Contents

➢ I. Heat transfer bases (QCM1)

➢ II. and III Radiation heat transfer (TD1, QCM2)
Convection / Radiation heat transfer ➢ IV. Fundamental equations of convection
V. Laminar forced convection in ducts
C6: Convection in boundary layers
➢
➢ VI. Convection in boundary layers and around obstacles
and around obstacles ●
●
Boundary layer and flat plate B.L.
Prandtl equations, scale analysis, Blasius solution
● Integral equations and integral method
● TD2
Y.Delannoy – Grenoble INP
● Wall conditions, thermal regimes
● Heat transfer laws for fully developed regime
ENSE3 – 3rd year module "Advanced heat transfer and energetics" ● QCM4
➢ VII. Natural convection (TD3, QCM5)
➢ VIII. Turbulent convection (TD4, TD5, QCM6)

ENSE3 Thermodynamics & thermics 3A Thermal Radiation - 2 Surfaces 2

VI.1 Boundary layer(s)... ...Column of fluid model...

➢ Thin zones at high Reynolds or Peclet
● Scale analysis of steady momentum and energy equations: ➢ Lagrangian view : fluid column (0< y<∞), arriving on the wall at t=0
(V⋅∇ ) V + ∇ p /ρ = νΔV (V⋅∇ )T = αΔT
convection + pressure ~ diffusion convection ~ diffusion ● Initial conditions (t=0) U=U∞, T=T∞ ; boundary conditions (t>0) for y=0 U=0, T=Tw
O( V 2 / L) ~ O ( ν V /δ 2 ) O(V Θ / L) ~ O(α Θ /δ2t ) ● Seems similar to a "thermal shock" creating a layer of thickness √παtt (or √πνtt for V)
where L is the scale of variations along V, δ and δₜ are minimum scales of variation ● Since the column travels at U∞, x=U∞t so that δ=√πxRex−½ and δₜ=√πxPex−½
● At domain scale (δ~δₜ~L) convection/diffusion ~VL/ν(Re) or VL/α(Pe)
p∞(x) y
● Convection/diffusion equilibrium if δ~L/√Re and δₜ~L/√Pe y
● This is the case near walls in non detached flow (see figure) Fluid
U∞, T∞
➢ Dynamic and thermal boundary layer Wall at Tw T-T∞ U
● Thickness of the boundary layers increase along the flow
● Some similarity with a sudden imposed condition (V=0, T=Tw) at the bottom of a fluid column ➢ But the column is strongly deformed !
● Dynamic boundary layer (for V) is thicker if ν≥α i.e. Pr≥1 (~all fluids except liquid metals) ● ⇒ this model is only qualitative
y ● Need to use the 2D equations but simplify them :
y
Fluid y Steady flow ∂V/∂t=0 and ∂T/∂t=0
V(x,y) U(x,y)
ρ, ν, U∞ δt(x) δ(x) Thin layer δ≪x and δₜ≪x
x T-T∞ Wall at Tw U
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 ...Prandtl equations y VI.2 Scale analysis...
y
Fluid ρ, ν, y
V(x,y) ➢ Scale of derivatives, analysis of continuity
U∞, T∞ δt(x) δ(x) U(x,y)
x ● At constant y, U is of order U∞ and the scale at which U varies is x ⇒ O(∂U/∂x)=U∞/x
T-T∞ Wall at Tw U ● At constant x, V=0 (y=0) → V=V∞(δ) ⇒ O( O(∂V/∂y)=V∞/δ
Axial diffusion neglected (∂²/∂x²≪∂²/∂y²), no time derivative
● Continuity equation → U∞/x~V∞/δ so that V∞~(δ/x)U∞ : weak, but non zero normal velocity
➢ Continuity ∂U ∂V
● Scale of transport terms: U∂a/∂x ~ (U∞/x)O(a) ~ (V∞/δ)O(a) ~ V∂a/∂y (a=any field, i.e. U or T)
+ =0
Boundary conditions V=0 for y=0 ∂x ∂ y
V =0 for y=0 ➢ Scale analysis of the energy equation (at Pr ≥1) U
∂T
+V
∂T
= αΔT
∂x ∂y
➢ Momentum (Prandtl 1904) ● In the thermal layer Uₜ~(δₜ/δ)U∞ in place of U∞ U t Θ/ x ~ α Θ/ δ2t
● y-momentum: p(x,y)=p∞(x) neglecting terms ≪ρUU∞² 2
● Continuity → vertical velocity Vₜ~Uₜ δₜ/x → U∂T/∂x~V∂T/∂y~UₜΘ/x
∂U ∂U ∂U∞ ∂ U
Bernoulli y>δ: dp/dx=−ρUU∞dU∞/dx (=0 for flat plate) U +V =U ∞ +ν ● Result → Uₜ/x~αt/δₜ² → δₜ²~αtx/Uₜ~αtxδ/(δₜU∞) →δₜ/x~(δ/x)1/3Pe−1/3 with Pe=U∞x/αt
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂ y2
νt=μ/ρ kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m²/s) U =U ∞ for x=0 ; U =0 for y=0
Boundary conditions U=U∞ for x=0 ; U=0 for y=0 ➢ Scale analysis of the momentum equation (to have δ/x)
➢ Energy
U
∂T
+V
∂T
=α
∂ T
2
➢ Scale analysis of Fourrier law φw=−k
=−k(∂T /∂y)w to get an exchange law
(∂T/∂y
αt=k/(ρCₚ) thermal diffusivity of the fluid (m²/s) ∂x ∂y ∂y
2

