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Flood risk management strategies for national capital territory of Delhi, India

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 ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering

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Flood risk management strategies for national

capital territory of Delhi, India

Mukesh Kumar, Mohammed Sharif & Sirajuddin Ahmed

To cite this article: Mukesh Kumar, Mohammed Sharif & Sirajuddin Ahmed (2017): Flood risk
management strategies for national capital territory of Delhi, India, ISH Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, DOI: 10.1080/09715010.2017.1408434

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 ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/09715010.2017.1408434

Flood risk management strategies for national capital territory of Delhi, India
Mukesh Kumar‡, Mohammed Sharif and Sirajuddin Ahmed
Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Delhi, a mega city with a population of 16.78 million, is situated on the bank of River Yamuna. During Received 24 June 2017
the last three decades, the hydrological characteristics of the Yamuna River basin have significantly Accepted 20 November 2017
changed. Due to rapid urbanization in the basin, the runoff has considerably increased. Consequently,
KEYWORDS
the flooding events are now occurring more frequently and with higher magnitudes. A sizeable Flood; risk; Yamuna; Delhi;
population of the city of Delhi resides in settlements that have mushroomed in the flood plains of mitigation
Yamuna. A majority of these settlements is in the low-lying areas, which make them highly vulnerable
to flooding events of even moderate intensity. In the present paper, several structural and non-
structural measures for the management of flood risk in the national capital territory of Delhi have
been recommended. A critical analysis of the existing flood control measures has revealed several
shortcomings. Based upon the analysis, several implementable structural and non-structural measures
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for alleviating the problem of riverine as well as urban flooding in the national capital territory of Delhi
have been recommended. Proper implementation of the recommended structural and non-structural
measures could significantly reduce the flood risk associated with riverine and urban flooding in the
national capital territory of Delhi.

1. Introduction Barrage. In general, elevation of the right bank of the Yamuna is

higher as compared to its east bank (Agarwal and Krause 2013).
Flood risk management involves not only managing the pre-
Yamuna faces the adverse impact of anthropogenic activities,
vailing flood risk situation, but also planning for a system that
erosion susceptibility and annual flood hazards. Cities like
aims to minimize flood risk. This process involves risk analysis
Yamuna Nagar, Panipat, Bagpat and Delhi are situated on the
on a regular basis and evaluation of hazard based on the latest
banks of Yamuna. Large industrial centres have developed in
information, hydrometeorological data, technical develop-
the vicinity of the river, mainly due to urbanisation and indus-
ments and altered conditions like urbanization and land use
trialisation that has taken place in the basin during the last
change (Plate 2002). Flood is amongst the most devastating
two decades. Basin area, particularly in Haryana and western
natural hazards on the globe (Smith 2013). Duration and
Utter Pradesh is highly fertile, resulting in rapid development
intensity of rainfall, natural or man-made obstructions, snow
in agriculture activities (CPCB 2006).
melt, poor farming techniques, sedimentation of the river bed
In the last 53 years from 1963 to 2015, Yamuna has crossed
and deforestation are some of the influencing factors (Mustow
the danger level of 204.83 m at Old railway bridge (ORB) 37
2000). Depth of flood water, its duration, flow velocity, rate of
times. Figure 1 shows the river Yamuna at the ORB in Delhi
rise and decline and frequency are flood hazard evaluation
during the 2010 flood when the maximum water level of
parameters. Modelling approaches are often employed to deter-
207.11 m was observed. Large scale urbanization, reduction
mine the extent of inundation during the period of flooding
in holding capacity of the catchment, the confining of the
(Khattak et al. 2016). Traditionally, structural measures are
river spread by construction of embankments coupled with
designed to control design flood up to a certain flood level.
the climate change phenomenon are the major contributors
The concept of flood control and mitigation in practice these
for increase in peak flow magnitude. Increase in impermeable
days places increased emphasis on non-structural measures
surface during urbanisation increases the peak flow, reduce
(Merz et al. 2010).
the time of concentration and thus make the area more flood
Yamuna, the largest tributary of Ganga originates from
prone (Wheater and Evans 2009). A study by Krellenberg et
Saptarishi Kund at Banderpoonch peak, in the Massoori range
al. (2013) showed that conversion of green space into built-up
of lower Himalayas, in Uttarkashi District of Uttarakhand in
areas in Santiego, Chile resulted in increased flood risk. The
India, at an elevation of 6320 m. The River Yamuna traverses
rate of urbanization is relatively high in the regions of Upper
a distance of 1376 km before its confluence with Ganga at
Yamuna just upstream of Delhi compared to regions further up
Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. The river has catchment area of
in the basin. There is clearly evident from the 2011 census of
34.585 Mha (Gurusamy and Jayaraman 2012). Yamuna runs
India (Chandramouli et al. 2011) which indicated an increase
almost parallel to the Ganga, before its confluence in River
of more than 40% in the urban population of three states in the
Ganga. Tons, Giri and Bata on the right bank and Asan on
Upper Yamuna region. Since urbanization in upper catchment
the left bank are its main tributaries, upstream of Hathnikund

