4.4 Introduction 1.2 | Whatare Living Organisms made up of? 4.3 Whatis a Cell made up of What is the Structural Organisation of a Cell? Plasma membrane or Cell membrane Cell wall Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell organelles Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Mitochondria Plastids Vacuoles Biol Olympiad Tablet "SUMMARY _ NCERT Text Book : More to Know NCERT Text Book : Activities (with Discussion and Conclusion) NCERT Text Book : Questions (with Answers and Explanations) NCERT Text Book : Exercise (Questions with Answers and Explanations) NCERT Exemplar Problems : (with Answers and Explanations) EXERCISE (with Answers) Multiple Choice Questions (MC@s) (Also useful for NTSE and Olympiad) "Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) : (Questions with Answers)4 ERI intropuction Organisms display an immense diversity of form and size: But they have the same: basic. structure: and. Processes. They are all made of one or many cells. THE cell isthe fundamental, structural.and functional unit of all organisms. All cells are closely similar in gross structure; molecular organisation and in certain basic activities. The term ‘Cytology’ was coined by Oscar Hertwig in his book. “The cells and tissues.”” The study of structure and composition. of cells is known as Cytology. Robert Hodkesis: known as. Father of Cytology. Nowadays termi*Cell Biology’:is used fory “the study’ of structure: of: cells\ along with ‘their's Fig, 1.1 (a) Oscar Fig. 1.1 (b) Robert functions, including the'lifei processes of the cells”. Hertwig (1635-1703) Hooke (1635-1703) Cell biology derives inputs from: various. branches of science like genetics, physiology, biochemistry, etc. This is also called as Modern Cytology. C.P. Swanson is known as “Father of Modern Cytology”, who described the modern cytology in his book, The Cell. WHAT ARE LIVING ORGANISMS MADE UP OF? All the living organisms, from the tiniest to the largest, from the microscopic Amoeba and single celled algae toelephants and gigantic trees are made up of cells. The cell is now accepted as the basic unit of organisms... All the activities of an organism are present in miniature form in each and every cell. Thus, the cell canbe _ defined as “a basic unit of life, and the structural unit of an organism!?,” Each cell acts as an autonomous unit. Anything less thana complete cell does not show independent * living. A cell oxidises food molecules to produce energy and. utilises. that energy and some nutrient © molecules to synthesise complex molecules. Further, the cell uses those: molecules to build new structures and to replace thosé worn out. The cell respires and exchanges gases. its surroundings, It reproduces cells with its surroundings. It reproduces cells with similar hereditary: properties. By regulating its own activites, the cell maintains the necessary internal physio-chemical conditions. Thus, the cel is also called , asa self- contained us Eig AS ae SNe iss ee @ Cae Requirements: Onion, glass slides, coverslips, forceps, iodine solution, watch : camel hair paint brush, a compound microscope:‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 5 Procedure + Take a small piece from an onion bulb with the help of a pair of forceps, peel off the skin (ie, epidermis) from the concave side (inner layer) of the onion. This layer is put immediately in a watch glass containing water. It prevents the peel from getting folded or getting dry. Now a glass slide is taken. A drop ‘of water is put on it and transfer a’small piece of the peel from the watch glass to the slide. The peel must bé perfectly flat on the slide. A thin camel hair paint brush is used to transfer the peel. Now, a'drop of iodine solution is put on the piece followed by a cover slip. Prevaution —: Take care to avoid air bubbles while putting the cover slip with the help of a mounting needle. Observation : Under low power of compound microscope a number of cells are observed lying side by side, Under high power of compound microscope, a single magnified ce is observed. Each cell has a rigid cell wall, an eccentric nucleus and vacuoles in the cytoplasm. s 1} (o) Fig. 112 (a) Technique of temporary mounting of onion peel. (©) Celis of an onion peel under low power of a compound microscope (©) Celis of an onion peel under high power of a compound microscope Conclusion _: Each cell of onion peel constitutes a large structure and finally form onion bulb. Thus, cell is the structural unit of onion bulb as well as any living organisms. DISCOVERY OF CELL 5 ‘The history of the cell begins with the publication of the classical work “Micrographia” in London by Robert Hooke in 1665. The credit for discovery of cell goes to Robert Hooke who observed a honeycomb-like pattern in a very thin slice of cork. The honeycomb-like structure was compartments. He used the Latin term made of enclosing box-lil «Cellulae” for little compartments with hollow space, synonymous to what we call “Cells”. Fig. 1.3 Dead cork cell showing box-like compartmentsGRB New Era Biology : Class IX ‘D TO DISCOVERY OF CELL Robert Hooke (1665) first discovered cells during his observation of cork slice cells microscope. The cork cells were not protoplasmic rather hollow compartments. Leu discovered free living cells in pond water. He observed under improved microscope. Pu cine the term ‘protoplasm’ for the fluid of living cells. In 1940, the complex structure of the cell and i organelles were observed under an electron microscope. taaey i (a) Structure of primitiv (b) Structure of improved microscope microscope (By Robert Hooke) (By Leeuwenhoek) Fig. 1.4 Structure of microscope HISTORICAL BACKGROUND > Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cells ina of a primitive microscope. cork slice wit > Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1674), with the improved microscope, discovered pond water for the first time. > Robert Brown (1831) observed the root cells of orchid and discovered “Nucl occurrence in cells. 2 JE, Purkinje (1839) coined the term “Protoplasm” for the fluid substance of the cell. > M.J. Schleiden (1838), a German botanist, discovered cells as the ul ofall plant tissues. 2 Theodore Schwann (1839), a without cell wall. the free livis leus”. It was te units forming the Jerman zoologist, discovered animal cells similar to plant cells bui‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 7 ‘5 Schleiden (1839) and Schwann (1839) together proposed cell theory and stated, that “all the plants and animals are composed of cells and cellular products. Thus, the cell is the basic unit of life. ‘5 Rudolf Virchow (1855) modified the cell theory and stated “Omnis Cellula-e-Cellula”, ie. all cells atige from the pre-existing cells Itis also known as law of cell lineage. It was further experimentally verified by Louis Pasteur (1862). 2 Rudolf Virchow and Nageli modified cell theory. Due to a number of modifications, cell theory is known as modern cell theory or cell principle or cell doctrine. y Characteristies of Cell Theory 2 _Allliving things are composed of cells and their products. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. ‘Allcells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic activities. ‘The function of an organism as a whole is the outcome ofthe activities and interaction of the constituent cells. ove Drawbacks of Cell Theory Virusés, a connecting link between living and non-living, cannot be explained by cell theory. Bacteria and cyanobacteria (BGA) do not have an organised nucleus. Sieve tube and mature RBC do not have nucleus. ‘Acetabularia, a marine unicellular and umbrella shaped green alga, has a uninucleated differentiated body [Fig. 1.7 (a)]. evve f] SHAPE OF CELLS ‘The shape of cells are determined by the cell environment and cell activities or metabolism. Some cells like “Amoeba have changing shapes. In some Gases, the cell shape could be more or less fixed like Euglena, Paramecium, nerve cells, etc. F In human body, about 200 types of cells have been reported in different shapes as follows: 1, Smooth muscle cells (Spindle shaped) 2. Blood cells (Discoid shaped/Round and biconcave) 3, Nerve cells (Branched and long shaped) 4, Ovum (Spherical shaped) 5, Sperm (Tadpole shaped) 6, Bone cells 7, Fat cells 8, Columnar epithelium (long and narrow) 9. WBCs (Amoeboid), etc.8 GRB New Era Biology : Class Ix SG RB New Bra Biology : Class IX Bone cell Cardiac muscle cell Blood cells Skeletal muscle cells —< Se LSaazzz__ ‘Smooth muscle cells Fig. 1.8 Various celts trom the human body Se 4 With Discussion and Conclusion Find out about electron microscope from resources in the si internet. Discuss it with your teacher. Neuron 7 chool library or through *‘The Fundamental Unit of Life i Resources = Books and internet. Observation: An Electron Microscope (EM) is a type of microscope that can magnify the z Structure of objects upto about 10 lakhs times, Ze, 10,000,00x. It is used to Freeh ote the ultracstructure of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including microbes, small molecules, crystals, metals, etc. Industrially EM is used for quality control and failure analysis. {@) Electron microscope (b) Mechanism Fig. 1.6 ‘The German physicist Ernst Ruska and the electrical engineer Max Knoll constructed the prototype of EM in 1931. The EM uses electrostatic and , ‘electro-magnetic lenses to control the electron beam and focus it to form an image. t Modern Electron Microscopes (MEMs) produce electron micrographs, é using specialised digital cameras or frame grabbers to capture the image. WJ SIZE OF CELLS The size of cells are related to the specific function they perform. It varies from 1 micrometre to 100 micrometre. Thus, cell size varies