Information Technology

What is IT?

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking and
other physical devices, infrastructure and processes to create, process, store,
secure and exchange all forms of electronic data. Typically, IT is used in the
context of business operations, whereas technology is used for personal or
entertainment purpose.

IT comprises basic computer-based information systems, including

computing hardware, operating systems (OS), application software and the data
that is processed to produce useful information.

In term of Business what is IT?

Information technology (IT) refers to everything that businesses use computers

for. Information technology is building communications networks for a company,
safeguarding data and information, creating and administering databases, helping
employees troubleshoot problems with their computers or mobile devices, or
doing a range of other work to ensure the efficiency and security of business
information systems.

 Techniques for the fast processing of information

 The use of statistical and mathematical models for decision-making
 The “simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.”

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Why is information technology important?

As we know data is having great powers industries worldwide. That may be

overstatement, but few businesses -- large or small -- can remain competitive
without the ability to collect data and turn it into useful information. Information
Technology provides the means to develop, process, analyse, exchange, store and
secure information.

Data processing plays a significant role in these core business practices, among
others, including:

 product development and design;

 marketing and market research;

 sales and invoicing;

 customer development and retention;

 accounting and taxes;

 human resources and payroll; and

 regulatory compliance.

The ability of computing also referred to as pervasive computing is another

reason why IT is critical

Advantages of Information Technology

Information technology is a huge advantage to businesses by allowing

organizations to be more efficient and to maximize productivity. It allows for
faster communication, protection of company records and electronic storage.
Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay
Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Every work environment is now dependent on computers and information
technology. Other advantages of information technology include:

1. Protecting and Storing Information

Electronic storage systems are being created to hold the information that is
being shared over the internet and internal intranets. Secure maintenance
of customer and company files is vital to the integrity of the company.
Virtual vaults keep information safe by limiting access to a select few.
Security systems are put in place to protect your electronic information and
keep it from being wiped out or damaged during a system breakdown.
Hackers are also kept at bay with intense securities.

2. Automated Processes

The ability to find ways to complete more work in a shorter amount of time
is essential to the success of a company. Information technology improves
a company’s efficiency by implementing automated processes to make
employees more capable of handling a larger work load. Reports, queries
and monitoring financials can be completed by the computer programs,
leaving employees free to complete other tasks.

3. Communication
Communication in every aspect of human interaction is essential. In the
business world, communication is imperative to the success of the
company. Emailing, video conferencing and chat rooms allow for easier
communicating between employees and supervisors as well as employees
and clients.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
 4. Remote Access or Telecommuting
When a company has implemented an information technology system,
many times employees can then access the company’s network
electronically. This enables employees to work from home or while on the
road. This gives the employees more flexibility and they are more
productive because they can still work when not in the office.

Disadvantages of Information Technology

Information technology has changed the world around us. Communication is

done much faster and global trade is becoming a simplified process. Although the
benefits of information technology make it seem ideal, there are also some
disadvantages of information tech that are listed below.

1. Expense of Implementation and Maintenance

Setup costs for implementing an information technology system within

a home or business can be very costly. Software can training can also
take another big bite out of the budget. Information technology systems,
just like any other equipment, need to be maintained and repaired from
time to time. But there are also updating and upgrading costs associated
with IT systems.
2. Elimination of Jobs

By implementing IT systems into a company, tasks take less time and

therefore, employees have more time throughout the day. Paperwork is
processed and filed immediately, reports are generated with the touch
of a button and financial statements are generated automatically.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
 Companies are finding that they can combine jobs and need a smaller
staff to operate fully.
3. Cracks in Security

When information is stored electronically, there are more chances of

having security breaks. Hackers are evolving along with technology and
they are never up to any good. Security systems that were state-of-the-
art last year are now out-of-date and in desperate need of upgrading. To
protect company data, a security specialist should be kept on staff.