CONTACT Mukesh Kumar mukeshkumarrohilla@yahoo.in

‡
Irrigation and Flood Control Department, Government of NCT of Delhi, New Delhi, India
© 2017 Indian Society for Hydraulics
 2  M. KUMAR ET AL.
Figure 1. Old Railway Bridge of Delhi during 2010 Flood.
will further increase the peak value of flood, it is critically
important to design and adopt flood mitigation measures to
protect Delhi from flood disaster.
2. Study area
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The study area of the present research is the National Capital
Territory (NCT) of Delhi, which is situated at 28°N and 77.23°E
on the globe and its area is 1483 km2. Delhi is surrounded by
Indo-Gangetic alluvium plain in the East and North, Aravalli
hill ranges in the South and Thar Desert in West with almost
flat terrain. Yamuna enters from the North Eastern side near
Palla village. The climate of Delhi is semi-arid, with summer
temperature ranging from 27.6 to 44.2 °C, and winter temper-
atures ranging from 3.5 to 22.2 °C. The mean annual rainfall
is about 714 mm (Bhasker 1998). About 75–80% of the total
rainfall occurs in the monsoon months (July to September). In
2012, out of total 708 mm annual rainfall, 527.7 mm (75%) was
recorded in the monsoon months of July to September (DoE
2015). The study area and location of Hathnikund barrage on
Yamuna is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Study area and location of Hathnikund barrage on Yamuna.
Delhi is the political nucleus of India and a major cen-
tre of economic activities in northern India. The city has
an urbanised area of 75.09% in 2011 (Chandramouli et al.
2011) compared to 46.21% in 1991. Rate of increase in urban
area during 1991 to 2011 was 62.5% (PD 2017). The popula-
tion of Delhi increased from 13.85 million in 2001 to 16.78
million in 2011. The increasing trend is still continuing as
shown in Figure 3. Rapid urbanization coupled with inad-
equate drainage system has led to an increase in incidents
of urban flooding which is clearly evident from the recent
flooding in Gurugram – a major commercial town of NCT
of Delhi.(Kumar et al. 2016). The inhabitants of north-east,
east, north and central Delhi are highly vulnerable to flood
disaster as population density increases the risk of flood dis-
aster (Maples and Tiefenbacher 2009).
3. Methodology adopted
The important information in respect of past floods, such
as the year of flooding, discharge released from Hathnikund
Barrage, gauge and discharge recorded at Wazirabad, ITO
and Okhla barrages in Delhi, gauge observed at the ORB,
extent of inundation, areas affected, loss of life and prop-
erty and duration of particular flood, flood control measures
adopted in Delhi so far were obtained from central flood con-
trol room registers maintained by the Irrigation and Flood
Control Department of the government of NCT of Delhi. The
data were carefully analysed to identify the cause of flooding
during various flooding events. A critical analysis of flood
control measures adopted so far is conducted to determine
the deficiencies. The flood control strategies followed during
flood season from June to October every year were carefully
analysed. These strategies include setting up of control room,
wireless stations, collection of data from strategically identi-
fied locations, stock of flood fighting materials, dispersion of
information to the concerned agencies, operational levels of
various regulators and pumping arrangements. A set of infor-
mation pertaining to roles and functions of various depart-
ment and agencies, monitoring and inspection mechanism,
operation of three barrages operated by different states, flash-
ing of warnings, evacuation, search and relief system, main-
taining and preservation of flood record was carefully studied.
Post flood topographical data pertaining to River Yamuna was
collected from the IFCD to assess the feasibility of localized
dredging of river in Delhi to improve its carrying capacity. A
thorough review of the drainage system of the national capital
system of Delhi has been carried out and deficiencies are iden-
tified. Finally, several structural and non-structural measures
are recommended based on the deficiencies identified in the
present flood control system in place.
4. History of floods
Ancient cities like Mathura, Agra and Delhi are situated on the
bank of River Yamuna, which has a long history of floods. The
world famous Taj Mahal is situated in Agra on the banks of
River Yamuna. Major floods in Delhi occurred in 1924, 1977,
1978, 1995, 2010, and 2013. Analysis of timings of flood data
from 1963 to 2010 indicated an increasing trend for floods
occurring in the month of September, whereas the floods
occurring in the month of July exhibited a decreasing trend
(Figure 4). These floods are described in detail in the following
section.

Figure 3. Growth of Population in Delhi. (Sourse: Chandramouli et al. 2011).
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Figure 4. Flood occurrence trend in various months.
4.1. The 1924 flood
During the 1924 flood, Tajewala Head Works was severely
damaged resulting in loss of life and property along the east-
ern bank of the river. Telegraph office, clerks Quarter and other
buildings were damaged on the eastern side. Water flowed
through breaches in embankments and eroded the Eastern
Yamuna canal at several locations. Delhi-Shahdara railway
line was damaged and it took a month to restore it. Shahdara
and neighbouring villages were submerged (WAPCOS 1994).
In 1924 upper reach of the Yamuna was not embanked. The
embankments were constructed after 1955. The trans-Yamuna
area of Delhi did not have proper drainage network in 1924,
thereby exacerbating the problem caused by the flood.
4.2. The 1977 flood
Delhi is at the tail end of Aravalli due to which the major
portion of the rainfall is absorbed in the semi-arid region of
Sahibi catchment, and the remaining water is discharged into
Jahajgarh and Najafgarh lakes in Haryana and Delhi, respec-
tively. The flood havoc in 1977 was due to the excess flow in
Sahibi River, which originates from Rajasthan and enters Delhi
at Dhansa after traversing a distance of 222 km. The Sahibi
finally outfalls into Yamuna through Najafgarh drain. Due to
heavy rainfall in Sahibi River catchment, an unprecedented
flood occurred in Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The max-
imum discharge released from Masani Barrage in Haryana,
which is located about 79 km up stream of Dhansa, was 3032.88
cumec. The Najafgarh drain carried a discharge of 184.24
ISH JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING  3
cumec for several days against the capacity of 85 cumec that
resulted in over topping and breaching of banks and flooding
of urbanised colonies along the drain in Delhi (IFCD 1977).
Several roads, including Chawla-Bijwasan road, Najafgarh-
Dhansa road and outer ring road in Delhi were submerged in
water. A vast area of Haryana remained submerged in water
for more than a month.
4.3. The 1978 flood
On the 11th of July, a 15 m wide breach occurred in drain
number 6, which was connected to Bawana Escape. The breach
resulted in the flooding of Jindpur, Hiranki and Mukhmailpur
in Alipur block, due to back flow of Yamuna water. Around
2.43 acres of land and residential area of Jindpur was flooded.
Agricultural fields of Sabhapur Chauhanpatti, Sabhapur
Gujran, Jagatpur, Gopalpur and Wazirabad were also flooded.
The high flood level (HFL) in drain number 6 was 209.8 m with
reference to the ground level of 207 m. On the 4th of August,
30 m portion of Bawana Escape at Qadirpur breached due to
back flow when the water level in Yamuna at the ORB was
206.2 m. Due to this breach, a large area in Alipur block was
flooded, forcing the administration to seek the help of Indian
army in relief and rescue operations. Flooding resulted in
submergence of Gokalpuri, Yamunapuri, Ghonda and Naveen
Shahdara colonies of trans-Yamuna area. The most severe flood
in the history of Yamuna occurred on 3 September, when
release of more than 19,841 cumec was made from Tajewala
barrage. The observations of discharge beyond 19,841 cumec
 4  M. KUMAR ET AL.

