SCIENCE10

9/19/23

‘DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES AND MOUNTAIN RANGES’

- Philippines is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire

This means that our country and other places located at the ring of fire. Experience earthquake,
volcanic eruptions and other tectonic activities.
- How are volcanoes, mountains and other geologic features formed?
The Earth’s Crust
Earth’s Lithosphere consists of layers, the crust is
made of a variety of solid rocks like sedimentary
metamorphic and igneous. It has an average
density of 2.8 g per cubic centimeter and its
thickness ranges from 5 to 50 kilometers.

There are two kinds of crust oceanic crust and continental crust.

According to the plate tectonics model, the entire lithosphere of the earth is broken
into numerous segments called PLATES.
- Plate Tectonic Map –
 What do these broad lines represent?
The map shows that the outer shell or
layer of earth, the lithosphere is broken
up into tectonic plates that are
gradually moving. The broad lines
represent the Plate Boundaries.

What do you think are the basis of our scientist in marking the plate boundaries?
The places of earth where most of the earthquakes originated or some mountains and volcanoes were
formed mark the boundaries of each lithospheric plate.

SUMMARY
- Plates are large pieces of the upper few 100 kilometers of earth that move as a single unit as it
floats above the mantel.
- The plates are in constant motion as they interact along their margins, Important geological
processes take place such as the formation of mountain belts.

- TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES -

Majority of the research findings of our scientists is that plates aremoving at an average rate of 0.60 cm
per year to 10 cm per year. As plates move, majority of the formation of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and mountain ranges are happening along the plate boundaries. This geologic feature serves as basis in
marking the plate boundaries

7 MAJOR PLATE TECTONICS

Pacific Plate,
North American Plate,
Eurasian Plate,
African Plate,
Antarctic Plate,
South American Plate,
and
Australian Plate.
 - Plate Tectonic Map -

The arrows on the map tells the direction of

movement of each plate. Each plate is
slowly moving relative to each other, What are the different types of plate boundaries?
causing geologic events to happen along
their boundaries. What other geologic events could be formed by these types of plate
boundaries?
There are three distinct types of plate boundaries, which are
differentiated by the type of movement they exhibit.
Studying plate boundaries is important
We have: Convergent Plate Boundary, Divergent Plate Boundary
because along these boundaries, deformation and Transform Plate Boundary.
of the lithosphere is happening.
These geologic events have a great impact
not only on the environment, but also on us.

 Convergent Plate Boundary/Destructive

Boundary
When two tectonic plates move towards each
other and collide, they form a convergent plate
boundary, or also known as destructive plate
boundary.

As two plates collide, a collision zone is created

and one of the leading edges of a plate will be
subducted and destroyed. That's why it's also Remember that there are two different types of crusts:
known as destructive plate boundary.
Oceanic Crust and Continental Crust
  Divergent Plane Boundary/Constructive Plate Boundary
Divergent plate boundaries are locations where plates are moving from one another. It is also known as
constructive plate boundary.

As two plates move apart, it creates a zone of

tension and forming gap where molten
materials will emerge and solidify, forming
geologic features such as volcanoes or
mountains.
Most active divergent plate boundary occur
between oceanic plates.

 Transform Fault Plate Boundary/

Conservative Margins
Transform fault plate boundary is also known
as conservative margins. Plates slide past each
other so that the relative movement is
horizontal. In this type of plate boundary, no
plate margins are being destroyed or formed.
Rather, it forms mostly the shaking of the
ground known as earthquakes.

The fractured zone that forms a

transform plate boundary is
known as transform fault.
Most transform faults are found
in the ocean basins and connect
offsets in the mid-ocean ridges.