Information technology VS Computer Science

 IT is generally associated with the application of technology to deal with

business issues. As such, the IT workforce is oriented toward developed
technologies such as hardware systems, OS and application software.

 Proficiency in IT is required to identify the hardware and software

components that should be used to enhance a specific business process.

 IT pros work with a variety of technologies, such as server OS,

communications devices and software, and applications.

Computer science

 Computer science focuses on the logic and design of the underpinnings of

the components that IT experts use to assemble business systems.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  Much of the work in computer science involves developing the algorithms
and logic and writing the low-level code that enables computer systems to
address business problems.

 Computer scientists may participate in the hardware and software

engineering work required to develop products. They are also likely to
delve into more abstract technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI)
and machine learning (ML).

Database management systems (DBMS)

A database is a collection of related data which represents some aspect of the

real world. A database system is designed to be built and populated with data
for a certain task.

Database Management System (DBMS) is a software for storing and

retrieving users' data while considering appropriate security measures. It
consists of a group of programs which manipulate the database.The software
which is used to manage database is called Database Management System
(DBMS). For Example, MySQL, Oracle etc. are popular commercial DBMS
used in different applications.

The DBMS accepts the request for data from an application and instructs the
operating system to provide the specific data. In large systems, a DBMS helps
users and other third-party software to store and retrieve data.

DBMS allows users to create their own databases as per their requirement. The
term “DBMS” includes the user of the database and other application programs.
It provides an interface between the data and the software application.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Characteristics of Database Management System

Here are the characteristics and properties of Database Management System:

 Provides security and removes redundancy

 Self-describing nature of a database system

 Insulation between programs and data abstraction

 Support of multiple views of the data

 Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing

 Database Management Software allows entities and relations among them

to form tables.

 It follows the ACID concept (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and

Durability).

 DBMS supports multi-user environment that allows users to access and

manipulate data in parallel.

DBMS vs. Flat File

DBMS Flat File Management System

Multi-user access It does not support multi-user access

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
 Design to fulfill the need for small It is only limited to smaller DBMS
and large businesses system.

Remove redundancy and Integrity Redundancy and Integrity issues

Expensive. But in the long term It's cheaper

Total Cost of Ownership is cheap

Easy to implement complicated No support for complicated

transactions transactions

Issues with the File System

 Redundancy of data: Data is said to be redundant if same data is copied at

many places. If a student wants to change Phone number, he has to get it
updated at various sections. Similarly, old records must be deleted from all
sections representing that student.

 Inconsistency of Data: Data is said to be inconsistent if multiple copies of

same data does not match with each other. If Phone number is different in
Accounts Section and Academics Section, it will be inconsistent.
Inconsistency may be because of typing errors or not updating all copies of
same data.

 Difficult Data Access: A user should know the exact location of file to
access data, so the process is very cumbersome and tedious. If user wants to

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
 search student hostel allotment number of a student from 10000 unsorted
students’ records, how difficult it can be.

 Unauthorized Access: File System may lead to unauthorized access to data.

If a student gets access to file having his marks, he can change it in
unauthorized way.

 No Concurrent Access: The access of same data by multiple users at same

time is known as concurrency. File system does not allow concurrency as
data can be accessed by only one user at a time.

 No Backup and Recovery: File system does not incorporate any backup and
recovery of data if a file is lost or corrupted.

These are the main reasons which made a shift from file system to DBMS.