could not be carried out due to flooding of the observation
room on the bank of River Yamuna. The left embankment
between Faizabad and Tajewala breached and water bypassed
the Tajewala barrage resulting in huge damage downstream. A
100 m length of the railway track was washed away due to the
breach in railway bund upstream of Kalanaur Rail Bridge. Due
to breaches and subsequent water detention, the maximum
discharge observed at the ORB was reduced to 7086 cumec
with highest ever recorded level of 207.39 m at the ORB (IFCD
1978). Model town, Mukharjee Nagar and Nirankari Colony
were amongst the several colonies that were submerged under
water.
when the Yamuna was flowing above the danger mark at the
ORB. A residential building collapsed in Lalita Park due to seep-
age flow that reduced the bearing capacity of the soil underlying
the building. The problem of flooding was aggravated due to a
significantly higher than the normal rainfall of 1031 mm. The
low lying areas of Mukherjee Nagar, Bela Road and Civil lines
were the worst affected with Chandgi Ram Akhara, Boat club,
Qudasia Ghat, Tibten Monastery, Nigambodh and Gau Ghat
submerged under water (IFCD 2010). More than 3500 people
were shifted to relief camps following the flood threat from low
lying areas like Garhi Mandu, Usmanpur Pusta, Jaitpur village
and Shastri Nagar.

4.4. The 1995 flood 4.6. The 2013 flood

During the 1995 flood, the maximum water level recorded at
the ORB was 206.93 m due to the release of 15,193 cumec
from Tajewala barrage. The gauge at the ORB depends upon
the operation of barrages at ITO and Okhla. People residing in
the colonies in the vicinity of ORB such as Gautampuri near
Raj Ghat, Nanglamachi near drain number 14, Shriram col-
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Due to sudden heavy rainfall in the upper catchment of
Yamuna, huge amount of water was released from the
Hathnikund Barrage. Consequently, the level of river Yamuna
rose to 207.32 m at ORB on 19th June. Several areas in the
vicinity of the ORB were affected. The ring road, which is a
peripheral road in Delhi was flooded at several places. Around

ony, Sonia Vihar, Geeta Colony, Shamsan Ghat, Shastri Park, 10000 people were shifted to safer places. Both the road and
Chandgi Ram Akhara and Nigam Bodh Ghat were evacuated the rail traffic were not allowed on the ORB for three days
to safer places. The entire zoo area was flooded due to blockage (IFCD 2013).
in storm water and sewage, endangering the animals (IFCD
1995).
5. Flood control measures adopted
In many parts of the world, provision of structural measures
4.5. The 2010 flood
is still the most dominant approach for flood defense. Flood
The new barrage at Hathnikund replaced the old barrage at alleviation measures adopted in the national capital territory
Tajewala in Haryana, and became operational in 2002. During of Delhi are as follows.
the flood of 2010, a discharge of 21,090 cumec was released
from Hathnikund Barrage. It resulted in maximum water lever
5.1. Construction of embankments along Yamuna
of 207.11 m at the ORB. The river flowed above danger level
from 20 to 27 September. Several areas in Lalita Park, Sakarpur, Several embankments have been constructed during 1955 to
Laxmi Nagar experienced seepage flow for almost one month 1978 on both sides of the River Yamuna in the entire 210 km
reach by the Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to protect the rural
Table 1. Embankments in Delhi stretch along with their salient features. population. A 11.5 km long bund from north of Bawana
escape to Delhi-Haryana border was completed in 1978 to
Location
Embank- Length Top level save 14 villages east of GT road. The bund just upstream of
S.N. ment From To (km) (m) Delhi is Dahisara Bund, which is constructed and maintained
1 RME Palla Wazirabad 18.36 215.3 by Haryana Irrigation Department. For the 22 km reach of
2 Jagatpur Jagatpur Wazirabad 4.388 211.0
bund Yamuna from Palla to Wazirabad, the width between embank-
3 Yamuna Nigam- Old Rail 1.1 208.5 ments varies from 1 to 4.5 km without any constraining hydrau-
Bazar Bodh bridge lic structure, thus leaving sufficient space for meandering. The
wall Ghat
4 Mughal ORB ITO barrage 2.7 208.45 Shahdara Marginal Bund was constructed in 1955, to prevent
Bund frequent flooding of the Trans - Yamuna Area. The highest
5 Power ITO barrage Nizamud- 2.3 207.14 ever recorded level in Delhi at ORB was 207.49 m in 1978.
house din Rail
bund bridge Embankments, locations, top level and their lengths are shown
6 RME Nizamud- Nizamud- 1.5 207.3 in Table 1.
din Rail din road
bridge bridge
7 Madanpur d/s Okhla Jaitpur 3.55 202.96 5.2. Anti-erosion works
Khadar
RME To keep the active current of water away from the embank-
8 Left Delhi-UP Wazirabad 5.75 210.9
Forward border ment and prevent excessive meandering, spurs, studs,
Bund mandaks and bed bars are provided at vulnerable loca-
9 Shahdara Wazirabad Old Rail 11.9 209 tions of the river. Thirty-three spurs were constructed near
Marginal road Bridge
Bund Mohammedpur, Ramjanpur, Hiranki and Tiggipur in 1978. In
10 LM Bund Old rail Noida 6.7 208.44 east side upstream of left forward (LF) bund, the Uttar Pradesh
Bridge Irrigation Department constructed spurs to protect the 18 km
11 Akshard- Nizamud- Nizamud- 1.5 207.3
ham din Rail din Road long Alipur bund. More than thirty shanks have been pro-
Bund bridge bridge vided to keep the active current away from both left and right
Source: IFCD 2016. embankments upstream of Wazirabad. Flow is near the right
 ISH JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING  5