Boundary conditions T=T∞ for x=0 ; T=Tw for y=0 T =T ∞ for x=0 ; T =T w for y=0
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Exercise VI.1 : Scale analysis of laminar B.L. ...exact solutions

Steady incompressible flow, constant properties, flat plate laminar boundary layer
p∞=cste y ➢ Results of scale analysis ( a~b ⇔ a=Cₐb with Ca=constant of order 1)
y
Fluid ρ, ν, y ● Pr≥1 (see above)→ δ ~ xReₓ−1/2 ; δₜ ~ xPr−1/3Reₓ−1/2 ; Nuₓ ~ Pr1/3Reₓ1/2
V(x,y) U(x,y)
U∞, T∞ δt(x) δ(x) ● Pr≪1 (liquid metals) δₜ ~ xPr−1/2Reₓ−1/2 ; Nuₓ ~ Pr1/2Reₓ1/2
x T-T∞ Wall at Tw ● Values of the constants Ci? How do they depend of dU∞/dx ? of the heating mode?
U
➢ Reminder (previous slide) ∂U
+
∂V
=0
● Continuity (with Uₜ~(δₜ/δ)U∞ from layers thicknesses) →
∂x ∂y ➢ Exact solutions of the Prandtl equations (1900-1920, using series)
U ∞ / x ~ V ∞ / y in velocity B.L.
2 U t / x ~ V t / y in thermal B.L.
● Change of variable (x,y)→(x,η) with η=y/(xReₓ−1/2) (from scale analysis)
∂T ∂T ∂ T
U +V = α ● Use a stream function F(η)=∫0→ηU(η')/U∞dη' → Blasius equation F'''+FF''-(F' ²-1)=0 (flat plate)
● Energy ∂ x ∂y ∂ y → δₜ/x~(δ/x) Pe
2 1/3 −1/3
with Pe=U∞x/αt
U t Θ/ x ~ α Θ/ δt2
● Temperature profile (T-T∞)/(Tw-T∞)=θ(η) → θ''+PrFθ'=0 (linear, need Blasius solution)
● resolution of the differential equations, then constant CNu from θ'(0) (and friction from F''(0))
2
● Momentum ∂U ∂U ∂ U for flat plate B.L
U +V = ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
● Extensions: walls with U∞=Kxᵐ (≠ flat plate) ; with Tw-T∞=Hxⁿ or φw=H'xn−1/2 (≠ constant temp.)