- Processes that Occur Along the Plate Boundaries –

 TWO TYPES OF CRUSTS:
Crust is very important to help you understand
- CONTINENTAL Thicker but less dense the geologic processes occurring along the
- OCEANIC CRUST: Thinner and dense different types of plate boundaries.
-
convergent Plate Boundary
The geologic processes that will be form along this type of plate boundary Oceanic-Continental Convergent Plate
depends on the material of plates that are colliding we have the Boundaries
convergence of:
This figure shows the convergence between
Oceanic to Continental oceanic crustal plate and continental crustal plate.
Oceanic to Oceanic As two different plates collide, the leading edge
of the oceanic plate bends towards the mantle
Continental to Continental since it is denser than the continental plate.

As two different plates collide, the leading edge of the oceanic plate bends
towards the mantle since it is denser than the continental plate.
The bending of the denser plate towards the mantle is called Subduction
Process.
Since the mantle is hotter than the crust, the tendency of the subducted
leading edge of the oceanic crust will be melted, forming magma.

Addition of volatile materials such as water will

cause the magma to become less dense.
This allows the magma to rise and reach the edge
of the continental crust plate forming volcanic arc.
Aside from volcanic arc, what other geologic
events could be formed in convergence of oceanic-
continental crustal plates?
The continuous grinding of plates against each
other will cause the occurrence of earthquakes.
One of the deepest trenches of
the world is the Philippine
Trench with a depth of 10,540.
One important geologic feature formed at the
oceanic crust is a trench, or also known as
submarine valleys.
Ocean trenches are the deepest part of the ocean.
 Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent Plate Boundaries Converging oceanic plates will cause formation
of trenches and these trenches will become
A second type of convergent plate boundary involves the sinking of
sources of earthquakes.
oceanic lithosphere beneath another plate of oceanic lithosphere.
-

Underwater earthquakes, especially the stronger ones, can

generate tsunamis or harbor waves.
The leading edge of the subducted plate will eventually
reach the mantle, causing it to melt and turn it into magma.
The molten material will rise to the surface creating a
volcanic island arc parallel to the trench.

The western half of the Pacific Ring of Fire is full of these

volcanic island arcs including Japan, Indonesia, and
Philippines.

Many parts of the Philippines originated from Oceanic-Oceanic

Convergence. This resulted from the collision of two oceanic
plates with one of the plates diving under the other. Majority of
the islands in the Philippine archipelago are considered as part of
the Philippine Mobile Belt.
These islands were formed 65 million years ago at the southern
edge of the Philippine sea plate and are considered as part of
island arcs. On the eastern side of
the Philippines,
Other parts of the Philippines such as Palawan, Mindoro, and the trenches like the
Zamboanga Peninsula are all highland sections of the Sandalan Philippine Trench and
Block of the Eurasian Plate. Islazon Through are
both products of
subducting Philippine
sea plate beneath the
The Philippine Mobile Belt eventually collided with the archipelago.
Sandalan Block which explains the presence of trenches such as
Manila-Black-Cotabato Trench System and the Sulu Trench.
 Aside from the formation of trenches and troughs, chains of active Continental –
volcanoes that stretches from Taiwan to Mindoro were created. Continental
The mid-Atlantic ridge is a mid-ocean ridge located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean
Some of
andthepart
known
of thevolcanoes in this chain
longest mountain rangeare Mount
in the Pinatubo and
world. Convergent Plate
Taal. Boundaries
Also, the constant dipping movement of slabs induces frequent When two continental
moderate to strong earthquakes at various depths, gives rise to Rocks near
plates the oceanic
converge, a
mountain ranges, and develops the geologic character of the ridge are younger than
collision zone is
Philippine archipelago. those far from it.
formed.
This map tells the ages of
the Earth's oceanic crust in
Unlike the other million years.
two types of convergent
plate boundaries, subduction ceases for
this type of convergence.

Red means youngest oceanic rocks and blue means the oldest. Clearly, Subduction Ceases - It means that no
rocks near the oceanic ridges are younger than far from it. trench, not volcano, and no island arc are
created in this type of convergent plate
That's why divergent plate boundary is also known as constructed plate boundary.
margins because it's where new materials are being formed.