bank from Wazirabad to ORB, and meanders towards the left 5.6. Permanent storm water pumps
bank downstream of the ORB. About ten spurs protect the
Permanent pumping stations have been set up at Vivek
LF bund, which has dense population on the city side. Studs
Vihar (60), Rana Pratap Bagh (50.1), Dhaka Dhirpur (50),
have also been provided along the right bank of ITO barrage
Mukherjee Nagar New (60), and Mukherjee Nagar Old (76),
to save power house bund.
West Nizamuddin (25), IP Estate (140), Minto bridge (51.5),
Yamuna Bazar (39), Rohtak road (28), Rose Garden (40),
5.3. Drainage improvement Azad Bhawan (40), Shakti Nagar (33), Shahdara Marginal
Bund (140), Trilokpuri (105) and Vijay Ghat (64) to pump out
The drainage network comprising of six major drains namely
storm water. In addition to permanent pumps, semi-permanent
Shahdara Out Fall, Gazipur, Shahdara Link,TD-I, TD-II,
storm water pumping stations at Tonga stand Yamuna Bazar
Karawal Nagar and other drains with ancillary structures in
(9), Mayapuri (4), Tilak Bridge (5) and Chotta Bazar Shahdara
the Trans Yamuna area was completed in 1989. To provide
(4) have also been installed to prevent flooding. The value spec-
relief to Jhagirpuri, Adarsh Nagar, Model town, Mukherjee
ified in bracket is the pumping capacity in cusec (IFCD 2016).
Nagar, Nirankari Colony, Gopalpur and Kingsway camp col-
onies, the Jhagirpuri drain having 5.47 km length and a 45.2
cumec discharge capacity has been constructed. An adequate 6. Flood regulation options
number of high capacity pumps are deployed at the regulator of
Non-structural measures are a crucial component of any flood
Najafgarh drain to pump out water and to avoid water logging.
management plan. Despite several measures adopted to pre-
The capacity of the Najafgarh drain has been augmented to
vent recurrence of flood, regular vigil needs to be maintained
283.45 cumec, and a supplementary drain has been constructed
on embankments to timely detect and check abnormal ero-
with a capacity of 141.7 cumec to deal with an emergency flood
sion by the meandering river, particularly during high floods.
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situation.
Three barrages, under the ownership and control of three dif-
ferent states, are situated in the Delhi stretch of the Yamuna.
5.4. Construction of dam at Ajmeripura and barrage at Therefore, a close coordination is maintained for safe release of
Masani high flood water, with UP and Haryana Irrigation departments
and Delhi Jal Board. Gauge discharge curve of Wazirabad bar-
After the 1977 flood in Delhi, a high powered committee was
rage is shown in Figure 5. Timely operation of Chilla regulator
set-up to devise a flood control plan in coordination with the
is to be ensured for safe release of heavy discharge due to heavy
states of Rajasthan and Haryana. The committee suggested the
local rainfall in Trans Yamuna area or discharge entering into
construction of Dam at Ajmeripura in Rajasthan and a barrage
Delhi through Shahdara drainage system from upstream UP
in Haryana at Masani along with several small tanks on tribu-
areas. Boats and emergency portable pumps are kept in ready
taries of Sahibi to retain water for utilisation in Irrigation. The
to use position to overcome any exigency.
Rajasthan government carried out the work of the Ajmeripura
An apex committee under the chairmanship of Chief
storage dam, whereas the construction of the Barrage at Masani
Minister exists in Delhi to supervise and monitor the flood
was completed by the government of Haryana. These structures
situation. District level committees under the district magis-
act as flood moderator as well retain water for irrigation. .
trates oversee the flood relief and rescue operations. A review
of the flood control measures is carried out just before onset
5.5. Construction of Ring bunds of monsoon each year. Special attention and regular vigil are
kept on the identified vulnerable areas during passage of high
Ring bunds are made around Delhi’s high flood prone villages.
discharge. If required, Divisional Commissioner can seek
Ring Bunds of five to six feet height were made after the flood
assistance of army in flood control and flood fighting, evac-
of 1977 around Routa, Ghalibpur, Nanakhari, Mundela Khurd
uation, distribution of food and other related matters. The
and Duorala villages. Ring bunds around low lying areas like
Central Water Commission regularly monitors the discharge
Jahagirpuri and Seemapuri were also made and have been
in Yamuna and Sahibi River, right from upper catchment and
strengthened further.
issue real time flood forecasts. For Delhi, forecast based on

Figure 5. Gauge discharge curve of Wazirabad Barrage in Delhi.