➢ Questions ➢ Local results (for global results integrate φ(x) for x=0→L
=0→L)
● Analyze the scales of the momentum equation (using the scales in velocity B.L)
● Flat plate (m=0) at Pr~1 or Pr>1: at constant temperature (n=0) → Nuₓ=0.332Pr1/3Reₓ1/2
● Express δ/x from known dimensionless numbers
at constant flux φw=Cste (n=½) → Nuₓ=0.435Pr1/3Reₓ1/2
● Calculate the order of magnitude of φ and put it in dimensionless form
● Other cases i.e. stagnation line (m=1) or Pr≪1 → scale analysis OK, cf constants in books!
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 VI.3 Integral equations... … and integral method
U
➢ Balance equations in dV=slice
dV=slice of length dx,
dx, height H>max(δ
>max(δ,δₜ)
δₜ)
● Obtained by integration of Prandtl equations. For a steady flat plate boundary layer:
● Continuity → ∂/∂x∫y=0→HU.dy+V(H)=0
➢ Approximate the profiles for velocity or temperature
● Imposed shape, varying height (δ or δₜ) and width (U∞ or Tw-T∞)
● Shape should satisfy boundary conditions 3 1
{ U∞
T −T ∞
= f (η)

T w −T ∞
with η= y / δ( x )

=θ(ηt ) with ηt = y / δt (x )

● Momentum→ ∂/∂x∫y=0→HU(U∞−U)dy=νt(∂U/∂y)w
● Energy → ∂/∂x∫y=0→HU(T−T∞)dy=αt(∂T/∂y)w
● f(0)=f'(1)=f''(0)=0, f(η≥1)=1

● θ(0)=1, θ'(1)=θ''(0)=θ(ηₜ≥1)=0
{ f (0< η<1)= η− η3
2
3
2
2
1 3
f (η>1)=1

θ(0<ηt <1)=1− ηt + ηt θ(ηt >1)=0

2

θu 1 39
➢ Use the profiles to calculate θᵤᵤ δₕ Cf St δ ∫0
= f (1−f )d η =

{
280
➢ Specific thicknesses and resulting equations (cst temp. flat plate BL) 4 2
● Integrating f(1-f) gives θᵤ/δ 29r 9 r

Displacement thickness δ *(x )=∫0 1−

∞

∞ U
( U
U∞
U
) dy Integral momentum eqn (Karman)

with C f ( x)=
τ w (x )
d θu
dx
=C f ( x)

Friction coefficient
● Integrating θ(ηₜ).f(η) gives δₕ/δ=f(r) with r=δₜ/δ=η/ηₜ
● Derivating f gives Cf=νt(∂U/∂y)w/(ρU∞²)
θh
δ
1

{
=r ∫0 f (r ηt )θ(ηt )d ηt =
r ≤1 :

r >1 :
29
−
560 40
−
9 r 1
− +
560r 3 40r 16 16
Momentum thickness θu (x )=∫0
U∞
1−( U∞ )
dy ρU∞
2
● Derivating θᵤ gives St=−k(∂T/∂y)/(ρCₚU∞(Tw−T∞))
δU ∞ 3
ν C f =f ' (0) = 2 ;
δt U ∞ 3
α St=θ' (0 ) = 2
∞ T−T d δh
∞ U Integral thermal eqn (Polhausen)
Convection thickness δh ( x)=∫0 dy =St (x )
T w−T ∞ U ∞ dx
T w −T ∞ with St (x )=
φw ( x )
Stanton number
➢ Write integral equations and solve diff. equations for δ(x) and r(x)
Conduction thickness δc ( x )= dy ρ Cp U ∞ (T w −T ∞ )
(∂ T / ∂ y )w ● For flat plate at uniform temperature
Complete Karman and Polhausen eqns contain terms in m and n for TW≠Cst and U∞≠Cst
➢ Use: integral method next slide (approximate but rapid)
➢ Exercice VI.2 : Retrieve the law Nuₓ=
Nuₓ=f(Reₓ
Reₓ,Pr)
Pr) by integral method
using linear profiles (η and 1-ηₜ) for a flate plate at constant temperature at Pr≥1
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Convection in external flows Exercise VI.3 : Heat transfer at stagnation line

Kinematic viscosity νt=13×10−6m²/s
➢ Boundary layers and wakes Cylinder, Red<3×10⁵
➢ Model description Thermal conductivity k=0.024 W/m/K
Density ρ=1.29 kg/m³
Stagnation line
( ┴ to figure)
● 2D air flow impacting an orthogonal flat plate Prandtl number Pr=0.72
2L
● T∞=−20°C, φw=1.5kW/m², L=1cm
T∞
● U∞(L)=5m/s, use the solutions with m≠0