from 1 to 100 4. For example : (a) - Viruses = 0.02 - 0.2m [_ — StS (b) Mycoplasma (0.1 nm) — Single smallest }~ 1 micron (¥) or 1 micrometre = 1000 nanometres (nm) cell ene pea eve as “Joker of Plant 'y 1 raillimetre (mm) = 1000 micrometres (mm) jom” (Fig. 1.7 (0)]- Re oa pea 122) \@ 1 Angstrom (A)= 107 ma=10~p (@) Typical eukaryotic cell = 10-30 um INote : Micrometre is S.1. unit to measure unit of length (©) Ostrich egg (18 cm) — largest animal cell In CGS unit, itis replaced by micron (4). (Fig. 1.7 (b)]- (® Nerve cell (Human, 1m long) — longest animal cell.GRB New Era Biology : Class IX 10 (g) Fibres cells (Sclerenchyma, 1m large) — longest plant cell. (h) Acetabularia (10 cm) — Single largest plant cell (Fig. 1.7 (a)] . : Lipoprotein membrane k 7 a (layers) : Metabolites Ribosomes. ‘Soluble proteins ‘DNA ‘Soluble RNA (@) Structure of Acetabularia _(b) Structure of Ostrich egg (c) Structure of Mycop/asma Fig. 1.7 Size of cells VOLUME OF CELLS Most cells are tiny and their volume ranges from 1 to 1000jum>. As acell increases in volume, its surface area also increases, but not to the same extent (Fig. 1.8). The surface to volume ratio in the fig 1.8 would be 6 : 1, 3: 1 and 2: 1. It illustrates that larger cells have lesser surface volume ratio. They tend to become less efficient. It biologically signifies that the volume determines the amount of chemical activity of cells per unit time, whereas the surface area determines the amount of absorption and the amount of release of waste products by the cells. As the living cell grows, its rate of waste production and its need for intake of substances from outside increases at a rate faster than that of surface area. 3mm tmm_otmm 2mm tu mm| Surlace area = 6 mm? Volume = 1 mm? oe Surface ea = 24 mn Volume = 8 mm3 ‘Surface area = 3x3 x 6 = 54 mm? Ratio=3:1 Volume = 3x 3x3 = 27 mm3 Ratio =2:4 Fig. 1.8 Surta nd volume ratio in cell The first cell was discovered by Robert Hooke, - The first plant cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. The first dead cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. © The first living cell (Bacteria) wall discovered by Antony van Lecuwenhoek, ;: The first animal cell (Amoeba) was discovered by Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Bae‘The Fundamental Unit of Life The first prokaryotic cell (Bacteria) was discovered by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, The first eukaryotic cell (Plant) was discovered by Robert Hooke, Largest animal cell — Ostrich. Largest unicellular animal cell — Amoeba, Largest unicellular plant cell — Acetabularia (a green alga). Longest animal cell—Neuroglia (Human neuron), Longest plant cell —Hemp fibres, Jute fibre, (49 TYPES OF CELLS 1, On the basis of the levels of differentiation—The cells can be grouped under three major categories: (a) Undifferentiated cells : Such cells are capable of undergoing division and development. These are also called as mitotic cells. e.g., stem cells in animals and meristematic cells in plants. (b) Differentiated cells:: Such cells lost their ability to divide. These cells are post-mitotic cells ‘which exhibit specialisation and the division of labour. These cells acquire a distinct character and perform a definite function. e.g., muscle cells perform kinetic movement and mesophyll cells of leaf carry out photosynthesis. (©) De-differentiated cells : Some differentiated cells are capable of reverting back to the undifferentiated meristematic state (dividing state), when required. The process by which they lose their specialisation is called as de-differentiation, These cells play vital role in wound healing, regeneration and secondary growth. 2. On the basis of number of cells— Organisms can be grouped under three major categories : (a) Unicellular organisms : The organisms that are made up of a single cell are called unicellular organisms. A single cell is capable of carying out all life processes independently. It is unable to exhibit a wide range of differentiation. Numerous extensions of cell membrane of single cell helps to increase the surface area to exchange the information and material through the surface. The unicellular organisms have also division of labour. They are easily susceptible to damage and lead to death of an organism. Single-celled organisms are Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and bacteria (Fig. 1.9 a, b, cand d). BuBoeee ‘Nucleus Contractile vacuole Cell membrane: (a) Structure of Amoeba _(b) Structure of Chlamydomonas12 , GRB New Era Biology : Class x Paticie Food Macronucleus vacuoles Cytostome Anal pore (¢) Structure of Paramecium (q) Structure of bacteria Fig. 1.9 Structure of unicellular organisms The organisms made up of few cells are called as ‘hibit aggregation of single cells. Division of labouris seen ms are Pandorina, Eudorina, (Fig, 1.10 (a) and (b)], etc, ocellular organisms : organisms. Such organisms e cases. Oligocellular organis (a) Structure of Pandorina (Green alga) 1.10 Structure of oligocellular of (b) Structure of Eudorina (Green al Fganisms, (©) Multiceltular organisms : organisms. A multicellular These organisms have greater capacity of survival consequence and cells are replaced continuously. There is a division of labour organisms such as human beings. Different parts of human body ‘human body has a heart to pump blood, a stomach t digest food and so on, Som animals are examples of multicellular organisms, 3 as death of a few cells is y‘the Fundamental Unit of Life 18 oO 3, On the basis of nature of nucleus —The cells can a bbe also grouped into two categories : Gola (1) Prokaryotic cells : A cell which does not possess membrane-bound organelles is called prokaryotic cell. Even the ‘chromosome’ is not enclosed in a membrane. The primitive nucleus (nucleoid) lies freely in the cytoplasm. They carry out many biological Flagellum processes-that occur in eukaryotic cells. Bacteria and cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae) are the examples of prokaryotes. 2) Eukaryotic cells ; A cell which possesses, ie, membrane bound organelles like nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts is called eukaryotic cell. The intracellular compartmentalisation is well reported. The eukaryotic cells further show diversities in plant cells and animal cells. oes B [Nudear envelope oe Plasmid pili Nucleoid (DNA) Cytoplasm Fig. 1.11 (a) Structure of a prokaryotic cell (b) Structure of a eukaryotic plant cel Fig. 1.11 Structure of cet Comparative Study of Prokaryotic Cells Prietcn kos Characters Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells - 5 ae Non-cellulosic Cellulosic (plant cell), absent in animal 1. Cell wall. cal imiti i Sc it od and primitive (having naked | Advanced (having combine ae genetic material) proteinaceous genetic material) 3. Nucleolus Absent Present 4, Chromosome Single with circular DNA. | Multiple with linear DNAGRB New Era Biology : Present (Plant cells, absent in cells) 70'S" type 80 ‘S’ type 7. Endoplasmic reticulum | Absent Pree a 5. Chloroplast Absent. 6. Ribosomes 8. Golgi complex Absent Prescot 9. Lysosome Absent Pose : cells) am 10. Cell division Amitotic type” Mitotic and meiotic Characters 1. Size Larger 2. Cell wall Present 3. Plastids Present 4. Vacuoles Large, central and permanent 5. Centrosome Absent 6. Lysosome Absent (Sphaerosome acts as lysosome) | 7. Cytoplasmic division | By cell plate formation WHAT IS A CELL MADE UP OF? WHAT IS THE STRUCTURAL ORG, OF A CELL? Each cell may be considered as a compartment enclosed by a continuous membrane ‘membrane, This membrane segregates the protoplasm withthe cell and keep the protoplasm: and prevents it from mixing with the extracellular medium, This enables the cell ro ‘maintain acoll molecules and well regulated reaction, 7 Cells of animals, plans, fungi and protsts (like protozoans) have numerous intracellular com enclosed by membranes: These are called membrane-bound organelles, These includ mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.’There are also non-membranoug organelles such as e ribosomes. Each organelle performs specific activities in a Tegulated and organised manner, Almost every cell is characterised by three features : Plasma membrane, Nucleus and Cytehe Fundamental Unit of Life 15 a ¥ NCERT TEXT BOOK-ACTIVITIES a Study of preparation of temporary mounts of leaf peels, tip of roots of onion or even peels of onions of different sizes. Requirements: Leaf of Tradescantia(Rheo discolour) and mustard, root tips of onions, cover slips, watch glass, needle, iodine solution, blotting papers, compound microscope. Procedure : Temporary mounts ofleafpeels of Tradescantia and mustard and tip onion is prepared as similar to the activity 1.1. Lower surface of the le: Tradescantia is segmented and peeled off. froot of af of Fig 1.12 (a) Steps of mounting root tips of anions are Observation + Cells of leaf peels of Tradescantia, mustard and observed under compound microscope. Conclusion: After perfarmimg tte abuve activi, questions >x ———— GRB New Era terms of shape and size (a) Do all cells look alike Ans. No, cells don’t look alike. (b) Do all cells look alike in structure? Ans. Yes, cells look alike in structure. (e) cond we find differences among cells from different parts ofa plant body? ‘Ans. Cells from different parts ofa plant body look different. Thus, cell of different plants are alike in structure and well differentiated into cell wall, nucleus and cytoplasm. PLASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL MEMBRANE ‘The plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its External environment. In eukaryotic cells, intracellular membranes are present that surround the vacuole and organelles, called sub-cellular membranes. The plasma membrane or plasmalemma and the sub-cellular Fembranes are grouped together as biological membranes. “Plasmalemma’ term was coined by 4-Q. Plowe while the term ‘cell membrane? was coined by C. Nageli and C. Cramer. EXE] structure OF PLASMA MEMBRANE All biological membranes are thin, film-like, elastic and Pliable membranes. The plasma membrane is exible and is made up of organic molecules called lipids and Protein. So, itis also known as lipoproteinous in nature. The structure of plasma membrane can be observed only through an electron microscope. Under clectron microscope, all biological membranes reveal three layers, viz., two dark outer layers (electron dense) separated by a light middle layer. These correspond to tw ‘outer layers of protein and a middle layer of phospholipid. Because of this, plasma membrane is called asthe unit membrane, it Membrane Concept : two continuous layers of protein. The lipid molecules are set at ight angles to the surface. The molecular Srrangement i protein-lipid-ipid-protein (P-L-L-P). J.D. Robertson alt, explained the thickness of unit membrane (70-100A, usually 75A) and structural organisation of plasma membrane, Polar hydrophilic head groups, Hydrophobic fatty acid tals Fig. 1.13 Unit membrane concept‘The Fundamental Unit of Life Ejnid Mosaic Model S. J. Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed fluid mosaic model. This model states that plasma membrané continuous lipid bilayer having integrated protein molecules. The membranes are semi-fluid and dynamic in nature. The lipid and protein molecules help in performing transport movement. This model also visualises a central bilipid layer composed of phospholipid, with their spherical, polar head groups on the outer surfaces. The two non-polar tails of each molecule point inwards. This arrangement forms a water resistant barrier, through which only lipid soluble substances can pass. Proteins are either embedded in the lipid layer (integral proteins) or superficially attached (peripheral proteins). There are some integral proteins and some membrane lipids are associated with oligosaccharides; a part of these oligosaccharides chains project into the extracellular fluid. This fluid mosaic model was also known as — “Protein iceberg: a sea of lipids.” Protein channel Cuohye pins (Transport protein) eo Phospholipid AlpnaHotixprotain’. wvarepholsetae> (Integral protein) ~~ H¥#ropnobie Ta Filaments of cytoskeleton Fig. 1.14 Fluid mosaic model PERMEABILITY OF CELL MEMBRANE embrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell. It also The plasma m¢ 6 y prevents movement of some other materials, On the basis of permeability, cell membrane is ofthe following types: Solvent (Water) Sovent Equilibrium Permeable Semipermeable ee membrane membrane Impermeable ‘ membrane af) Fig. 1.15 Permeability of cell membraneGRB New Era Biology : CI and solvent n x ent of solute and solvent (1) Permeable membrane : Ifa membrane permits movem f ¥ ic cell wall. called permeable membrane. e. ated ae avenge mi 2) Semipermeable membrane : If a membrane ea semipermeable membrane. .g., parchment membrane. fs ; (3) Selectively permeable membrane : If a membrane iad ea Solvent frely itis called selectively permeable membrane o 8. all biological membranes. (4) Impermeable membrane ; If a membrane does not impermeable membrane. e. EEEE] memerane TRANSPORT Membranes form physical boundaries between organelle and cytoplasm cellular fluids. Plasma membrane is selective permeable ‘membrane. Su membrane through two major methods as follows = " (1) Passive Transport : Movement of substances through (ATP). It occurs through diffusion and osmosis. a (2) Diffusion : The spontaneous movement ofa substance froma region its low concentrations called diffusion, Itoccurs through concent carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by di Demonstration of Diff (2) Diffusion of copper sulphate : When copper sulphate crystals are placed in a beaker the water starts to turn blue, The colour spreads progressively and finally all the water tums blue uniformly. It occurs due to diffusion of dissolved copper Sulphate from an area of high concentration toa lower one until the equilibrium state is reached (Fig. 116 (@)], Similarly, the diffusion of sugar may also take place (Fig. 1.16 (by), 5 acl sion— : i 1.16 (b) Diagrammatic representation of in a beaker of water diffusion of sugar19 ‘The Fundamental Unit of Life (2) Diffusion of gases : The net diffusion of a gas always occurs down its pressure gradient. Each gas diffuses from the side with its higher partial pressure to that with its lower partial pressure. Tn cellular respiration, oxygen diffuses into the cell from the extracellular fluid because its partial pressure is higher in the extracellular fluid than in the cell. Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the cell because its partial pressure is higher there than in the extracellular fluid. Thus, diffusion plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the cell and its external environment. Importance of Diffusion ‘> Diffusion plays an important role in transport of substances across the cell membrane. The cell walls of the internal plant tissue remain moist due to diffusion. >. Transpiration is a diffusion process. 5 Gaseous exchange between the interior and outside air occurs through diffusion. 5 Aroma of flowers is diffusion of volatile aromatic compounds to attract pollinating animals. (b) Osmosis ‘Abbe Nollet discovered the phenomenon of osmosis in natural membranes in 1750. The movement of solvent molecules through a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis. In organisms, the solvent is invariably water. Water also obeys the law of diffusion. The movement of water across the plasma membrane is also affected by the ‘amount of substances dissolved in water, Thus,(the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low water concentration is called osmosis-) Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through ‘osmosis. Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis. Dethonstration of Osmosis Osmosis may be demonstrated by using an animal membrane like an Fig 1.17 Abbe Nollet egg membrane or a fish bladder. Itis impermeable to sticrose but permeable to water. The membrane is tied over the mouth of the thistle ey funnel having a long stem. The funnel is then inverted, arable partially filled with a concentrated sugar solution and membrane dipped in distilled water in a beaker. The level rises inthe Water between two Protein molecule compartments molecule stem of the funnel due to the entry of water by osmosis. ‘The water continues to rise in the thistle funnel, till the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the column prevents further entry of water molecules. This happens inspite of concentration difference existing between two sides of the membrane. Osmoti¢ Pressure : The hydrostatic pressure which balances and prevents the osmotic inflow of water into concentrated solution is called osmotic pressure. When the stage is reached, water molecules move equally in both direction. Thus, osmotic pressure of a solution is that Seecenmeel difference in hydrostatic pressure between it and the pure solvent, which stops the osmotic flow of water from the solvent to the solution across a semipermeable membrane. The more concentrated a solution, the higher is its osmotic pressure.Direction of Osmosis otic envi Direction of osmosis is governed by tonicity of external solution. The Le, plant cells called its tonicity. It ay be observed under three stages. When an ani 1d happen depend @ solution of sugar or salt in water, one of the following three things coul tonicity of soluti are Tr Tsotonle Solittda' whes Goccentatoay GF He eae ea om sides of cell a aaa i rs Solution is called Isotonic. Water crosses the cell membrane in both si ie : ee is the same as the amount Boing out. So, there is no overall movement of water. Constant with its size. 0.9 per cent sodium chloride and 5 per cent glucose are isotonic fo erythrocytes (RBC), Hypertonic Isotonic HO Plasmoysed acai Turd Fig. 1.19 Tonicity of solution j 2. Hypotonle Solution : When concentrations of ofaegni ee the solute in solution is lower than intracellular fluid, i., eytoplasm and cell sap, the solution is called hypotonic. Water molecules are free to pass across the cell membrane in both directions, but more water will come into the cell than will leave, The net result is that water enters the cell and the cell swells up. The swelling of cell is called turgidity. 