Instead, it leads to the formation of large group

of occur
Divergent plate movement can also tall mountains calledplates
in continental mountain range.

About 40 to 50 million years ago, two large landmasses,

As continental plate starts to move apart, the crust will start thinning and
India and Eurasia, collided to begin the formation of the most visible aproduct
develops of reef valley. The continental reef valley will
continental
plate tectonics, the Himalayas. Also, collision of continentaldevelop
plates isinto
associated
a narrow sea and then into a widened ocean.
with shallow earthquake activities.

 Divergent
Iceland is aPlate Boundary
country
Divergentlocated
plate above the is when the lithospheric plates are moving apart
boundary
from eachEurasian
other. plate and
North American plate
If the divergent movementfrom
that are diverging is happening in the oceanic plates, it can lead to
the formation of the oceanic ridge and reef valley.
one another.

What are oceanic ridge and reef valley?

The Oceanic
Thingvellirridge is an underwater
National Park is mountain range formed by plate tectonics.
one of
Thetheoceanic
most frequently visited
ridge occurs when convection currents rise in the mantle beneath
attractions in Iceland.
the oceanic crust and create magma where two tectonic plates meet at a
divergent boundary.

Transform Fault Plate Boundary

If theAsblocks
platesrepresent to move apart, an between
continue the blocksfloor
uplifted ocean 1 andwill2 and blocks
develop in3both
and
lithosphere plates, you will notice 4.
sides of the plates which is called Oceanic Ridge.
that there were two sets of
But since the plates were adjacent to each
divergent plate boundaries
Since oceanic crust is thinner than theother, a new type
continental crust,ofthe
boundary
creationisof a
manifested and that is
linear-shaped lowland between oceanic ridges will develop called the transform fault
reef valley.
boundary between blocks 2 and 3.
The presence of an oceanic ridge is an indication of diverging plates. And as the
plates diverge between the two segments of the mid-ocean ridge, the adjacent slabs
of crust are grinding past each other forming transform fault.

Transform boundaries and the resulting faults produce many earthquakes because
edges of tectonic plates are jagged rather than smooth. As the plates grind past each
other, the jagged edges strike each other, locking the plates in place for a time.
Because the plates are locked together without moving, a lot of stress builds up at the
fault line. This stress is released in quick bursts when the plates suddenly slip into
new positions. The sudden movement is what we feel as the shaking and trembling of
an earthquake.
Hawaii Island- where we can find some
Most transform faults are located within the ocean basins. There are few that cut of the most active volcanoes.
through the continental crust like the San Andreas Fault.
Most volcanoes are formed along plate
boundaries.

- Volcanic Hot Spots – What are volcanic hotspots?

Are all active volcanoes located near plate boundaries? Not all volcanoes are found Most volcanoes and earthquakes are
near plate boundaries. found along plate boundaries.

Some volcanic activities take place in the middle of a plate. Just like the eyelids of There are some volcanoes that sit in the
Hawaii. middle of plates.

These volcanoes have formed above

a hotspot.
A hotspot is mainly caused by small
amount of geologic activity known
as Interplayed Activity. Wich
means that tectonic activity does not
take place at plate boundaries but
within a plate instead

Scientists suggested that there is a source of molten materials from the mantle, called
mantle-plum, that formed the hotspot. Continuing plate movement, eventfully
carries the island beyond the hotspot and
A hotspot is the surface expression of the mantle-plum that forms the volcanic island
cutting it off from the magma source.
chains.
As one island volcano becomes
extinct, another develops over the
hotspot and the cycle is repeated.
From the volcanic trap left by the
moving plate, we can tell the
direction of motion of the plate and
the rate at which it moves (8.6
cm/year).
This process of growth and death of
volcanoes over many millions of years
has left a long trail of volcanic islands
and sea mounts across the Pacific
Ocean floor.
The best example of hotspot volcanic
chain is the Hawaiian island
Hotspots are much more
common beneath oceanic
crust, because oceanic crust
is thinner than the
continental crust.