 6  M. KUMAR ET AL.
discharge released from Massani barrage for Sahibi and Hathni
Kund for Yamuna is important. Flashing of warning and their
significance is shown in Table 2. The Mike-11 flood forecasting
system has been setup, and is in operation since 1989.
7. Critical analysis of flood control measures
A critical analysis of the existing flood risk management system
shows following deficiencies.
7.1. Lack of storage structures in upper Yamuna basin
The total surface water available in Yamuna Basin is estimated
as 90 billion cubic metre (bcm), of which 80% is generated in
the monsoon season. The present storage capacity of major and
medium water storage projects in the basin is 17 bcm, and 85%
of this capacity is in basin area down-stream of Delhi (Narula
et al. 2001). There are two major barrages on River Yamuna,
namely Dak Pather and Hathnikund u/s of Delhi. There are
no dams on river Yamuna, and therefore most of the monsoon
flow remains unutilised, resulting in floods in the monsoon
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season. Due to absence of dams, there is a shortage of water
during the dry season.
7.2. Encroachment on flood plain
Prominent paleo channels, meander cut offs, terrace markers
and river migration plains show that in nineteenth century,
the flow in Yamuna was just on the eastern side of Narela and
Wazirabad. In 1955–1956, embankments were made to avoid
frequent flooding of adjoining areas. It resulted in rapid urban-
isation in protected areas. Villages like Sabhapur, Sadatpur,
Usmanpur and Garhi Mandu having average ground levels of
207, 206, 204.5 and 205 m, respectively, were inundated during
high floods in Yamuna. The encroachment on flood plain from
1807 to 1980 was slow in comparison to period 1980–2014,
when the flood plain was utilised for settlements, civic struc-
tures, roads, bridges, flyovers, metros etc. (Khan and Bajpai
2014). Decrease in flood plain form 1807 to 2014 is shown in
Figure 6. A study by Rucha et.al (2011) shows that from March
1977 to February 2009, land use, and the land cover of the river
had changed significantly. Image analysis shows reduction in
main channel, dense vegetation, water bodies and open land.
An increase in built up area and agriculture activities in river
bed was found through image analysis.
7.3. Vulnerable stretches and gaps in embankment
There are some locations where the active course of the river
is close to embankment. Therefore, a constant vigil is to be
maintained during high flood and a huge stock of flood fight-
ing materials is to be kept to prevent any erosion. There are
Table 2. Flashing of warnings based on release of discharge from Masani Barrage and Hathnikund Barrage.
SN Particulars Discharge (cumec)
1 First Warning
NG Drainage system 992
Yamuna 2835
2 Second Warning
NG Drainage system 1984
Yamuna 8503
3 Third Warning
NG Drainage system 2835
Yamuna 14172
also stretches like segment d/s of Okhla barrage, area between
Maharani Bagh and Okhla Weir, gaps on the right bank
between Wazirabad and ORB, where strengthening is required.
7.4. Back flow in drains
Out of 18 outfall drains, three major drains namely, Najafgarh,
Shahdara and Barapulla do not have regulators. Some drains
such as drain number 15 have temporary arrangements for
back flow prevention. The major cause of the 1978 flood was a
breach of embankments of drain number 6 and Bawana Escape
in Alipur block.
7.5. Pumping out of storm water from drains to river
After closure of regulator gates, pumping of city side water
into Yamuna is required. The majority of out-falling drains
do not have a permanent pumping station. During 2010 and
2013 the situation in drain number 12 and 13 had reached the
point of distress and water from these drains started flowing
back in low lying areas like premises of headquarters of Delhi
Transport Corporation.
7.6. Service lines in drains
Service lines like, water pipe, sewer pipe, telephone and elec-
tricity cables are laid in drains or on banks, which reduce the
carrying capacity and adversely affects maintenance opera-
tions. In the 2010 flood, four manholes constructed in main
channel crossing were closed by putting earth filled gunny bags
to avoid entry of water to drain into the main channel through
these man holes and to avoid flooding in Burari area through
the main channel.
7.7. Lack of efficient sewage system and inter connected
sewage and drainage network
Sewage network in a large number of unauthorized colonies,
rural villages and other regularized areas is yet to be laid.
Utilisation of waste water is only 21% of the estimated sewage
generation. It results in huge quantity of sewage finding its way
into the drainage system, resulting in additional siltation load,
for which drainage system is not designed. Interconnected sew-
age and drainage network is one of the major causes of flooding
in low-lying colonies due to backflow.
7.8. Old drainage system and covered drains
The master plan of drainage (MPD) for the city of Delhi was for-
mulated in 1976. The population of Delhi in the year 1981, when
the plan was implemented, was 6 million, whereas the population
as per 2011 census of India is 16.7 million. More than 750 km2
Significance
Villagers in Najafgarh Jheel area advised to remain alert
Boats placed at vulnerable areas
Residents of Jheel area asked to move to safe/higher places
People within Embanked area asked to remain alert. Patrolling of vulnerable areas starts
People in dangerously exposed areas alerted to move to the higher places, when needed
Evacuation and sifting of people from vulnerable areas starts