3. Hypertonic Solution : (water gain) When concentrations of the solute in solution is higher than intracellular fluid, ic., cytoplasm and cell sap, the solution is called hypertonic, (@) Turgid cet Water again crosses the cell membrane in both directions, but this time more water will leave the cell than enter it.I causes shrinkage of cell, The shrinkage of a cell is called plasmolysis, Types of Osmosis—On the basis of tonicity of Solution, there are two main types of osmosis Endosmosis : When cells are placed in a Fig. 1.20 Turgiaity hypotonic solution, water flows into the cell, This Process of 0: endosmosis. In animal cells, endosmosis can cause the cell exerted by the cell contents when swollen, wero ay smotic entry of water is called u iba t ares {° rupture as the membrane cannot withstand the p Similarly, the erythrocytes (RBC) burst when p laced‘The Fundamental Unit of Life water, leaving behind ‘ghost’ of their membrane. However, the plant cells never burst because the pressure is prevented by the presence of a rigid cell wal cosmosis': When cells are placed in a hypertonic solution, water flows out of the cell. This process of osmotic withdrawal of water is called exosmosis. In plant cells, exosmosis can cause withdrawal of cytoplasm along the plasma membrane from the cell wall, due to out flow of water from the vacuole. The vacuole shrinks, but is still * enclosed by the cytoplasm. This process is called Plasmolysi Fig.1.21 Plasmolysis, (ii) Cells placed in Calis placed in dised water /_ ff, og \oneentted sat solution i Cells shrink Celis swell and shrivel and burst Fig.1.22 Crenated cell (RBC) Ineerythrocytes, exosmosis causes a shrunken appearance. It is calld Crenation. i al WAGE any —_® PR eee CMU ec) y 1.4 rag fo [ Demonstration of osmosis with an egg and in different concentrated solutions. {Egg of hen, dilute hydrochloric acid, pure water, concentrated sat solution. Procedure + Remove the shell of an egg by dissolving it in dilute hydrochloric acid. The shell is mostly calcium carbonate. A thin outer skin now encloses the egg Now observe the two following stages : (a) A de-shelled egg is put in pure water for 5 minutes. (b) A de-shelled egg is placed in a concentrated salt solution for 5 minutes. Requirements: (e) The de-shelled egg swells up in the first case. Observation : (b) The egg shrinks down in the second case.aise so Fig. 1.23 Demonstration of osmosis (By endosmosis and exosmosis) ; ic solution. When it is put Conclusion: (a) ‘The de-shelled egg contains hypertonic solution. pure water, the pure water is absorbed through egg membrane. J concentrated solution to high concentrated solution. The c process is also known as turgidity. (b) When the de-shelled egg is placed in a concentrated salt sol (Hypertonic solution) for § minutes, the egg shrinks down. Now, de-shelled egg has hypotonic solution than outer concentrated solution. The water moves from low concentrated solution to hi concentrated solution, Itis called exosmosis and the complete p called plasmolysis. ¢ NG Demonstration of osmosis with raisins and apricots, Requirements: Beakers, pure water, apricots, sugar solution, concentrated salt solution, d Procedure; (a) Put dried raisins or apricots in plain water and leave them for S (b) Putswollen raisins orapriotsin the concentrated sclution forso Fig. 1.24 Demonstration of osmosis with raisins and apricots Observation ; (a) The dried raisins or apricots swell up, as the seeds a water. The swelling of raisins or aprico cust ts is called turgid‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 23 (b) The swollen raisins or apricots shrink down, as the seeds are put in the hypertonic solution, The shrinkage of raisins or apricots is called plasmolysis. Conclusion : Theraisins or apricots are experimental tool for endosmosis and exosmosis. - Study of effect of hypertonic solution on living and dead cells of Rheo leaf, respectively. Requirements: Leaves of Rheo discolour, water, strong solution of sugar or salt (for hypertonic solution), glass slides, a compound microscope. Procedure Observation : (a) (b) = (a) (b) Mount the peel ofa Rheo leaf in water on a slide (As done in activity 1.1) and examine cells under the high power of a microscope. Put a strong solution of sugar or salt on the mounted leaf on the slide. Wait for a minute and observe under a microscope. ‘Some Rheo leaves are boiled for a few minutes. This will kills the cells. Then mount one leaf on a slide and observe it under a microscope. Put a strong solution of sugar or salt for a minute and observe it again. ‘When the mounted péel‘of a Rheo leaf in water is put on a slide and examined under the high power of a microscope, it shows cells having rigid cell wall and containing small green granules, ie, chloroplast. The cells are turgid and cell membrane of each cells are in contact with their cell wall ‘When a strong solution of sugar or salt is put on the mounted leaf on the slide for aminute and observe under a microscope, it shows plasmolysis. The cells are shrinken. The cell contents are separated from the cell wall. A large gap is seen between the cell wall and cell contents in protoplasts. When the killed cells of Rheo leaves is treated to hypotonic solution, it shows no change in the tonicity of the killed cells. There will be no exosmosis and the cell remains the same. Fig. 1.25 Plasmolysis of Rheo leaf cells26 GRB New Era Biology ; Membranous Non-Membranous Organeles Organelles Golgi Complex, ‘Centrosome, Fibosome, Endoplasmic Reticulum Basal granules "ynesomes/Spheerosomes, | ~ Microbodies, Chloroplast, Mitechondia Fig. 1.28 EEX cei. WALL Robert Hooke, the father of Sytology discovered « membrane, another rigid outer covering is found inp} plasma membrane, The Plant cell wall is provide structural strength to plants, In by non-cellulosic carbohydrate, Cell walls permi ell wall during the discovery of cell. Besides p lant cells call Ted cell wall, The cell wall lice outsid mainly made of cellulos a Cellulose is a complex substance the cell wall is composed of, acteria and some fungi,Pr Plasma Cytoplasm membrane eran. (b) Various layers of cell wall of a mature plant cell ‘Secondary wall Middle lameia Primary wall Cellulose (Coated by hemicellulose) Hemicolulose Lignin Primary cell wall ‘Secondary coll wall (c) Showing various cell layers in plants Fig, 1.29 Cell wall development and it's layers Comparative Study between Primary and Secondary Cell Wall et Characteristics Primary Cell. Wall Secondary Cell Wall 1. | Formation First formed cell wall formed by|Later formed cell wall, formed by intussusceptions (*) accretion (**) 2. | Position Inner to middle lamella Inner to primary cell wall 3. | Thickness Thin Thick 4. | Occurrence All types of cells All types of cells except meristematic and parenchyma cells. 5. | Nature Homogeneous in thickness and | Heterogeneous and non-elastic. elastic 6. | Composition Cellulose mainly Hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, suberin, etc, ‘The growth of a cell wall by the deposition of cellulose. ++ A growth or increase by accumulation of additional layers or matter.| GRB New Era Biology : Classy 28 f cells like parenchyma, sclerenchy, In plants, cell wal a wall may be linked esllencngeey fibres and tracheids. The Position of the primary and secondary ry to Plaster and paint respectively in room. Fig. 1.30 Structure of plasmodesmata The cell wall does not totally isolate a plant cel, tis interrupted by narrow pores to facilitate movement of secnanees between cells. This cytoplasmic bridge present between two adjacent cells for eytoplasma “xchange Of cellular contents is called plasmodesteate Plasmedesmata Fig. 1.81 Plasmodesmata connecting two adjacent plant cells‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 29 Functions of Cell Wall ‘> It determines the shape of plant cells. It prevents from drying up (desiceation) of cells. It allows the transport of various substances in and out of cells. > 2 >. Itprotects the plasma membrane and internal structure of cells > The plasmodesmata help in the exchange of cytoplasmic material between adjacent cells. NUCLEUS ‘The nucleus is the largest and autonomous organelle of eukaryotic cells. Robert Brown first discovered the nucleus. Later on Flemming stained the nucleus by basic dyes and named chromatin. The nucleus carries the hereditary information of cells. It regulates all the cellular activities. So, nucleus is also known as ‘Brain or Master’ 6f cells. Staining of Nucleus The temporary mount of onion peel is prepared and stained with iodine solution. The chemical composition of different regions of cells get ‘coloured differentially. Some regions appear darker than other regions. Apart from iodine solution, safranin solution or methylene blue solution can be used to stain the cells. A darkly coloured, spherical or oval, dot-like structure is seen near the centre of each cell. This structure is called nucleus. Position of Nucleus Fig, 1.32 Robert Brown In mature plant cells, the nucleus is shifted to one side or corner due to the formation of the large central vacuole. This position is called eccentric, In a young plant cell or animal cells, the nucleus is centrally placed and called centric in position (Fig. 1.11'(a) and (b)]. Occurrence In bacteria and blue-green algae (prokaryotes), nucleus is without distinct nuclear membrane, but in eukaryotes, the nucleus is well developed and double membraned structure except matured RBC of mammals and matured phloem sieve tube elements. However a matured RBC of camel have a nucleus.cre ie Moree) core Sy tra fees Se Number Acell having single nucleus is called uninucleated or monokaryotic cell. e.g., most plant and animal cells, €.8-, Paramecium and liver cells, A cell or coenocytic cell. e.g., Rhizopus and osteoblasts, Structure ‘The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane, Surrounding cytoplasm. A number of nuclear pores are Present on the m transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, The colourless envelope is called as nucleoplasm. One or more round bodies present in (Singular nucleolus). A network of dark staining fibre in nucleus is calle DNA cr CChromesome Nucleus Fig. 1.34 Showing chromosome, geStructure of Chromosome Chromosomes are thread-like structures present in the nucleus. Chromosomes are highly condensed chromati % matin fibres tk i ideal condition is metaphase stage to <® that became clear at prophase of cell division. The a, study morphology of : division the shape of chromosomes arc eneicn Phology of chromosomes. During anaphase stage of cell Homologous pir of chromosomes a ae a Sister chromatids One duplicated chromosome Fig. 1.35 Structure of chromosome Structurally, chromosomes are made up of : (i) Pellicle : It is outermost covering of chromosomes that surrounds matrix present outsides the chromonema, (ii) Chromonema : A