That's why magma plum can easily penetrate oceanic

crust creating a hotspot.
Did you know the Yellowstone is a volcanic hotspot
found?
In the continental crust of the North American plate
and responsible for a large scale of volcanism in the
area.

Stating that Earth’s lithosphere-The crust and the upper

mantle is broken up into several pieces PLATE that
move slowly. It explains how the massive plates move
along the different types of Plate Tectonic Boundaries
where they interact, and the geologic events and
geologic features that occur at their boundaries.

 Earth’s Mechanism
Earth’s Mechanism deals with the forces acting on lithosphere
plates to move in particular direction. The motion is a result of What Makes Lithosphere Plates Move?
thermal convection in the mantle due to the convection current
formed A convection current is a heat transfer process that
involves the movement of energy from one place to
another. The convection tends to move a fluid, gas
Mantle Convection particles, or molten rock. There are due to the difference
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory was developed in !960s
The hot fluid tends to rise as it expands, whereas cold fluid tends to
sink because it contracts. Convection is one of the kinds of heat
transfer, the other two are radiation and conduction.

Convection current also happens in the mantle. The mantle is the

second inner layer of Earth, made up of mostly hot rocks and magma.
It is a very hot layer because of the heat generated by the core. The
source heat from the core is due to the decay or breakdown of
radioactive elements. Mantle Convection is a process by which
thermal convection occurs in the inner layer of the earth. The
differences in the temperature at the Earth’s interior and surface cause
convection currents to occur within the mantle.
But what made Alfred Lothar Wegener say that the
continents are drifting?
What other evidence for Continental Drift Theory?

Wegener's curiosity about idea on drifting continents

started when he noticed the edges of South America and
Africa in a world map can be fitted like a jigsaw puzzle.
Lithospheric Plates are the parts of the uppermost layer
of the Earth, and they are flowing in an area called the
asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is a soft, less rigid
upper part of the mantle where the lithospheric plates
In the process of slab pull, the presence of a heavier subducting
 Evidence floatfor
and move around.
Continental DriftPlates
Theorymove slowly and
plate pulls down the trailing slab into the subduction zone.
continuously when the hot less dense material rises. The
Evidence
In a ridge push or gravitational sliding process, the old oceanic crust fromrisingFossils
hotFossilized leavesdown
material cools of aninextinct plant
a certain close
area. up
Hence,
tourists
becomes heavier than the new oceanic crust and sinks because of the were found in 260 million years old rocks. These fossils
it becomes denser than the cool, dense material, sinks were
weight of the raised ridge which pushes down the older oceanic located in the continents of southern
that convection Africa,
cell, with Australia,
hot rising India,
currents andand
cool
crust towards the trench at the subduction zone. Antarctica, which are now separated from each other by wide
sinking currents are regularly repeated and becomes a oceans.
cycle, the movement of the lithosphere plate is attributed
The large seeds of this plant could not possibly travel a long journey
to mantle convection and considered as one of the
by the wind or survive a rough ride through ocean waves.
driving mechanisms for plate motion. The lithosphere at
divergent boundary with uplift and tear apart due to the
rising of hot magma. The sinking of magma pulled
down the tectonic plate at a convergent boundary. Aside
from mantle convection, ridge push, sliding and slab
pull are other forces that move the lithospheric plates.