ACID Properties in DBMS

A transaction is a single logical unit of work which accesses and possibly

modifies the contents of a database. Transactions access data using read and
write operations.
In order to maintain consistency in a database, before and after the transaction,
certain properties are followed. These are called ACID properties.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  Atomicity: The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It
means if any operation is performed on the data, either it should be
performed or executed completely or should not be executed at all. It
further means that the operation should not break in between or execute
partially. In the case of executing operations on the transaction, the
operation should be completely executed and not partially.
 Consistency: The word consistency means that the value should remain
preserved always. In DBMS, the integrity of the data should be maintained,
which means if a change in the database is made, it should remain
preserved always. In the case of transactions, the integrity of the data is
very essential so that the database remains consistent before and after the
transaction. The data should always be correct.
 Isolation: The term 'isolation' means separation. In DBMS, Isolation is
the property of a database where no data should affect the other one and
may occur concurrently. In short, the operation on one database should
begin when the operation on the first database gets complete. It means if
two operations are being performed on two different databases, they may
not affect the value of one another. In the case of transactions, when two

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
 or more transactions occur simultaneously, the consistency should remain
maintained. Any changes that occur in any particular transaction will not
be seen by other transactions until the change is not committed in the
memory.

 Durability: Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS,

the term durability ensures that the data after the successful execution of
the operation becomes permanent in the database. The durability of the data
should be so perfect that even if the system fails or leads to a crash, the
database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes the responsibility
of the recovery manager for ensuring the durability of the database. For
committing the values, the COMMIT command must be used every time
we make changes.

Therefore, the ACID property of DBMS plays a vital role in maintaining the
consistency and availability of data in the database.

Various data models (Relational, Hierarchical, Network)

A database model shows the logical structure of a database, including the

relationships and constraints that determine how data can be stored and accessed.
Individual database models are designed based on the rules and concepts of
whichever broader data model the designers adopt. Most data models can be
represented by an accompanying database diagram

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Relational model

The most common model, the relational model sorts data into tables, also known
as relations, each of which consists of columns and rows. Each column lists an
attribute of the entity in question, such as price, zip code, or birth date. Together,
the attributes in a relation are called a domain.

Each row, also called a tuple, includes data about a specific instance of the entity
in question, such as a particular employee.

Hierarchical model

The hierarchical model organizes data into a tree-like structure, where each
record has a single parent or root. Sibling records are sorted in a particular order.
That order is used as the physical order for storing the database. This model is
good for describing many real-world relationships.
Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay
Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Network model

The network model builds on the hierarchical model by allowing many-to-many

relationships between linked records, implying multiple parent records. Based on
mathematical set theory, the model is constructed with sets of related records.
Each set consists of one owner or parent record and one or more member or child
records. A record can be a member or child in multiple sets, allowing this model
to convey complex relationships.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Object-oriented database model

This model defines a database as a collection of objects, or reusable software

elements, with associated features and methods. There are several kinds of object-
oriented databases:

A multimedia database incorporates media, such as images, that could not be

stored in a relational database.

A hypertext database allows any object to link to any other object. It’s useful
for organizing lots of disparate data, but it’s not ideal for numerical analysis.

The object-oriented database model is the best known post-relational database

model, since it incorporates tables, but isn’t limited to tables. Such models are
also known as hybrid database models.

Entity-relationship Model

In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into
entity and its characteristics into attributes.

Different entities are related using relationships.

E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make
it easier for different stakeholders to understand.

This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in
relational model(explained below).

Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database, then Student will
be an entity with attributes name, age, address etc. As Address is generally
complex, it can be another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc,
and there will be a relationship between them.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Concept of 2-Ties and 3- Tier architecture

What is Database Architecture?

A Database Architecture is a representation of DBMS design. It helps to

design, develop, implement, and maintain the database management system. A
DBMS architecture allows dividing the database system into individual
components that can be independently modified, changed, replaced, and altered.
It also helps to understand the components of a database.

A Database stores critical information and helps access data quickly and
securely. Therefore, selecting the correct Architecture of DBMS helps in easy
and efficient data management.

Types of DBMS Architecture

o 1-Tier Architecture
o 2-Tier Architecture
Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay
Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
 o 3-Tier Architecture

1 Tier Architecture in DBMS is the simplest architecture of Database in which

the client, server, and Database all reside on the same machine. A simple one
tier architecture example would be anytime you install a Database in your
system and access it to practice SQL queries. But such architecture is rarely
used in production.