single chromosome is made of two rod-like structure during metaphase, these are called as chromatids. A highly coiled thread of DNA and proteins in each chromatid is called Chromonema. It bears darkly stainable granules called Chromomeres. (iii) Matrix :It mainly consists of DNA, RNA and proteins, (iy) Centromere : Each chromosome has a constriction point that joins two chromatids, called as centromere. Itis a narrow and non-stainable area, It divides the chromosomes into two arms. The short arm of chromosome is labelled as ‘p arm’ (from french Petit — small) and the longer arm is called ‘q arm’ (from french queue — tail), The surface of centromere bears a specific trilaminar plate called Kinetochore that help in spindle fibre formation during cell division,0 aS aa a GRB New Era Biology : cy, 32 SS Chromatin fibtls Imerlayer Otter a (aoeeo'hm (O60 Kinetochore () SAT-Chromosome (Satellite chromosome) : fragment or knob like structure present at the end o} chromosome is called» SAT ‘A small f certain “chromosome. A SAT-chromosome has low content of DNA. It has a chromosome segment that is separated from the main body of the chromosome. The satellite at metaphase appears to be attached to the rest of the body of chromosomes by a thread of chromatin. There are at least 2 SAT chromosome in each diploid nucleus. In human, chromosomes number 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22 are examples of SAT-chromosomes.They play 4 vital role in the formation of the nuleolus after cell division ig completed. Chromosomes are mainly com, ~ 40-50%) and non-histonic (DNA 40%) and RNA (1- etc., in trace amount. iposes Of protein (histonic basic (acids 10-20%), nucleic acid 10%) and mineral like Ca++ »Mgt* | Fig. 1.97 Nucleosome (Nu bodies) one million nucleosome. Ni ped with DNA strings. Nucl Thomas. A single human chromosome has about consisting of beaded histone octamer wra proposed and described by Komberg and ucleosome is subunit of chr “esome model for chromosome wsThe Fundamental Unitef Life 33 Short region of DNA double helix “Beads on a string” form of chromatin 30-nm chromatin fibre of packed nucleosomes. ‘Section of ‘chromosome in ‘an extended form Entire mitotic ‘chromosome Fig. 1.98 Structure showing packing of DNA upto chromosomes (vi) Telomeres : These are repetitive stretches of DNA Jocated at the end of linear chromosome. They protect the ends of chromosomes in a manner similar to way the tips of shoelaces keep them from unraveling. It is TG rich segmented structure and non-sticky seal end of Peniromeee: chromosomes. It prevents from attachment of chromatids. Euchromatin. TTelomeres ‘Orange-coloured regions indicate heterochromatin. Fig. 1.39 TelomereGRB New Era Biology : DO YOU KNOW - DNA is negatively charged phosphate group and is neutralised by positively Polyamines in viruses, bacteria \ through— f Protamines in spermatozoa of some fishes Histone in eukaryotes ‘Types of Chromosomes e) 3 Depending on the anaphasic position of centromere, chromosomes acquire different shapes as fol (i) Telocentrie: structure, ‘The centromere is present atthe proximal end of chromosome. Itis rod-shaped (I Sate contin Shot arm Short am: j Centromare Contromere | ‘Long arm. Fig. 1.40 Types of chromosomes on the basis of position of centromere }) Acrocentric : The centromere is present near the extreme end of chromosome, Its one arm is very long and other one is very short. It is rod like J-shaped structure. (iii) Metacents V-shaped. Gv) Sub-metacentric : The centromere is present slightly displaced from the centre, Its both unequal. It is L-shaped structure, (¥) Dicentric : Two centromeres are present on the same cl (vi) Polycentric : Three or more centromeres are present. | shaped. ‘The centromeres present right in the centre of chromosome. Its both ‘arms are equal. Itis arms are hromosome. It is Z-shay iped structure in anaphase, ‘on the same chromos ‘ome. Itis zig-zag or irregular Test) eau eee BO ecto te pie Ln. eer UTC ee Sub- | Characters | Metagenics | ‘Telocenel neat Blesntele 1. [Nunbev _|singte, at the| single, near| ingle, a the] Single, maar Two teat position —_of | centre the centre the extreme | equal centromere on end distance chromosomeThe Fundamental Unit of Life : ee een ene et SD 35 2. |Arms of Botharms are |Both arms |Onlyonearm|One arm is|Three | Many chromosome | equal areunequal |isdistinct |very long | segmented | segmented and one is|structure | structure very short 3. |Shape in| V-shaped {L-shaped | Rodi) Rod _likeZ-shaped | Zig-zag anaphase shaped J-shaped shaped TTelocentric Acrocentric Metacentric Sub-metacentric . Dicentic.-—-Polycentric Fig. 1.41 (a) Classification of chromosomes on the basis of the position and number of centromeres Functions 1. The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction. 2. Itregulates the cell cycle, i.e, cell formation and cell division. 3. The nucleus is the storehouse of genes that produce enzymes to execute any metabolic activity. 4, The site of ribosome synthesis is nucleolus present in a nucleus. 5, Ittransfers the hereditary characters from the parent to the offspring. CYTOPLASM The term ‘cytoplasm’ is used for the fluid contents inside the plasma membrane. It is very little stained region observed at the temporary mounts of onion peel as well as human check cells. The cytoplasm is jelly-like, fluid and general mass of protoplasm excluding the nucleus. It is covered by plasma membrane and contains the organelles. The transparent fluid part of cytoplasm is called cytosol. It contains nucleotides, vitamins, RNA, enzymes, many minerals, sugars and amino acids, Proteins occur in the form of colloidal solution. Cyelosis (Cytoplasmic Streaming) The movement of cytoplasm within the eukaryotic cell based on the viscosity of the cytoplasm and temperature is called as cyclosis. (Fig, 1.42) Cytoplasm may move in one direction around a central vacuole and called rotation type of cyclosis, e Hydrilla or in several directions around vacuoles and called circulation type of cyclosis. e.g. Tradescantia. (Fig. 1.43)36 GRB New Era Biology : Clasg Us ———— (0) Ftaton ype Fig. 1.43 Type of eyclosis Functions 4: It helps in the formation of pseudoy Itis the active site for seve Itcontains many speci Fig. 1.42 Cyclosis podia in Amoeba and in the movement of organelles. 4 ral metabolic processes like sugar, protein and fatty aci synthesis, ‘ed cell organelles. Each of these organelles performs a specific func 4 Ithelps in exchange of materials between cell organelles. CELL ORGANELLES AilLorwanelles are enclosed by membranes, The ‘membranous organelles are distinct with their stru inctions, Tint, Of these are: together called as endomenigeas system because of their co [unctions. The endomembrane system ineiedes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), {ysosomes and vacuoles. Mitochondria, chloroplast and peroxisomes are not e: endomembra To keej Ee ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) The term ‘endoplasmic reticulum’ was given by CR va provides a surface for the biochemical “cytoplasmic frames activities of the cell. The ER is a large "Rovoh Endoplasmic Reticuhum (RER) Nuclear envelope network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. Tt is found in all eukaryotic cells except RBCs of mammals, eggs and embryonic cells. ER divides the intercellular space into two distinct compartments, iie., luminal (inside ER) and extraluminal (cytoplasm) compartments. Structure Electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cells reveal that ER is a network or reticulum of tiny tubular structure scattered in the cytoplasm. ER is made of three types of elements — cisternae, vesicles and tubules,The Fundamental Unit of Life 37 Cisternae are narrow, unbranched and double layered structures found near nucleus. Vesicles are round, spherical and ovoid structures found in cytoplasm. Tubules are branched and irregular structures found mainly near the cell membrane. Fig. 1.45 Structure of elements of ER and GERL-system ‘Types : Two types of ER are observed in cells— (i) Smooth ER (SER) and (ii) Rough ER (RER). RER has membranes with ribosomes attached to the surface. This makes the surface rough or granular-like coarse sand paper. The channels are formed by two sheets of this ‘sand paper’ lying side by side with their rough surface facing outside. Unlike RER, SER has smooth surface membrane, free from ribosomes and consists of mainly tubules and vesicles. Ceninacrt meaa stuns =a Characters |: RER SER. 1. Ribosomes Attached to cisternae Absent 2. Components Mainly made of cisternae and very | Mainly made of tubules and vesicles. few tubules 3. Protein synthesis Occurs Absent 4, Steroid and lipid synthesis __| Absent Occurs 5. Occurrence ‘Abundance in protein secreting cells | Abundance in lipid and sterole like pancreatic cells, fibroblasts, | secreting’ cells like intestine cells, liver cells, ete. leucocytes, ete. 6. Also known as Granular ER Agranular ER 7. Connection Continuous with nuclear membrane | Continuous with Golgi complex and plasma membraneparticles. George Palade first observed ribosomes as the granular structure or dense: Ribosomes are the smallest cell organelles found in all type of cel ee i Nucleic Acid) and protein. Ribosomes attached to an mRNA molecule orm Polysome. Ribosomes are the site of protein systhesis. In prokaryotes, ribo of 50'S" and 30°S")and in eukaryotes, itis 80 ‘S” type (made of 60'S' and 4 of ribosome), i 70 S ribosome Both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes 2. State Always free 3. Subunits 1. Occurrence 505 (larger subunit) and 30 S (smallep subunit) 4. tRNA of smaller subunit 16S 5.1RNA of larger subunit 23S andS$ 6. RNA to protein ratio 60:40 7. Size 200-2904 in length 170-210A in diameter‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 39 a eee eve Fl Functions 1, ERis called as cytoskeleton because it gives internal support or framework to the cytoplastn. Itforms intracellular transport system. 