Manuel Alvarez 19980417-4630

Theme 1 (25 marks): History & institutions of the EU (2-3 pages)

The process of European integration was initiated as an effort to generate economic

interdependence and peace between the European nations, as manifested in the Schuman
Declaration of 1950. This document presented by French foreign minister Robert Schuman on
May 9th 1950, was one of the first documents laying out and formalizing this ideal as a concrete
project, with the proposal to create a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). In 1951,
with the signature of the Treaty of Paris, the ECSC was created by six countries (France, Italy,
West Germany, Netherlands, Luxembourg and Belgium), setting the first formal precedent of
largescale European integration.

Further attempts to broaden political integration with the European Defense Community,
collapsed in 1954, due largely to the concerns of the French political class over German
rearmament (Dinan, 2014, p. 6). However, within a year, a new round of negotiations started to
take place, which culminated in the Treaty of Rome of 1957 with the creation of the European
Economic Community (EEC), establishing a customs union between the six countries of the
ECSC and the European Atomic Energy Community, Euratom. The Treaty set the normative
framework for integrated economic cooperation, through the coordination of policy. Key
objectives included eliminating tariffs and quotas, instituting a common external tariff,
harmonizing agricultural and transport policies, and aligning monetary and regulatory policies.
(Moravcsik, 1999, p. 86). The 1960s saw the effective application of these guidelines, including
an accord on the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).

The next big step in the European integration process, was the signature of the Merger
Treaty on April 8th 1965. This treaty streamlined the administrative structures of the ECSC,
Euratom, and EEC under a unified Council and Commission, replacing their individual bodies
(European Union, 2018). The subsequent decades saw a progressive expansion of the EEC,
incorporating several European nations. In the 1970s, the EEC enlarged towards the northwest of
Europe, integrating Denmark, Ireland and the UK in 1973. In the 1980s, the EEC enlarged
towards the southern part of Europe, integrating Greece, Spain and Portugal (Jano, 2022).
Around that time, in 1986, the Single European Act (SEA) was signed. The SEA aimed to
complete a single market, promoting the uninhibited flow of goods, services, people, and capital,
while also advancing political, economic, and monetary integration (European Union, 2018).

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Few years later, in 1992, the Maastricht Treaty, a pivotal moment in European integration
history, was ratified by all member states, forming the European Union (EU) atop the
foundations of the pre-existing European Communities. This treaty marked a significant
evolution in European structures, introducing European citizenship and a unified foreign and
security policy. The Maastricht Treaty also established a timetable and the conditions for the
transition to economic and monetary union (EMU), which was consolidated in 1999 with the
introduction of the euro (Moravcsik, 1999, p. 379).

In the 1990s, the EU continued to include more countries, with Austria, Sweden and
Finland being accepted as members in 1995 (Jano, 2022). In 1997, the Amsterdam Treaty was
signed, which diverted some of the national powers regarding immigration policy to the
European Parliament, refined the cooperation around The Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP), and reformed the EU institutions in preparation for the eastern enlargement, among
other provisions (European Union, 2018). Four years later, in 2001, the Treaty of Nice was
signed, introducing another round of reforms to efficiently accommodate the enlargement
(European Union, 2018).

In the 2000s, the EU continued its enlargement to the east, including ten countries of the
former Eastern bloc: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Romania and Bulgaria; as well as two Mediterranean islands, Malta and Cyprus (Jano,
2022). Croatia became the latest member in 2013.

Finally, one of the latest relevant developments in the EU institutions took place in 2007,
with the signature of the Treaty of Lisbon. This treaty introduced, among others, the following
provisions: a concrete outline of the competences of the EU, the establishment of full legal
personality to the EU, allowing the Parliament to propose treaty amendments, and made The
Charter of Fundamental Rights legally binding (Pavy, 2023).

Analyzing the roles and functions of the main EU Institutions

The European Council plays a pivotal role in defining the European Union’s (EU)
overarching strategies and long-term goals. Established with an intergovernmental nature, it
comprises heads of state or government from each EU country, along with the European Council
President and the European Commission President. While representing the interests of the

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member states, its primary function is to chart the broader trajectories for the Union, instituting
frameworks like the Europe 2020 strategy. The European Council’s role was further formalized
with the Lisbon Treaty, underscoring its importance not only as a strategic guidepost but also as a
vital crisis-solving entity.