 Continental
Evidence from Rocks Drift Theory
Fossils found in rocks support
the Continental Drift Theory. The rocks themselves Alfred Lothar Wegener
Did you notice that the western part of Africa and eastern border
also provide evidence that the continents drifted apart
of South America seem to fit together like a big jigsaw puzzle? A German polar researcher, geophysicist, and meteorologist.
from each other.
Alfred Lothar Wegener is remembered as the originator of
Rock formations in Africa line up with South America,
the Continental Drift Theory by hypothesizing it in 1912.
as if it was a long mountain range.
Remember, fossils of Mesosaurus found in rocks is a
freshwater ancient reptile, so it's impossible for this
animal to cross the vast ocean between Africa and
South America Continental Drift Theory states that the
continents are slowly drifting around
the earth and was once a large landmass
called Pangea, a greek word which
.
means all earth.
Coal deposits and ancient climates Coal beds were formed from the
compaction and decomposition of swamp plants that lived million
years ago. These were discovered in South America, Africa, Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and even in Antarctica. How is a coal
bed formation possible in Antarctica? To support large quantities of
life, Antarctica once had tropical climate thus located near equator in
the past.

z glaciation.
Despite Wagner's gathered evidence supporting his idea about
drifting continents, the scientific community rejected him for some
problems.
He estimated the speed of continental motion 250 cm per year was
unbelievably high.
He cannot explain what causes the continents to move.
It took many years before the theory of continental drift was
accepted. What causing the continents to drift? What other missing
evidence to support such claim?
Summary:
This supercontinent Pangea was divided into two supercontinents
named Larisha and Guanduanalan. Pieces of Larisha drifted to the
North, while pieces of Guanduanalan drifted to the South and
eventually drifted into Day 7 continents.
Evidence of Glaciation and Ancient Climate
Some of the most telling climatological evidence comes
from the continents of South America, Africa, India, and
Australia. All of these continents show evidence of past
This evidence comes in the form of glacial strations.
Glacial strations are left when large boulders are dragged
beneath glaciers. As they drag along, they scratch the
underlying surface, creating grooves parallel to the
direction of travel of the glacier.
Alfred Lothar Wegener was the main proponent of the
continental drift theory that states that the continents were
once connected as a big land mass called Pangea, which
means all earth.
The continental drift theory is being supported by the
following evidence.
 Shapes or matching edges of continents.
 Fossil evidence.
 Matching rocks.
 Coal deposits in Antarctica.
 Ancient climates.
 And carvings glacier.

 Sea Floor Spreading

Sonar – helpful for exploring and mapping the ocean with
Many people in the past believed that the ocean floor is flat like the the use of soundwaves.
desert. But in 1930s, where sounding-geared cold sonar was
developed, leads to the discovery of the standing feature of the
ocean floor. Harry Hess and his team
carefully examined maps of
One of the scientists to use sonar to study ocean floor during World the mid-ocean ridge system.
War II was Harry Hammond Hess. Then Hess began to think
a professor of geology at Princeton University. about the ocean floor in
relation to the problem of the
continental drift theory. That
leads him to the idea of sea
floor spreading.
Seafloor Spreading-
According to the sea
A geologic process in which floor spreading theory,
lithosphere split apart from hot, less dense material
each other. below the Earth's crust
rises towards the mid-
ocean ridge.
 - This material flows sideways, carrying the sea floor away
from the ridge, and creates a crack in the crust.
- The magma flows out of the crack, cools down, and becomes
the new sea floor.
- Over time, the new oceanic crust pushed the old oceanic
crust far from the ridge and subducted.
 Evidence of Seafloor Spreading
Scientists find out that youngest rocks are found
near the ridge.
While old rocks are found far from the ridge.
This provides evidence that sea floor spreading
and new crust is being created at the ridge.

Always remember that the ages, density, and thickness of the oceanic Since there's spreading happening at the ridge, the
crust increases with distance from the mid-ocean ridge. sediments near the ridge are thinner and
progressively thickens as you move away.

 Evidence of Seafloor Spreading: Geomagnetic Reversal

Basalt, the one smolter rock that makes up most new oceanic crusts, is a
fairly magnetic substance.