2. 3. Itincreases the surface area for various cellular metabolism. 4, It serves as channels for the exchange of protein between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. 5, In the liver cells of some vertebrat (Detoxification). tes, SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs 6. Itforms proteins and lipids from RER and SER respectively. TI i in buildi : y. These proteins and lipids help in buildin; the cell membrane, This process is called as membrane biogenesis 7. SERis the site for lipid synthesis. In animal cells lipid-like steroidal hormones are synthesised in SER. GOLGI APPARATUS Golgi apparatus was first discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898) in nerve cells of the bam owl. It belongs to” endomembrane systems. It is parallely arranged, — flattened and membrane-bound vesicles. It is found in all eukaryotic cells except RBCs and sperms of mammals. In plants, Golgi apparatus is scattered in cytoplasm and found in diffused form, L.,not easily distinguishable, known as Dictyosomes. . ‘i In vertebrate cells, Golgi apparatus is present 0 7 S near the nucleus and found in localised form. Gyan J Y—secery Golgi apparatus is also known as Golgi bodi transport Trans face “* z ? vesides Golgi complex, Golgisomes, cao Fig. 1.47 Structure of Golgi apparatus showing cis and trans face DSC TY a CONTRIBUTION OF CAMILLO GOLGI Camillo Golgi was born at Corteno near Brescia in 1843, He graduated in 1865 and then worked in Pavia at the hospital of St. Matteo. He investigated the nervous system and accepted the post of CMO (Chief Medical Officer) at the hospital for the chronically sick at Abbia Tegrasso in 1872. He first started his investigation and carried out a revolutionary method of staining individual nerve and cell structures. This method is called as the ‘black reaction’. A weak solution of silver nitrate is used to trace the processes and most delicate ramifications of cells. He received the highest honour and shared the Nobel Prize in 1906 with Santiago Ramony Cajal for their work on the structure of the nervous system. (a) Camillo Golgi (b) S.A. Cajal Structure Fig. 1.48 Cytologists The Golgi apparatus consists of one or more stacks of flat and expanded intercommunicating cisternae. The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with distinct convex cis or the forming faceGRB New Era Biology : B ing off of smooth ER and by fusion, and concave trans or maturing face, the cis face is made by vaaiee up of cisternae into veg Vesicles, whose outer side is Convex. The trans face is constituted by “ and vacuoles whose inner end is concave. ‘ ; i in nected. ‘The cis and the trans faces of the ogranelle are entirely differentiated, but intercon: Functions 1. Secretion is the main function of the Golgi complex. ‘ ised ne 2. Golgi apparatus mainly performs the function of packaging. The material eee near the ER ig Packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and outside the cell “ual Gol Bi apparatus. Golgi apparatus exhibits the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. . Itis directly involved in the formation of lysosomes. Besides lysosome, GC also Plays vital role in the Synthesis of plasma membrane and cell wall, 5. Acrosome of sperm i 6. Cell plate formatio 7, Itis an active site f ‘or glycoprotein and glycolipid formation, KEES) tysosomes F Structure Lysosomes are single membraned are spherical to irregular in sha lysosome is 4 budded of fro: tubules. The lumen of a lysos Branular fluid rich in digest cell organelles. These pe and vary in size. A m Golgi cisternae or ER jome is filled with a finely ive enzymes, called Acid ids with the help of nucleases, proteases, lipases, _glycosidase and Phosphatase respectively. Types Lysosomes are polymorphic. These have four main types on the basis of morphology as follows: @ Primary Lysosomes : These are formed by pinched off from Golgi apparatus having enzymes (inactive form). ‘a (ii) Secondary Lysosomes : These are formed by fusion of contain digestive enzymes that ca 'YPes of lysosomes ®nd their formation Primary ys n hydrolyse the materials. |” ¥°®S0mes ang Phagosomes. They‘The Fundamental Unit of Life a DL a’ (iii) Residual Body : After sometime, the lysosome left with unhydrolysed residue in its lumen, is called residual body. It disappears by discharging the residues outside the cell. (iv) Autophagic Vacuole : The lysosome releases hydrolases in damaged or ageing cells to digest them. Such lysosome is called autophagic vacuole and its activity is called autolysis. Lysosomes remove damaged or inactive cell organelles, i.c., cell debris. So, lysosomes are also known as cellular housekeeper. They form a sort of garbage disposal system of the cell. Functions 1, Lysosomes aict as waste disposal system of the cell. These help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material and wornout cell organelles " Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes that can breakdown all organic materials. ‘These play vital role during fertilization and metamorphogenesis (disappearance of tail) in frog. 5. Lysosomes are defensive organelles because WBCs digest bacteria, germs and viruses and protect the cell as well as body. ‘Acrosome of sperm cells contains lysosomal enzymes to digest the limiting membrane of the ovum (egg). It facilitates sperm to enter the ovum during gametic fusion. MITOCHONDRIA Mitochondria were first discovered by Kélliker during working on muscle cells of insects. Benda coined the term mitochondria. Altman used the term bioplast for mitochondria. Mitochondria are essential for aerobic respiration of eukaryotic cells and also known as power house of the cell. Mitochondria are found in all cells except prokaryotes and RBCs. Mitochondria are double membrane-bound organelles as well as semi-autonomous organelles, as they contain DNA, RNA and ribosome and synthesise their own protein. ‘The number of mitochondria per cell is variable depending on the physiological activity of the cells. However, plant cells have fewer mitochondria than animal cells. a AREY Structure Mitochondria are sausage-shaped or cylindrical intermembrane having a diameter of 0.21.0 um and length sP8°° 1.0-4.0pm. Each mitochondria is a double | outer Coste junctions ‘membrane-bound structure. The outer membrane | membrane ais forms the continuous limiting boundary of the ea organelle. The inner membrane is discontinuous and forms rough foldings. The lumen between outer and inner membrane distinct into two aqueous compartments called outer compartment and inner compartment. ‘The inner membrane (matrix) of mitochondria has. many infolding projection into the matrix. These folds are called Cristae. The cristae increase the surface area of inner membrane for ATP generating chemical reaction. The inner membrane and cristae bear numerous particles having spherical head subtended by a stalk, called ‘oxysomes. The spherical head piece or F, subunit is connected by a base piece or Fy subunit, The Fig, 1.51 (a) Structure of mitochondria Fo ~F combination function as ATP synthetase that catalyse ATP synthesis. The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria through ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) molecules. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in the form of ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work. The fluid-filled matrix is rich in enzymes for aerobic respiration. Italso contains a circular dsDNA molecule, ribosomes, Mg** etc. FoF comploxesFunctions oe lular energy in the form 1. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They elise ee ; Hence, they are called ¢ Power houses’ of the cell. we “mitochondria are calleg 2. DNA present in’ the mitochondria helps in self-duplication. So, 4 semi-autonomous organelles, ot eae 3. 30 ATP. Benerates in mitochondria during aerobic respiration. Imol (GLUCOSE ; ATP) GAT | Glycolyss | Cytosol(6 ATR): a ee 2mol \Pyruvic acid] ” 6ATP Oxidative a j—Stalk Decarboxylation 2mol — [Acetyl Co-A] , 7 j-—Head Mitochondria Krebs? eyete GOATR) ATi 24 ATP ee ys “ATP 36 ATP 2ut Fig. 1.51 (b) Oxysomes. ag PLASTIDS introduced the term ‘plastids’, ‘Csoplasmic organelles Plastids are the large microscope, Plastids are found in all plante imparts specific colours to the plants, Schimper described three types of plastids based on the type of pigments, Plastids are double membraned, semi- st organelles in plant cells. So, itis easil and in euglenoids. They ly observed under at some specific pigments that Characters Chloroplasts ee 1. Nature of plastids Photosynthetic Non-photosynthetie Non-photosynthetic 2-Colourofpigments | Green pigment| Rea, cat (oa Sellow | Colousiess pias | A 2 ti S (chlorophyll) Pigment carotenoids) patent He ae pide a Proteins 3. Occurrence Mainly in leaves Fruits (tomato, carrot, ete.) or Flowers a Spa Active. site of | Attract. inseats for involves qo photosynthesis : 4. Significance Pollination, source of storage of o, vitamins. tein -‘The Fundamental Unit of Life ’ 43 eee Oe Chloroplast Chloroplasts are green plastids containing the pigment chlorophyll and carotenoid. These pigments are responsible for trapping light energy to start photosynthesis. Majority of chloroplast is found in the mesophyll of leaves. A leaf parenchyma cell may have 20-40 chloroplasts. Chloroplast may ‘be lens-shaped, oval, spherical, cup-shaped or ribbon-shaped. Structure Each chloroplast is covered by a double membraned structure. It contains a space filled with a colourless proteinaceous matrix called stroma. Both outer and inner membranes are smooth, unlike mitochondria. The inner membrane is less permeable than the outer, but is richer in proteins. It also includes some carrier proteins. ‘The stroma contains a small circular double perenne eat helical DNA, ribosomes and several enzymes. It is the active site of dark reaction during photosynthesis through which the synthesis of glucose takes place. A number of organised flattened membranous sacs are present in the stroma called thylakoids. Thylakoids are arranged in the stacks like the piles of coins called grana, In addition, there are flat ‘membranous tubules called stroma lamella connecting the thylakoids of the different grana, These are also known as intergranal thylakoids. Grana are the site of light reaction during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll pigments are present in thylakoids that trap solar radiation for photosynthesis. Stroma are the site of dark reaction during photosynthesis. Fig. 1.52 (a) Structure of chloroplast in mesophyll cells. Fig. 1.52 (b) Structure of chloroplast (Electron microscopic) Functions 1, The most vital function of chloroplasts is photosynthesis. 