InterplanetarySpace.jpg
Cosmic rays

Interaction with the Earth’s

atmosphere creates secondary
cascades of cosmic rays

Source: Barrantes et al. (2018)

 Cosmic rays
Secondary cascades of cosmic rays
• High-energy neutrons (~GeV), generated
by primary protons and heavier atoms
splitting atmospheric nuclei into particles

Source: Gordon et al. (2004)

 Cosmic rays
Secondary cascades of cosmic rays
• High-energy neutrons (~GeV), generated
by primary protons and heavier atoms
splitting atmospheric nuclei into particles
• Fast neutrons (~MeV) generated by
collisions with nuclei resulting in the
evaporation of fast neutrons Source: Gordon et al. (2004)
 Cosmic rays
Secondary cascades of cosmic rays
• High-energy neutrons (~GeV), generated
by primary protons and heavier atoms
splitting atmospheric nuclei into particles
• Fast neutrons (~MeV) generated by
collisions with nuclei resulting in the
evaporation of fast neutrons Source: Gordon et al. (2004)

• Low- energy thermal (0.025 eV) and

epithermal (> 0.5 eV) neutrons, produced
by moderation of fast neutrons through
collisions with atomic nuclei (elastic
neutron collision)
Cosmic-ray neutrons

Source: Köhli et al. (2015)

Spatio-temporal variability of
cosmic ray fluxes
Spatio-temporal variability of cosmic ray fluxes
• Planetary magnetosphere
• Deflects particles below a
certain energy
• Reason for more cosmic
radiation at poles

Source:
https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/styles/ori
ginal_image_size/public/solar-radiation-
1140x640.png?itok=mzv1I2O3

Source: Association Pro ISSI (2003 )

Spatial variability of cosmic ray fluxes
Variations over latitudes and longitudes due to the cutoff rigidity
“A further complicating factor in neutron
intensity [..] is the fact that the strength
of Earth’s magnetic field at a given
location also influences neutron flux
intensity. At the poles the minimum
energy that a particle must have to
penetrate the Earth’s magnetic field is
less than required near the equator. This
minimum energy requirement is
described as the cutoff rigidity.” [Hawdon
et al., 2013]

Map of isodynamic curves of the cut-off rigidity for the year 2020. Cutoff
rigidity is given in GeV. (Source: Gerontidou et al., 2021)
Spatial variability
of cosmic ray fluxes
Cutoff rigidity changes over time
as Geronidou et al. (2021) show.

(Source: Gerontidou et al., 2021)

Spatio-temporal variability of cosmic ray fluxes
• Planetary magnetosphere
• Deflects particles below a
certain energy
• Reason for more cosmic
radiation at poles
• Solar magnetosphere Source:

• Temporal variations https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/styles/ori

ginal_image_size/public/solar-radiation-
1140x640.png?itok=mzv1I2O3

Source: Association Pro ISSI (2003 )

Spatio-temporal variability of cosmic ray fluxes
Sunspot events

Source: Prettyman et al. (2007)

Spatial variability 600

of cosmic ray fluxes July - August 1964

April - May 1965
500

Elevation (air pressure)

Height in air (meters)

400

(3450 m a.s.l.) dry earth

300

water
200

100

(14 m a.s.l.)

0
1 10

Neutrons (10-7 cm-2 sec-1 eV-1)

Source: Gordon et al. (2004)
Source: Hendrick and Edge (1966 )
Temporal variability of
cosmic ray fluxes
Barometric pressure
Neutron production rate depends on
barometric pressure

Source: Kodama (1980)

Cosmic ray neutrons for snow
water equivalent estimates
 Cosmic-ray neutrons
Nuclear properties of elements
contributing to macroscopic
scattering cross-section.

Source: Zreda et al. (2012 )

Source: Köhli et al. (2015 )

 Cosmic-ray neutrons
Nuclear properties of elements
contributing to macroscopic
scattering cross-section.

Neutron
Hydrogen Source: Zreda et al. (2012 )

e.g. Nitrogen

Source: Köhli et al. (2015 )

Cosmic-ray neutrons

Source: Zreda et al. (2012 )

Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Oxygen
Cosmic-ray neutrons

Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Nitrogen

1 eV 1 keV 1 MeV
Source: Köhli et al. (2015 )
Cosmic-ray neutrons
Cosmic-ray neutrons

Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Nitrogen
Cosmic-ray neutrons