Scientists began using magnetometers to measure the magnetism of the

ocean floor in the 1950s.
Scientists discovered that the magnetism of the ocean floor around mid-
ocean ridges was divided into matching stripes on either side of the ridge.
The specific magnetism of basalt rock is determined by the earth's
magnetic field when the magma is cooling.
How is sea floor spreading disproves and supports
Scientists determined that the same process formed the perfectly
continental drift theory?
symmetrical stripes on both side of a mid-ocean ridge.
Supporters of continental drift originally theorized
The continual process of sea floor spreading separated the stripes in an
that the continents move through unmoving oceans.
orderly pattern.
Sea floor spreading proves that the ocean itself is a
site of tectonic activity.

Did you know that sea floor spreading and subduction keeps the shape of
the earth?
Sea floor spreading creates new crusts while subduction destroys old
crusts.
Summary:
The two forces roughly balance each other so the shape and diameter of
the earth remain constant. sea floor spreading is a geologic process in
Sediments are thinner near the ridge and progressively thickens as you which tectonic plates split apart from each
move away. other.

The density of materials increases as you go far from the ridge.
Symmetrical stripes on both sides of a mid-ocean ridge.
You also learn that sea floor spreading creates new crusts while
subduction destroys old crusts.
Sea floor spreading occurs at divergent plate
boundaries.
The evidence of sea floor spreading are,
Youngest rocks are found near the ridge.

The two forces roughly balance each other so the shape and diameter of All these rocks are found far from the ridge.
the earth remain constant.
  Plate Tectonic Theory
The Earth's crust is broken into pieces called plates that are gradually moving. These
plates are moving convergingly, divergently, or sliding from one another.
But what is really happening beneath the Earth's crust that causing the plates to
move? With the advances in seismology, it allowed us to learn that the Earth's
interior is made of several layers.

Starting from the outermost to the

The theory of plate tectonics
states that the Earth's solid outer
crust, the lithosphere is
separated into plates that move
over the asthenosphere, the
molten upper portion of the
mantle.
Oceanic and continental plates come together, spread apart, and interact at boundaries
all over the planet.
innermost layer:
Crust - the thinnest and top component
of the lithosphere.
Mantle - the which is the mostly solid
bulk of the Earth's interior.
Core - very hot, very dense center of
our planet.
The material in the Earth's crust are
constantly in motion, and we call this
movement plate tectonics.

Plate tectonics is made possible by the process what we called convection current at
the Earth's mantle.

Convection is a process on how heat is

being transferred in fluids. Convection
can happen if there is significant
difference in temperature between two
parts of a fluid. When temperature
difference exists, hot fluids rise and
cold fluids sink, and then currents or
movements are created in the fluid.
Convection can also happen in the
The warmer, less dense rock material near the core slowly moves upward. Relatively mantle.
cooler rock from higher in the mantle slowly sinks toward the mantle. As the warmer
Heat in the mantle mainly comes from
material rises, it also cools, eventually push aside by warmer rising material and
the Earth's molten outer core due to
sinking back toward the core.
decaying of radioactive elements. The
Plate tectonics provides an explanation for Wegener’s drifting continents. As temperature difference between the
lithospheric plates move and sew the crust, creating landforms and other tectonic upper and lower boundaries of the
activities. mantle requires heat transfer to occur.

Links:
https://youtu.be/ZNRI6sv5igQ?si=9ejZSMl5-XsxMwSd

https://youtu.be/IAGZItftASg?si=vPCUcxkAtCiIJSHg

https://youtu.be/wtWQFWLQl28?si=ADdtif7oDnAFW6wS

https://youtu.be/bc9WGyq74uc?si=vHSv_MmVMPEU23nv

https://youtu.be/iRY2gmRquF0?si=YVztHMp9HTYBK1ft

https://youtu.be/ksv6Dn7uVx4?si=RmEcR9WupZtlMA27

https://youtu.be/vj4CgDT0-FU?si=B1bX7VxGLqTUYRO5