Cylinder, Red>3×10⁵ Pr≈1 or Pr≥1 ; m=0 (flat plate):

[Favre Marinet & Tardu "Convection heat transfer"] =Kxm
➢ Goal: find if your nose risks frostbite Tw=Cste→Nux=0.332Pr1/3Reₓ1/2
φw=Cste→Nux=0.435Pr1/3Reₓ1/2
➢ Boundary layer flow with pressure gradient
● Auto similar (i.e. Cst profile) solutions exist for U∞=Kxm β=2m/(m+1)
➢ Questions
● Obtained in potential flow (V=∇φ) for a wedge β=2m/(m+1)
● β? m? U∞(x)? Rex(x)?
● Velocity profile → detachment (∂u/∂y)w=0 if β=−0.199 (βπ/2=18°) y u(y)
● Nux(x) from heat transfer law? Tw(x)?
● Thermal results
βπ/2
Nux(m)/Nux(m=0)→ ● Minimum Tw? (<0°C → frostbite risk)
x
⇒ still Nux~Rex1/2Pr1/2 or 1/3
Rex based on local u∞(x)
O(1) coefficient change [White "Viscous
Fluid Flow" 1991]
Nux(m)/Nux(m=0) ↑
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 Wake and detachment Exercise VI.4 : Temp. measured by cold wire
➢ Convection flux in the wake ➢ Probe description
U~15m/s
● Should evacuate all the flux from obstacle ● Wire d=1.5µm, l=1mm, R0=100Ω, I=0.3mA
Flow with varying
● Diffusion will spread this flux downstream ● Resistance R=R0[1+βw(Tw-T0)] ; βw=3.8×10⁻³K⁻¹³K⁻³K⁻¹¹ temperature
● Thermal wake problems ~ boundary layers
● Density ρUw=21500kg/m³, Th.capacity Cₚw=133J/kg/K
● Use the law of Collis and Williams, adapted to hot-wire anemometry (Pr=0.7):
➢ Flux from surface to detached wake for 0.2<ReD<44 NuD=(0.24+0.56ReD0.45)(T∞/Tf)−0.17 All properties are evaluated
● Difficult to predict (even numerically) for 44<ReD<140 NuD=0.48ReD0.51(T∞/Tf)−0.17 at Tf=(Tw+T∞)/2

● Detachment point very sensitive

● Alternate vortex street above Re~100 ➢ Find: deviation due to I (used to measure R), response time
● Turbulent (alternate) wake above Re~3×105 (for circular cylinder)
Circular cylinder [Zukauskas] ➢ Questions
valid for 0.7≤Pr≤10 (n=0.37) and 10≤Pr≤500 (n=0.36)
➢ Empirical correlations for heat transfer 1≤Re≤ 40 : NuD=0.75ReD0.4Prn(Pr/Prw)1/4 ● Flux density φw? NuD? Tw-T∞? (steady conditions T∞ and U)
40≤Re≤ 1000 : NuD=0.51ReD0.5Prn(Pr/PrS)1/4 ● Conclusions on the steady state accuracy? Sensibility to U?
● NuD=φw/[k(Tw−T∞)/D] as a function of ReD and Pr 1000≤Re≤ 2.10⁵ : : NuD=0.26ReD0.6Prn(Pr/PrS)1/4
● Large number of correlations for a lot of cases! 2.10⁵ : ≤Re≤ 10⁶ : : NuD=0.076ReD0.7Prn(Pr/PrS)1/4 ● Unsteady thermally thin regime: Differential equation for Tw?
● Examples (with properties at T∞ except Xw at Tw)→ Sphere [Whitaker] : Nu ● Deduce the characteristic time for Tw to follow T∞. Cutoff frequency?
D
=(2+0.4ReD1/2+0.06ReD2/3)Pr0.4(μ/μw)1/4
Valid for 0.71≤Pr≤380 ; 3.5 ≤ReD≤76000 ; 1.0≤μ/μw≤3.2
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