Neutron
Hydrogen
e.g. Nitrogen
Cosmic ray neutron devices for
snow water equivalent estimates
Cosmic ray neutron sensor
• Kodama (1980)
• Proportional counter tube filled with BF3
Cosmic ray neutron sensor
• Laval & Paquet (2007)
• Proportional counter tube filled with 3He
Cosmic ray neutron sensor
• Converter elements:
• 3He + n → 3H + 1H
• 10B + n → 7Li + 4He
• 6Li + n → 4He + 3H

Source: Weimar et al. (2020)

Cosmic ray neutron sensor SnowFoxTM

Technical specifics
• Aluminum capsule (81cm long, 20cm
diameter, 14kg)
• Proportional counter filled with 3He-gas
• Moderator: 2.5 cm cylinder of high-
density polyethylene
• 50mA at 12V
• manufactured by Hydroinnova LLC
Derivation of conversion functions
• The neutron count rates are exponentially related to the snow water
equivalent (through the number of hydrogen atoms)
• The various devices were calibrated in different ways.
 Calibration – Kodama

• Empirically defined
• Solid circles:
at Arai (sea level, Japan)
• Open circles:
at Okutadami (7980 m a.s.l., Japan)
• 2-part equation
Source: Kodama (1979)
 Calibration – EDF (Electricity of France)
• Sensor buried below pool (6m diameter)
• Water level up to 2500 mm w.e.

Source: Laval & Paquet, 2007; Paquet & Laval, 2005

 Calibration – EDF (Electricity of France)
• Similar approach as Kodama
• Different fit:

Source: Laval & Paquet, 2008

Calibration – SnowFoxTM
Semi-empirical approach:
• modelling of neutron fluxes with the
Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended
(MCNPX).
• empirical observations by lake
experiments
 Calibration – SnowFoxTM
Semi-empirical approach (modelling of neutron fluxes + empirical
observations), provided by manufacturer

glacierized site (fitted for ice (glacier fitting) adapted to frozen

sheet and glaciers) terrestrial landscape
high-porosity soil

Source: Gugerli et al. (2019); Jitnikovitch et al. (2021)

Take-home messages
• Cosmic rays produce secondary cascades with high-energetic neutrons
upon entrance into Earth’s atmosphere.
• Cosmic ray fluxes vary in space and time.
• Neutrons from secondary cosmic ray cascades are efficiently moderated
and absorbed by hydrogen atoms.
• Several models of cosmic ray neutron sensors exist with different
conversion functions.
References
• Association Pro ISSI (2003). Cosmic Rays. Spatium. http://www.issibern.ch/PDF-Files/Spatium_11.pdf
• Bütikofer, R. (2018). Ground-BasedMeasurements of Energetic Particles by NeutronMonitors. In Malandraki, O.
E. and Crosby, N. B., editors, Solar Particle Radiation Storms Forecasting and Analysis, chapter 6. Springer
International Publishing.
• Gaisser, T., Engel, R., & Resconi, E. (2016). Index. In Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics (pp. 441-444). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Gugerli, R., Salzmann, N., Huss,M., and Desilets, D. (2019). Continuous and autonomous snow water equivalent
measurements by a cosmic ray sensor on an alpine glacier. The Cryosphere, 13:3413–3434.
• Jitnikovitch, A., Marsh, P., Walker, B., and Desilets, D. (2021). Snow water equivalent measurement in the Arctic
based on cosmic ray neutron attenuation, The Cryosphere, 15:5227–5239.
• Kodama,M., Nakai, K., Kawasaki, S., andWada, M. (1979). An application of cosmic-ray neutron measurements to
the determination of the snow-water equivalent. Journal of Hydrology, 41:85–92.
• Kodama,M. (1980). Continuous Monitoring of Snow Water Equivalent Using Cosmic-Ray Neutrons. Cold Regions
Science and Technology, 3(4):295–303.
• Köhli, M., Schrön, M., Zreda, M., Schmidt, U., Dietrich, P., and Zacharias, S. (2015). Footprint characteristics
revised for field-scale soil moisture monitoring with cosmic-ray neutrons. Water Resour. Res. 51:5772–5790.
• Paquet, E. and Laval,M.-t. (2005). Experience feedback and future prospects for the use of EDF ’ s Cosmic-Ray
SnowGauges. Société Hydrotechnique de France - Glaciology-Nivology Section, page 8.
• Weimar J., Köhli, M., Budach C., & Schmidt, U. (2020) Large-Scale Boron-Lined Neutron Detection Systems as a
3He Alternative for Cosmic Ray Neutron Sensing. Frontiers in Water. 2
• Zreda,M., Shuttleworth,W. J., Zeng, X., Zweck, C., Desilets, D., Franz, T., and Rosolem, R. (2012). COSMOS: The
cosmic-ray soil moisture observing system. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(11):4079–4099.