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Figure 6. Reduction in Yamuna flood plains boundaries in Delhi. (Source: Khan and Bajpai 2014).
area is already urbanised and this figure is projected to rise to
980 km2 by 2021. One of the proposals in MPD-1976 was to
review the drainage Master Plan in 2001. Although several drain-
age related works have been carried out in Delhi, but no compre-
hensive planning was undertaken. Therefore, the old drainage
system needs to be reviewed to carry the increased runoff. Large
scale covering of storm water drains has been carried out either
to construct roads, parking space or to prevent foul smell from
drains. Consequently, desilting of drains has become difficult.
7.9. Reduction in retention capacity of basin
In the absence of storage in the basin, most of the runoff
reaches the drains, resulting in an increase in peak flow during
flood season. Due to decrease in water retention capacity of the
basin, the risk of flooding has increased significantly. Further,
Delhi and adjoining areas are facing the problem of depletion
of ground water due to excessive extraction of ground water
and inadequate recharging of aquifers. Urbanisation, popula-
tion and industries are primary contributors to this problem.
7.10. Lack of flood plain development policy
The United States flood plain management policy has regu-
lations pertaining to flood plain development along with a
wide range of measure like flood warning, flood insurance,
flood proofing, building codes etc. to reduce flood losses, and
measures to protect and increase flood plain environment val-
ues (Johnston 1984). Parker (1995) in his study of flood plain
development policy in England and Wales found that green
belt policy had prevented further flood plain development in
un-developed flood plains, but new development increased
within existing built up zones. In Delhi, the lack of flood plain
ISH JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING  7
development policy led to a growth of unauthorized colonies
like Sonia Vihar, Rajeev Nagar, Shri Ram Colony, Bal Nirikshan
Grih, Tibetan school, Majnu ka Tila, Chandgi Ram Akhara
as shown in Figure 7. Several government projects such as
Metro Head Quarter, Shastri Park and Yamuna Bank Metro
stations, CWG village and Millennium depot have come up in
the Yamuna flood plain.
8. Discussions and suggestions
Flood management options include embankments and flood
walls, removing buildings from risk prone areas, afforesta-
tion, inspection, maintenance and monitoring of streams/
water courses, improving warning systems, sustainable urban
drainage and increasing the water retaining capacity of the
catchment along with other area measures. A catchment led
approach to integrated management of surface water will
reduce the risk of flood, improve the water quality and reduce
the water demand by grey water recycling and rain water har-
vesting. Following measures are suggested for flood risk man-
agement for the NCT of Delhi.
8.1. Structural measures
8.1.1. Construction of storage dams
Storage reservoirs can help in peak attenuation and thus reduce
the magnitude of flood in the downstream. Storage of around
400 Mm3 is required to be carried upstream of Hathnikund bar-
rage at Sambar Khera in Dehradun district of Uttrakhand on
Tons River, which is a tributary of Yamuna in order to provide
around 100 cumec water for use in dry season. Considering
the existing trend the gap between availability and demand will
increase, further pressing the need of storage.
 8  M. KUMAR ET AL.
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Figure 7. Vulnerable Areas along Yamuna. (Source: Sharif et al. 2016).
8.1.2. Construction of barrage at Palla
Barrages can be utilized for flood protection through the atten-
uation of flood peak. In Rhine river, a series of barrages is
used to provide maximum storage of flood water in retention
space. Construction of the barrage at Palla will provide Delhi
the additional storage facility. A 8 m high barrage at the end of
pondage of Wazirabad near Jagatpur will create storage capacity
of around 120 MCM. During the flood season, barrage can
moderate the peak of the flood. Thus, it has the potential to
reduce the stress on embankments downstream of Palla.
8.1.3. Regulators on all out falling drains along with
permanent pumps
Most of the city drains outfalls into the river between Wazirabad
and Okhla barrage. It has been observed that floods with HFL
of 207 m and above results in back flow condition in all the
drains. Back flow starts in some drains like Jahangirpuri even
when water in the river is below the danger level at ORB.
Regulators on outfall drains have to be closed to check back
flow of river water into the city. Jahagirpuri drain (sill level
203.4 m), Tonga stand drain (204.25 m), Qudasia Ghat drain
(204.37 m) and Metcaff House drain (204.76 m) are highly
prone to back flow. The Jahgirpuri drain regulator is closed at
even when the water level is well below the danger level, which
is 204.83 m, at the ORB. Flood in 1978 was due to lack of reg-
ulators and backflow of water in several drains. To avoid back
flow of water from Yamuna into the drains, it is suggested that
all out falling drains should have permanent pumping stations.
Power supply failure is a common feature during heavy storms.
Hence generators should be deployed as a standby arrangement
at all regulators in addition to local power supply for ensuring
smooth pumping even in case of power failure.
8.1.4. Diversion of flood water into retention basins
Swelling of Yamuna beyond a particular level will render the
embankments useless. The low lying areas like East Delhi and
North Delhi are at risk even during moderate floods. Hence,
during high foods, river water may be diverted to Bawana
Escape and Bhalaswa Lake. These water bodies should be used
for recreational purpose for ensuring regular maintenance and
to prevent them from becoming solid waste dumping and mos-
quito breeding grounds. The capacity of these water bodies
needs to be increased through dredging. Adequate number of
retention basins should be constructed in the reach upstream
of Wazirabad Barrage. The method of diverting flood water in
retention basins has been successfully used in other parts of
the world. For example, the flood water from Yangtze River
is diverted to retention basins when the flood level exceeds a
pre-defined critical stage. Providing retention basins facilitate
conservation of flood water as well as attenuate flood peaks.
Preliminary calculations indicate that for dampening a 1400
cumec peak of 8-h duration, around 20 km2 area with 2 m
inundation depth is required.
8.1.5. Yamuna link channel
Flood water, which cause widespread loss in downstream
areas can be diverted to arid and semi-arid parts of North-
west India. A study by Rathore (2003) shows that flood water
from upstream of Sonipat can be diverted from making link
channel to Mithari-Jojari river at Metra in Rajasthan. Removal
of earth is required for making channel through Rohtak,
Mahendragarh, Hissar districts of Haryana, and Jhujhunu,
Mandawa, Mukundgarh, Sikar, Didwana, Degana and Mertain
Nagaur district of Rajasthan. Water would flow naturally from
Merta onwards through Ghaggrana, Ghorawat, Pipar and