2. Grana of chloroplast execute light reaction and then the stroma of chloroplast perform dark reaction to synthesize glucose under Calvin cycle (C3-cycle).. 3, Chloroplast along with mitochondria and peroxisomes perform photorespiration (Cp-cycle) in green plants. Comparison between and Chloroplast S.No, | -_ Characters Mitochondri Chloroplast 1. | Occurrence ‘All plants and animals except RBCs | Only in plants of mammals 2, _| Site Aerobic respiration Photorespiration 3._| Pigment Colourless Green in colour 4, | Shape ‘Sausage or rod-shaped Diso-shapedGRB New Era Biology Chay Forms cristae Intake of CO, dni \ ‘and release CO? Synthesis of food of food (Ansbeieabolism) Oxidation metabolism) EEG vacuotzs rage sas fr solid oF Tiguig Vacuoles are fe ee Mcuoes. In fact, the smal) are small ae =o ea cells ott Se earl vacuole of some plant gq ‘Wi fuse to form one k in mature plant cells: large central vacuole in mi occupy 50-90% of the cel volume, Structure ‘Vacuoles are mainly made of cell. sap covered by asingle membrane called tonoplast. The tonoplast is Semipermeable. The cell sap provides turgidity and Tigidity to the cell. Since, the large vacuole spreads the Ytoplasm into a thin layer, it facilitates the rapid exchange of solutes and gases between the cytoplasm and adjoining fluids. ‘The vacuolar sap contains amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins. In some animal cells like protozoan cells (Amoeba) contain contractile Vacuoles. The contractile vacuoles enlarge by I i ling them from ae fluids and collapse by expelling Fig: 1.69 Structure of vacuole vacuoles are st Functions 1. Vacuoles may act as food reserves by storing mineral salts and sucrose. 2. They store waste products or plant metabolites like tanin, latex, resin, etc. 3. Contractile vacuole is osmoregulatory in function in single cellular organisms like Amoeba, 1. Centriole, cilium and flagellum show resemblance in their major structure and function, arrangement is 9 + 0.in centrioles and 9 +2 in cilia and flagella. All three are capable of However, centriole plays vital role in cell division, and structurally it appears like a cart-wheel, 2. Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes are two type of microbodies in cytoplasm. These are single structure. Peroxisomes exhibit lipid metabolism, peroxide biosynthesis and photorespiration (in Glyoxysomes show B-oxidation of fatty acids and glyoxylate pathway. 3. Microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules are three types of cytoskeletal They maintain shape ofthe cell and is extension along with distribution of cell organellesCaolled-coit dimer Plasma membrane Paripheral ‘microtubules (doublets) Interdoublet bridge ‘Central microtubule (2) © The fundamental organisational unit of life is the cell. So, the cell is also known as structural and functional unit of life. Robert Hooke first discovered cell during his observation of a thin slice of cork that appeared like the structure of a honeycomb made of many little compartments. © Cell is a latin word for ‘alittle room’. Leeuwenhoek discovered the free living cells in pond water for the first time. Purkinje coined the term ‘protoplasm’ forthe fluid substance ofthe cell. Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell. ‘The cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann that states, “All the plants and animals are composed of cells and the cell is the basic unit of life”. @ Roudolf Virchow further expanded the cell theory by suggesting that all cells arise from pre-existing cells. © Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and bacteria are unicellular while some fungi, plants and animals are multicellular organisms. In plant cells, a cell wall mainly composed of cellulose is located outside the cell membrane, while animal cells are enclosed by a plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins. © The presence of cell wall enables the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to exist in hypotonic media without bursting. a aa a eo @ # @ w@ a an ae ™ —_——__ ———_———— GRB New Bra Biology Cle \f materials bey ates the movement of ie The cell membrane i an active pat ofthe cell It regula! ordered inter i the en a 'r ofthe cell and the outer environment. perusal the ety ang, mbrane so called as selectively permeable me fon 4 and out ofthe cell hh concentrati of hy trough SH pag mma YS havo tsi, Te movement of wate male Membrane is called. ‘Osmosis, jon toa region of low f yncentration Wat once exhibits the passage of water from, a region of high water co! wucettation through semipemeatic ene ie solution separately, rat 22a ellis put ina hypouni an peti ssi Shrink down respa® ly. iy, while the shrinkage of a cell gy, olling of a cell due to endosmoss is elled turgidity, wh! ues is called plasmolyss, “mains unchanged in isotonic solution, ial from it The flexibility of the cell enables the cell to engulf te a “ sav rorment. Such processes are know ee endocytosis. g., Am i r A plant cell never bustin hypotonic solution due tothe presence of Gh er Ee anal ursts in hypotonic solution due tothe absence of rigid structure like brane and it The nucleus in eukaryotes jg Separated from the cytoplasm by double-layered mem a the life processes of the ee ‘The nucleus is called autonomous body, while the chloroplast and mitochondria are cali semi-autonomous body ofa cel isa Cell is classified into Prokaryotes and eukaryotes on the basis of nuclear structure: a organisation, 4 defined nuclear region and membrane boned organelles are absent in prokaryotes like bacteria, Thy cukaryotic cells have nuclear ‘membrane and membrane enclosed organelles. Viruses lack any membrane and do not show characteristics oflife, They enter living body ‘orhost ang use its cell machinery to multiply, To keep the cellular activit membrane-bound little struct Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, 'ysosomes, mitochondria, plastids and vacuoles are importan cell organelles inthe cytoplasm, the cell swells Up a sof diferent Kinds separate ftom each other, the cells asp res called organelles, Endoplasmic reticulum functions both ss Passage way for intracellular transport and a ‘manufacturing surface, ER always forms a network system and found in two forms — Rough ER and Smooth ER. Rough ER hel ER bea. sytthesis, while smooth ER helps in the manufacture of fat ‘molecules and Hpi. Smooth ER helps in detoxifying many Poisons and drugs, Both Rough ER and Smooth Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane bound vesicles that functions in the storage, Modification and packaging of substances manufactued in ha cell ‘The Golgi apparatus is also involved inthe formation of lysosomes, Lysosomes are a kind of wast © disposal system of the cell foreign material as well as wor They keep the cel clean by digesting any 1m out cell organelles,‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 47 — Sh—XhO &_Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes to breakdown all organic material. Lysosomes may burst and the enzyme digest their own cell. So, lysosomes are also known as the ‘Suicidal bags’ of a cell. & Mitochondria are called as the power houses of the cell. Energy is released in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). ATP is used for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work. © Most plant cells have large membranous organelles called plastids, which are of two types— chromoplasts and leucoplasts. S_Chromoplasts that contain chlorophyll are called chloroplast and they perform photosynthesis. The primary function of leucoplast is storage. © Most mature plant cells have a large central vacuole that helps to maintain the turgidity of the cell and store important substances including wastes. The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume. The sap of vacuole is enclosed by a membrane, called tonoplast. oem kero} MM Mp: G@Mz{ele}<@ Questions with Answers & Explanations QL Q2 Q3. Who discovered cell and how? Ans. The father of Cytology, Robert Hooke discovered the cell. He observed a thin slice of cork through a self-designed microscope and found structure of a honeycomb made of many little compartments or boxes. Robert Hooke called these boxes cells. Cell isa latin word for ‘a little room’. Why is the cell called the structural and functional unit of life? Ans. All the living beings consist of cells. Thus, cll isthe structural unit of life. Although cells may vary in their shape and size but the body organisations perform basic function like respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, etc. Thus, the cell is the functional unit of living beings. Now due to the common structural and functional aspects of life exhibited by cells. The cell is called as the structural and functional unit of life. How do substances like CO; and water move in and out of the cell? Discuss. ‘Ans. CO, and water move in and out of the cell through diffusion and osmosis respectively. Diffusion is spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region where its concentration is low. On the other hand, osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low water concentration. .. Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively permeable membrane? Ans. The plasma membrane allows the movement of only required molecules across it. So, the plasma membrane is called a selectively permeable membrane. Fill in the gaps in the following table illustrating differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell 1. Size : generally small 1. Size : generally large (5-100 wm) (1-10 pm), 1 pm =10-m. 2. Nuclear region : 2. Nuclear region : Well defined and surrounded by a nuclear membrane.. (©) Chloroplasts/plastids (Kitchen of Q7. 1 the organisation ofa cells destroyed du to! "A cellular organisation isregulatedby. by physical and chemical influence, cellular ‘Metabolism, 1. Make a comparison and ‘rite down ways in which ph Ans, Differences between Plan 1. Size 2. Cell wall 3. Plastids 4. Vacuoles 5. Centrosome 6. Lysosome 7. Cytoplasmic divisiona \ ‘The Fundamental Unit of Life cra \ eo Q2 Q3. Q4. Q5. Q6. Qi Q8. 49 How is a prokaryotic cell different from a eukaryotic cell? Ans. Differences between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells _ Characters Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells 1. Cell wall Non-cellulosic Cellulosic (plant cell), absent in animal cell. 2, Nucleus Primitive (having naked genetic | Advanced (having combined material) and proteinaceous genetic mi al) 3. Nucleolus Absent Present 4, Chromosome Single with circular DNA Multiple with linear DNA 5, Chloroplast Absent Present 6. Ribosomes 70S type 80S type 7.Endoplasmic reticulum | Absent Present 8. Golgi complex Absent ~ | Present 9, Lysosome Absent Present 10. Cell division Amitotic type Mitotic and meiotic type ‘What would happen if the plasma membrane ruptures or breaks down? ‘Ans, Ifthe plasma membrane ruptures or breaks down, the cell metabolism and cellular transportation will be lost. What would happen to the life ofa cell if there was no Golgi apparatus? ‘Ans, Golgi apparatus exhibits the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicle. It is also involved in the formation of lysosomes that regulate cellular digestion. Thus, the cellular activities will be dysfunction in absence of Golgi apparatus. Which organelle is known as the power house of the cell? Why? ‘Ans, The power house of the cell is mitochondria, Mitochondria are the active site of cellular respiration. Under the cellular respiration, the respiratory substrates like carbohydrate, protein, etc., are completely oxidised and release ATP. The ATP is the energy currency of cell that is consumed for various cellular activities. Where do the lipids and proteins constituting the cell membrane get synthesised? ‘Ans, Lipids and proteins get synthesised by endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes to constitute the cell membrane. How does an Amoeba obtain its food? ‘ ‘Ans. Amoeba obiains its food through endocytosis. The flexibility ofthe cell membrane of Amoeba enables it to engulf food and other material from its external environment. Such processes are called as endocytosis. What is osmosis? ‘4 ‘Ans. Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high water concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low water concentration.alves and bollow each one, pot se water. NOW, F four peeled oiling: folowing osmosis experiment. Take 0 Pe ining ee Ps One ofthese potato cup is putin (©) keepcup Aempry, ) atone teaspoon sugar in cup B, (©) putone: ‘teaspoon salt in cup C, Pit one teaspoon sugar inthe boiled poato cup D. And answer the folowing questions: fon of Band C? (O Explain wiy wate gathers inthe hollowed prion Gi) Way is posto A nezesary fr tier? ors ofA od 9. Carry out the Potato cu, Keeps 2 hus Tet 2 wed out 2 tt tern Ans, ror ai einovlprinn Cw WET aed inthe hollowed pain of the blloned tet Pt. Aare wre to show various (©) Posto A tas been se panto xpi ; XPerimental set like B, CandD. 7 ‘ of water iy The hollowed potion of A hd sotne oon, So he vl ote ‘ater in boiled potato D because ofthe ss of el permet Q MULTIPLE CHOICE que; STIONS 1. Which of the following ‘can be made into, crystal? (A Bacterium ©) An Amoeba (© A Virus A-cell will wel up i (@) the concentra of water molecules in th cel is ighe than the, Surrounding medium ©) the concentration of + pani a con “str moleesin sou medunishiger hn yt me in the cell (©) decay tock orn ed ead di © the Concentration of water molecules doesnot mater 5 % Chromosomes are made up of : 7 @ DNA (©) protein (©) DNA and protein ‘4. Which of these options are ‘ot a function of ribosomes? we (®_Ithelps in manufacture of protein molecules, (i) Tthetps in man (iii) It helps in ‘manufacture of hormones, (Gv) Ithelps in manufac @ @ ad (iiy (©) (i) and Git) © Gian iy 5. Which of these is not relat ted to endoplasmic reticulum? 8 @ Ter anit hel is been me ang 4 (b) Ittransports materials between varus Fegions in cytoplasm : (©) Itcan be the site of energy generation (€) Itean be the site for some biochémical Activities ofthe cellThe Fundamental Unit of Life 6. 2 51 Fotwng ae few definitions of osmosis, Read carefully and select the correct definition () Movement of water molecules from a region of hi i s Selihicines : "2 region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration (©) Movement of solvent molecules from its higher concentration to lower concentration (©) Movement of solvent molecules nt from higher concentration to lower concentration of solution through a (©) Meveneat ofan molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution through a Plasmolysis in a plant cell is defined as : (@)_ breakdown (lysis) of plasma membrane in hypotonic medium (b) shrinkage of cytoplasm in hypertonic medium (©) shrinkage of nucleoplasm (@) none of the above Which of the following are covered by a single membrane? (a) Mitochondria (b) Vacuole (©) Lysosome (d) Plastid Find out the false sentence : (@) Golgi apparatus is involved with the formation of lysosomes. (b) Nucleus, mitochondria and plastid have DNA; hence they are able to make their own structural proteins (©) Mitochondria is said to be the power house of the cell as ATP is generated in them (@ Cytoplasm is called as protoplasm |. Find out the correct sentence : (a) Enzymes packed in lysosomes are made through RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) (©) Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum produce lipid and protein respectively (©) Endoplasmic reticulum is related with the destruction of plasma membrane (@)_Nucleoid is present inside the nucleoplasm of eukaryotic nucleus - Which cell organelle plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs in a cell? (@) Golgi apparatus (©) Lysosomes (©) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum @ Vacuoles - The proteins and lipids, essential for building the cell membrane, are manufactured by (@) rough endoplasmic reticulum (©) golgi apparatus (©) plasma membrane (@ mitochondria . The undefined nuclear region of prokaryotes is also known as : (@) nucleus (b) nucleolus (©) nucleic acid (@) nucleoid . The cell organelle involved in forming complex sugars from simple sugars are : (@): endoplasmic reticulum (b) ribosomes (©) plastids @ golgi apparatus . Which out of the following is not a function of vacuole? (@) Storage (©) Providing turgidity and rigidity to the cell (©) Waste excretion (@ Locomotion . Amoeba acquires its food through a process, termed : . (2) exocytosis (b) endocytosis (©) plasmolysis @ exocytosis and endocytosis both . Cell wall of which one of these is not made up of cellulose? (@) Bacteria (b) Hydrilla (©) Mango tree (@ CactusGRB New Era Biology 2Q 18, ae Nitrate Solution is used to study : igi apparatus asm © 0 © nucleus reticulum (d) mitochondria * Preanelle other ining DNA is: ; (@ lysosome @) odin er wee ets containing (©) mitochondria reticulum (6) gol apparatus chen ofthe cet ig @) mi i ic reticulum a (©) endoplasmic ©) chloroplast (@) ole apparatus * Lid molecules in the cel a ized by : , ire synthesized by : reticulum Smooth endop i eculm Oe eran © sol spparane © plastids + arise from preexistn ‘cell was stated by : (4) Schleiden @ Haccke ® Victor : (©) Hooke bd * Cell theory was given by: (@ Schleiden and Schwann, (b) Virchow aq, ©, Hooke (@) Haeckel * The only cet or nelle Seen in prokaryotic eels @) mitéchondri 0) saan (©) plastids a 5. Organele without ace ‘membrane is @ aucleus ; (8) ribos, ©) olgi apparatus () ‘chloroplast Apmis: 3 @) 10% m ©) 10 m © 0" n sale * Lysosome arises from ; @) endoplasmic reticulum (©) golgi apparatus (© tuck (@) mitochondria 8. Living cells were discovered by ; (@) Robert Hooke ©) Purkinje (©) Leeuwenhoek (4) Robert Brown 9. Select the odd one out ; (@ The movement of Water across a semipermeable membrane i affected by the amount of substances dissolved in it (©) Membranes are ‘made of organic @) Plasma ‘membranes contain chitif 18 SEAS 1. (©) 2 (b) 3.) 40 56 6. (a) 7. (b) Rb) 9 MO nO Re B@ 14@ 15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (@) 18, (b) 19. () 20. (0) 21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (a) 26, (a) 10) 28. (0) 29. (d)