The Council of the European Union stands as another intergovernmental pillar within
the EU framework. It represents the interests of member states and is charged with the
development and enactment of EU legislation, frequently in collaboration with the European
Parliament. Responsibilities of the Council encompass coordinating member states’ policies,
delineating the EU’s foreign and security paradigms, cementing international accords, and
supervising the EU budget. Over time, there have been evolutions in its configurations and
working methodologies, leading to enhanced transparency in its legislative operations. (The
Council of the EU, nd)

Considered the engine of the EU, the European Commission is a supranational entity
that represents the general interest of the EU. It is responsible for introducing and enforcing
legislation, steering policies, administrating the EU budget, and ensuring member states’
compliance with EU regulations. Its structured framework includes policy-specific units termed
Directorates-General. Historically, the Commission’s power has witnessed fluctuations: while it
has ascended as the guardian of treaties, there have been phases of decline, especially when
member states or the European Parliament sought to consolidate their power within the EU
institutions, for instance with the introduction of the co-decision procedure (European
Commission, nd).

The European Parliament is the emblematic legislative voice of EU citizens. As a

supranational institution, it derives its mandate directly from EU citizens and primarily focuses
on law-making, oversight, and fiscal resolutions. In conjunction with the Council, the Parliament
plays an instrumental role in shaping EU legislations. Since its inception in 1952, the Parliament
has witnessed an appreciable expansion in its role, especially post the commencement of direct
elections in 1979. The incorporation of the co-decision procedure was a key enhancement to the
role the Parliament plays within the EU structure. Sometimes, the Parliament is referred to as the
watchdog of the EU, for its role as a democratic check and balance over the other institutions
(European Union, nd). However, the institutions more often associated with a watchdog function

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are the European Ombudsman, which investigates complaints about maladministration in EU

institutions and bodies (European Ombudsman, nd), and the European Court of Auditors which
ensures that taxpayer funds from the EU budget have been correctly spent (ECA, nd).

References

Dinan, D. (2014). Europe Recast: A History of European Union. 2. ed. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

European Commission (nd). About the European Commission. [Electronic]. Available:

https://commission.europa.eu/about-european-commission_en

European Council (nd). How the European Council works. [Electronic]. Available:
https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/european-council/how-the-european-council-works/

European Court of Auditors (nd). ECA Mission, vision and values. [Electronic]. Available:
https://www.eca.europa.eu/en/mission-vision-and-values

European Ombudsman (nd). The role of the European Ombudsman. [Electronic]. Available:
https://www.ombudsman.europa.eu/en/our-strategy/home/en

European Union (2018). The Amsterdam Treaty. [Electronic]. Eur-Lex. Available: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3A4301858&qid=1695060235711
[2023-09-29].

European Union (2018). The Single European Act. [Electronic]. Eur-Lex. Available: https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/the-single-european-act.html [2023-09-29].

European Union (2018). Treaty of Brussels (Merger Treaty). [Electronic]. Eur-Lex. Available:
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/treaty-of-brussels-merger-treaty.html [2023-
09-29].

European Union (2018). Treaty of Nice. [Electronic]. Eur-Lex. Available: https://eur-

lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/LSU/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.C_.2001.080.01.0001.01.ENG [2023-
09-29].

European Union (nd). European Parliament. [Electronic]. Available: https://european-

union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/institutions-and-bodies/search-all-eu-institutions-and-
bodies/european-parliament_en

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Jano, D. (2022). Challenges and Barriers to the European Union Expansion to the Balkan
Region. Pennsylvania: IGI Global.

Moravcsik, A. (1999). The Choice for Europe. Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to
Maastricht. London: Routledge.

Pavy, E. (2023). The Treaty of Lisbon. [Electronic]. European Parliament. Available:

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/5/the-treaty-of-lisbon [2023-09-29].

The Council of the European Union (nd). What does the Council of the EU do?. [Electronic].
Available: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/council-eu/