Bilaspur and finally meet with Luni River at Khejarli-Khurd
near Jodhpur. It will not only reduce the flood risk on thickly
populated Delhi areas, but will also provide fresh water for
drinking, producing food grains, green vegetables and fruits
in arid region.
8.1.6. Strengthening of drainage system
Due to large scale urbanization that has taken place during
the last three decades, the existing drainage system based on
DMP-76 is not adequate. The population of Delhi increased
from 6 million in 1971 to 16 million in 2001. The drain-
age system for urban areas of Delhi in 1976 was designed
considering 0.5 cumec per acre runoff in areas other than
congested areas of the city like Karol Bagh and Chandni
Chowk where a value of 0.7 cumec per acre was adopted.
For rural areas, the design runoff was 10 cusec per square
mile as recommended by Reddy Committee in 1958. Major
Out fall drains like Najafgarh, Barapula and Shahdara Drain
were designed using rational formula (Q = CiA). Rainfall
intensity of 57.25 mm per hour, an areal dispersion factor
of 0.8 to 0.95 (for an area of 20,000 to 500 m2), runoff coef-
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ficient of 0.15 and 0.30 for rural and semi hilly rural areas,
respectively, time of concentration of 30 min was considered
in the design. The urbanized area of Delhi is projected to be
around 65.94% of the total geographical area by 2021. In
1976, when the DMP-76 was prepared, the rainfall data were
available for a relatively less number of years. At present,
the rainfall data are available for more than 50 years, thus
allowing a better estimate of rainfall intensity for preparing
intensity–duration–frequency curves. Improvement of the
existing drainage system based upon new design parameters
should be undertaken at the earliest. Trunk Drains should
be remodelled and banks should be raised and strengthened
to cater to higher discharges expected under the scenario of
increased urbanization.
8.1.7. Controlled localised dredging of river
Analysis of data obtained through topographical survey shows
that the river bifurcates into two channels at three locations;
(i) just downstream of Wazirabad barrage, (ii) downstream
of ORB, and (iii) ITO barrage (IFCD 2015). The shoal down-
stream of Wazirabad occupied a river width of about 1 km and
a length of about 1.5 km with its average top level at 205.0 m
with the highest point being at 206.98 m. At about 1.5 km
downstream of the Wazirabad barrage the bifurcated channels
re-join. The shoal downstream of ITO barrage is about 1 km
long, 300 m wide with its average top level at 203.5 m and the
highest point at 203.81 m. In the reach between Wazirabad
barrage and ISBT the deep channel is along the right bank and
the flow hugs the right bank. At the ORB, the flow approaches
obliquely and then flows along the left bank downstream of
the bridge. The flow downstream of ITO barrage is along the
right bank and left bank is far away from the active course. To
improve the carrying capacity of the river, controlled dredging
is proposed at selected locations downstream of Wazirabad
and ITO barrages.
8.1.8. Strengthening of embankments
One of the vulnerable points in the urban stretch between
Wazirabad and Okhla is the old Yamuna Bazar wall which
was constructed in 1970s. It is recommended that the Yamuna
Bazar wall be strengthened to withstand water pressure during
floods. Considering the flood discharge of 21,088 and 22,845
ISH JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING  9
cumec, the height of the wall needs to be increased. The overall
design of the wall should be reviewed and strengthened for a
discharge of 25,500 cumec. It is to be ensured that drainage
spouts of the road do not open on river side directly, so as
to avoid back flow through drainage spouts. For this, a drain
along ring road may be constructed and an outfall may be
constructed in the drain out falling into the Yamuna. A flood
wall of adequate height shall be constructed along the Ring
Road from Chandgi Ram Akhada to Quadisia Ghat.
8.1.9. Sustainable drainage systems
Due to recent large scale urbanization in the upper Yamuna
catchment, the flood risk in downstream areas has exacerbated.
Therefore, sustainable drainage systems should be created to
prevent the impact of urbanization on receiving water courses.
After delinking of the sewerage system of drains, the network
of drains can be beautified and utilized for water conservation
by forming control structures in drains. This will control the
surface runoff and increase the infiltration. Delhi water and
sewer (Tariff and Metering) regulation stipulates that Rain
Water Harvesting (RWH) is mandatory for property/floor
size of 500 m2 or more, failing which, the consumer is liable
to be charged 1.5 times the normal tariff. Ministry of Urban
Development and Poverty Alleviation of the government of
India vide notification dated 28.07.2001 made RWH manda-
tory in all new buildings with area of 100 m2 and above. Strict
implementation of both these regulations is urgently required.
A significant portion of the urbanized area is in the form of
footpaths and paved parking. To reduce runoff, the use of per-
meable concrete, perforated tiles, tiles with gravel filled joints,
pavers with grass joints should be made mandatory.
8.1.10. Raised structure on pillars for roads between
embankments
Delhi has 12 bridges in the urbanized stretch from Wazirabad
to Okhla, which have almost jacketed the river. These con-
straints obstruct the free flow during peak discharge and create
afflux in up-stream areas. These bridges are pseudo-bridges
and have varying openings of less than 800 m. Pseudo bridges
or elevated road cum embankment should not be allowed. In
case a new bridge is required, it should be supported on pillars
throughout between embankments so that further jacketing of
river and resulted afflux can be avoided.
8.2 Non-structural measures
8.2.1. Afforestation and watershed management
It is widely acknowledged that afforestation reduces soil ero-
sion. Afforestation along the river will help in controlling agri-
cultural runoff having pesticides and fertilizers, oxygenate river
water, and reduce evaporation losses. Stringent regulations
must be put in place by the government of NCT of Delhi to
prevent encroachment on floodplains. A database of all water
bodies in catchment needs to be prepared followed by an action
plan for development, maintenance and preservation. Use of a
water body for the decentralized water supply, biodiversity and
recreational purpose will generate revenue as well. Desilting,
landscaping, greening and regular weed removal activity
should be carried out to improve aesthetics. These measures
will likely augment ground water, provide habitat for aquatic
and avian biodiversity, moderate micro climate, reduce runoff
from the catchment area, thus reducing the magnitude of floods
downstream.
 10  M. KUMAR ET AL.
400000
350000
300000
Dischrge(in cumecs)
250000
200000
150000
100000
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50000
0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Wazirabad Discharge
Figure 8. Comparison of peak discharge released from three barrages of Delhi.
8.2.2. Coordinated barrage operation
Data analysis of various floods has shown that during floods the
discharge released from barrages varies significantly. A compar-
ison of discharge released from three barrages of Delhi in differ-
ent years is shown in Figure 8. In the 2010 flood, the discharge
from Hathikund was 17,205 cumec whereas the Wazirabad,
ITO and Okhla barrages released 7086, 5584, and 6690 cumec,
respectively. A coordinate release policy must be formulated in
order to ensure safe disposal of flood water through different
barrages. It is recommended that the ownership of barrages
should be either with the Flood Department of Delhi or with
a committee headed by chief engineer, central water commis-
sion. The committee shall have chief engineers of Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, and Delhi irrigation departments as its members. It
shall be the responsibility of the agency-in-charge to coordinate
the operation of barrage during high flood stage, particularly
when the level at the ORB is more than the danger level.
8.2.3. Flood plain zoning
Flood plain zoning for different return level flood plains
such as 1 in 25, 1 in 50, and 1 in 100 is urgently required to
modify susceptibility to flood damage. The ministry of water
resources, GOI has formulated a model bill for flood plain
zoning and it has been shared with the states to enact suita-
ble legislation. Unfortunately, a majority of States, including
Delhi has not passed the legislation till date. In the absence
of legislation there in indiscriminate occupation of flood
plain resulting in thickly populated settlements in flood
plains. There is, therefore, an urgent need of legislation for
reducing loss of life and property in the floodplains. Apart
Year
ITO Barrage Discharge Okhla Barrage Discharge
from flood safety, flood plain which consists of wide and deep
aquifers also serves as an enormous natural storage of water.
The Yamuna standing committee (YSC), after devastating
flood of 1978, in its 37th Meeting on 26 April 1979 stated
that the minimum distance between embankments should
be 5 km. But nowhere in Delhi the width between embank-
ments is 5 km. YSC vide its 72nd meeting in January 2007
defined the active river edge for Yamuna as 1650 m. But, at
numerous locations the width of the flood plain is less than
1 km. Experience from the flood of 2010 and 2013 show that
the present width of the river must be maintained to carry
the peak flow of 12,750 cumec without overtopping. It is,
therefore, recommended that no further construction within
embankment should be allowed and flood plains should be
declared as no construction zones.
8.2.4. Public participation and awareness
Flood risk maps for various return period floods should be
prepared and made available to the general public to create
awareness about the potential flood risk involved under dif-
ferent scenarios. Identification of flash flood prone areas and
susceptible flood plains will help in planning strategies for mit-
igation and emergency preparedness. The stakeholders must
be involved at all stages of decision-making.
8.2.5. Flood resistance and resilience
Buildings located in risk areas like Garhi Mandu, Ushmanpur,
Tibetan Colony, Sonia Vihar, Rajeev Nagar etc. should be relo-
cated in areas away from the embankment. If relocation is not
possible, then new structures must not be allowed and existing