2-Tier Architecture

A 2 Tier Architecture in DBMS is a Database architecture where the

presentation layer runs on a client (PC, Mobile, Tablet, etc.), and data is stored
on a server called the second tier. Two tier architecture provides added security
to the DBMS as it is not exposed to the end-user directly. It also provides direct
and faster communication.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
3-Tier Architecture

A 3 Tier Architecture in DBMS is the most popular client server architecture

in DBMS in which the development and maintenance of functional processes,
logic, data access, data storage, and user interface is done independently as
separate modules. Three Tier architecture contains a presentation layer, an
application layer, and a database server.

3-Tier database Architecture design is an extension of the 2-tier client-server

architecture. A 3-tier architecture has the following layers:

1. Presentation layer (your PC, Tablet, Mobile, etc.)

2. Application layer (server)
3. Database Server

The Application layer resides between the user and the DBMS, which is
responsible for communicating the user's request to the DBMS system and send
the response from the DBMS to the user. The application layer(business logic
layer) also processes functional logic, constraint, and rules before passing data
to the user or down to the DBMS.

The goal of Three Tier client-server architecture is:

 To separate the user applications and physical database

 To support DBMS characteristics
 Program-data independence
 Supporting multiple views of the data

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
System Analysis and Design

Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as

planning, analysis, design, deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial,
we will primarily focus on −

 Systems analysis
 Systems design

Systems Analysis

It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and

decomposition of a system into its components.

System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in
order to identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves
the system and ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to
accomplish their purpose.

Analysis specifies what the system should do.

Systems Design

It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system

by defining its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Before planning, you need to understand the old system thoroughly and
determine how computers can best be used in order to operate efficiently.

System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system.

System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −

 Systems
 Processes
 Technology

What is a System?

The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an
organized relationship between any set of components to achieve some common
cause or objective.

A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together

according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”

Constraints of a System

A system must have three basic constraints −

 A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to

achieve a predefined objective.

 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system

components.

 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the

objectives of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library

system, human resources information system.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Properties of a System
A system has the following properties −

 Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components

that helps to achieve predetermined objectives.

 Interaction

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.
For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with
production department and payroll with personnel department.

 Interdependence

Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another.

For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together
according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by
other subsystem as input.

 Integration

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together.

It means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if
each part performs a unique function.

Central Objective

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not

uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve
another.
The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the
analysis for a successful design and conversion.
Elements of a System
The following diagram shows the elements of a system −

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
System Development Life Cycle

An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high

quality system that meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time
and cost evaluations, and works effectively and efficiently in the current and
planned Information Technology infrastructure.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes

policies and procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life
cycles.

SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the

following activities −

 requirements
 design
 implementation
Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay
Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  testing
 deployment
 operations
 maintenance

Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly
breaks down the work into phases that are required to implement either new or
modified Information System.

Analysis and Specification

 Gather, analyse, and validate the information.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.
 Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.
 Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.
 A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies
the software, hardware, functional, and network requirements of the
system is prepared at the end of this phase.

System Design

 Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and

system interfaces.

 Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains

detailed and complete set of specifications that can be implemented in a
programming language.

 Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.

 Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the
requirements stated in SRS document.

 Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation

 Implement the design into source code through coding.

 Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects
errors and defects.
 A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that
includes test related tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and
resource allocation for testing.
 Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new
system.

Maintenance/Support

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support
for users that is required once the system is installing.
 Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time,
or implement any new requirements after the software is deployed at the
customer location.
 It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may
exist in the system even after the testing phase.
 Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large
systems and for a short time for smaller systems.

Life Cycle of System Analysis and Design

The following diagram shows the complete life cycle of the system during
analysis and design phase.