structures should be flood resilient. Some of the measures that
should be undertaken in making the properties flood resilient
include the use of resilient fittings and fixtures. In vulnerable
areas, the electric supply, water supply, sewage, communica-
tion, sanitation, schools, police stations, and public buildings
should also be flood resilient.
8.2.6. Formation of Yamuna basin authority
Urbanization, deforestation, encroachment on a flood plain,
embanking of the river or its tributaries in one state can have
consequential effects on other states, particularly those on the
downstream side. The risk of flood in Delhi is generally not
from heavy rainfall over its geographical area, but due to high
discharge from either Masani barrage on Sahibi River or from
Hathnikund barrage on the Yamuna. Hence, it is suggested
that the Yamuna river Basin Authority may be formed for
comprehensive planning and execution of schemes for water
management having flood risk management as one of its objec-
tives. The authority shall be under the administrative control
of central government, and shall have representatives from of
all concerned states.
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8.2.7. Systematic data collection
One of the major constraint in developing a sustainable flood
prevention and control mechanism is non-availability of data
of a sufficiently long period. Collection of hydrological data
for the analysis and study of catchment behaviour of river
Yamuna adopting sub-basin approach is necessary to evalu-
ate the changes and their consequential impact, for creating a
robust system for flood prevention. A greater number of flow
monitoring stations should be set up on the Yamuna.
8.2.8. Inspection and maintenance
Regular inspection and maintenance of flood embankments,
regulators, sluice gates, storm water and sewage pumping sta-
tions, mobile pump sets, and DG sets should be carried out
to ensure their smooth functioning. Round the clock vigil
should be maintained on spurs, studs and bed bars to ensure
their safety during the flood season. Maintaining the designed
capacities of water carrying and water retaining bodies is of
paramount important for effective management of flood water.
Maintenance of spurs and bed bars is necessary for the safety
of the embankment, and should be given top priority. An ade-
quate stock of flood fighting materials near vulnerable and
strategically identified sites should be available to overcome
any eventuality.
9. Conclusions
Incidents of flooding are very common in India during mon-
soon season. Delhi has a history of floods, including the most
damaging flood in 1978. Two consecutive floods in 2010 and
2013 have shown that there is considerable stress on the flood
plain, mainly due to rapid urbanization that has taken place
during the past few decades. It is clearly evident from the pres-
ent study that a large number of colonies in the low lying areas
are at a considerable risk of flooding, even during moderate
intensity floods. However, absolute protection against floods
cannot be provided. Full protection of city by structural meas-
ures is not possible as these have their limitations. But a combi-
nation of structural and non-structural measures can provide a
reasonable degree of safety against moderate to high intensity
ISH JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING  11
floods. Therefore, several structural as well as non-structural
measures for the mitigation of flood risk in the city of Delhi
have been recommended in this research.
Development of effective mitigation and adaptation
strategies is contingent upon the availability of good qual-
ity hydro-meteorological data. Further, the collection of
hydro-meteorological data is a pre-requisite for any meaningful
analysis concerning the evaluation of climate change impacts
on future flooding events. Therefore, the network of rainfall
and gauge stations in the Yamuna basin must be strength-
ened sooner rather than later. Reluctance on the part on data
collecting agencies to provide hydro-meteorological data for
research purposes is a major obstacle in conducting research
aimed at alleviating the problems caused by frequent floods,
both riverine and urban. It can be concluded that the risk asso-
ciated with floods in the NCT of Delhi can be significantly
reduced through the implementation of various structural and
non-structural measures recommended in this research.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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