Waterfall model in SDLC

The waterfall is a widely accepted SDLC model. In this approach, the whole
process of the software development is divided into various phases of SDLC. In
this SDLC model, the outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next phase.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −
 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the
system to be developed are captured in this phase and documented in a
requirement specification document.
 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are
studied in this phase and the system design is prepared. This system design
helps in specifying hardware and system requirements and helps in
defining the overall system architecture.
 Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first
developed in small programs called units, which are integrated in the next
phase. Each unit is developed and tested for its functionality, which is
referred to as Unit Testing.
 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation
phase are integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post
integration the entire system is tested for any faults and failures.
 Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing
is done; the product is deployed in the customer environment or released
into the market.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client
environment. To fix those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance
the product some better versions are released. Maintenance is done to
deliver these changes in the customer environment.
Waterfall Model - Advantages
The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for
departmentalization and control. A schedule can be set with deadlines for each
stage of development and a product can proceed through the development
process model phases one by one.
Development moves from concept, through design, implementation, testing,
installation, troubleshooting, and ends up at operation and maintenance. Each
phase of development proceeds in strict order.
Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 Simple and easy to understand and use
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well
understood.
 Clearly defined stages.
 Well understood milestones.
 Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results are well documented.
Waterfall Model - Disadvantages
The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow much
reflection or revision. Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very
difficult to go back and change something that was not well-documented or
thought upon in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay
Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
  Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high
risk of changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow
identifying any technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.
Iterative Model - Design
Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software
requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system
is implemented. At each iteration, design modifications are made and new
functional capabilities are added. The basic idea behind this method is to develop
a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time
(incremental).
The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and Incremental
model –

Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design

or iterative method and incremental build model for development. "During
software development, more than one iteration of the software development

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
cycle may be in progress at the same time." This process may be described as an
"evolutionary acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."

In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into various builds.
During each iteration, the development module goes through the requirements,
design, implementation and testing phases. Each subsequent release of the
module adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the
complete system is ready as per the requirement.

Iterative Model - Pros and Cons

The advantage of this model is that there is a working model of the system at a
very early stage of development, which makes it easier to find functional or
design flaws. Finding issues at an early stage of development enables to take
corrective measures in a limited budget.

The disadvantage with this SDLC model is that it is applicable only to large and
bulky software development projects. This is because it is hard to break a small
software system into further small serviceable increments/modules.

The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −

 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life
cycle.
 Results are obtained early and periodically.
 Parallel development can be planned.
 Progress can be measured.
 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an
easily managed milestone.
 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Spiral Model - Design
The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes through
these phases in iterations called Spirals.

 Identification

This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline spiral.
In the subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of system
requirements, subsystem requirements and unit requirements are all done in this
phase.
This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous
communication between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the
spiral, the product is deployed in the identified market.

 Design

The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral and
involves architectural design, logical design of modules, physical product design
and the final design in the subsequent spirals.

 Construct or Build

The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product at every
spiral. In the baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of and the design
is being developed a POC (Proof of Concept) is developed in this phase to get
customer feedback.
Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design
details a working model of the software called build is produced with a version
number. These builds are sent to the customer for feedback.

 Evaluation and Risk Analysis

Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the technical

feasibility and management risks, such as schedule slippage and cost overrun.
After testing the build, at the end of first iteration, the customer evaluates the
software and provides feedback.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Spiral Model - Pros and Cons
The advantage of spiral lifecycle model is that it allows elements of the product
to be added in, when they become available or known. This assures that there is
no conflict with previous requirements and design.
This method is consistent with approaches that have multiple software builds
and releases which allows making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity.
Another positive aspect of this method is that the spiral model forces an early
user involvement in the system development effort.
On the other side, it takes a very strict management to complete such products
and there is a risk of running the spiral in an indefinite loop. So, the discipline
of change and the extent of taking change requests is very important to develop
and deploy the product successfully.
The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Changing requirements can be accommodated.
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured more accurately.
 Users see the system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be
developed earlier which helps in better risk management.
The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −
 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small
projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.

Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay

Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG
Dr. Jyoti Upadhyay
Dept of Computer Science
GDRCST Bhilai,CG