Problems of the European Union

The European Union is the largest platform for contemporary socio-economic integration in the world.
Its creation made it possible to solve many problems and end conflicts that had a history of hundreds
of years. However, this is not a perfect organization and it is still struggling with new problems and
challenges.

III Problems of the European Union

The concept of one European political and socio-economic organism has existed since ancient times,
and its first manifestation was the existence of the Roman Empire. Other entities then tried to
reactivate his legacy in various ways, e.g. the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (as a
federation of German principalities), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (as a state - a union of
nations), the French Empire (Bonaparte's idea). This concept gained strength in the 19th century, but
was abandoned at its end and buried as a result of the outbreak of World War I as the apogee of
Germany's rivalry with France and Great Britain. The idea of renunciation of war and peaceful
coexistence, and even of a European federation, was revived after World War II as the ultimate
concept of Franco-German reconciliation and joint opposition to communism.

1. History of European integration after World War II

The actual integration of Europe (especially Western Europe), bringing us closer to the creation of the
entity known today as the European Union, took place in many stages, and the relations between
countries were gradually tightened. The complicated and long-term European integration described
below, carried out with changing luck and in the face of changing social moods, shows how difficult
and complex the process (which has been going on for over 70 years) of building the European Union
is. The historical timeline of integration is as follows:

● In 1946, Winston Churchill calls for the creation of a United States of Europe similar to the
United States:

“ We need to build a kind of United States of Europe. Only in this way will hundreds of millions of people
be able to regain the simple joys and hopes that make life worth living .

● In 1947, the International Committee of Movements for European Unity was established in
Paris.
● In 1948, the Hague Congress held a number of discussions, including the socio-economic
unification of Europe.
● In 1949, the Council of Europe was established - the equivalent of the European UN. Founded
by 10 countries, it currently brings together almost all European countries except Russia,
Belarus and Kosovo, and the Vatican has observer status. Russia was expelled after the
invasion of Ukraine in 2022. In the years following the Council's creation, additional members
were systematically added, e.g. Poland in 1991.
 Council of Europe at the end of 2022

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Europe_Council_2022.png/1280px-Europe_Council_2022.png

● In 1950, French politicians Robert Schuman (Minister of Foreign Affairs) and Jean Monnet
(economic advisor to the French government) proposed cooperation - coordination in the
production of coal and steel by France and the Federal Republic of Germany ( Schuman
Plan ). This plan soon led to the establishment of the ECSC and the signing of the Treaties of
Rome, and in his honor the day of its announcement - May 9 is the official Europe Day. On the
German side, the attitude of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer turned out to be crucial . The
Prime Minister of Italy, Alcide De Gasperi , and the multiple prime minister and minister in
Belgium, Paul-Henri Spaak, also played an important role . They are considered the fathers
of the European Union .
● The first form of actual integration was the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
established in 1951 under the Treaty of Paris . Its initiators were: Germany, France, Belgium,
the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Italy. The goal of the ECSC was to create a common pool
of coal and steel production to prevent trade and potentially military wars.
● In 1957, the Treaties of Rome were signed , giving rise to proper socio-economic integration,
understood today as the European Union. Pursuant to them, on January 1, 1958, the
European Economic Community (i.e. today's European Union) was created . Within the EEC, a
customs union was established between the member countries, based on the four principles
of the European Union that are still fundamental to this day : freedom of movement of
goods, people, services and capital . Additionally, Euroatom was established , an
organization for peaceful cooperation in the field of energy and nuclear technology.
● As a result of the creation of the EEC and Euratom, the term European Communities began to
be used (for three communities - in addition to the EEC and Euratom, also the ECSC). At that
time, the institutions of the European Communities such as the European Commission and
the European Parliament, the European Parliament, the European Council and the Court of
Justice of the European Union were established . These bodies were created as a result of
the transformation of institutions established in the 1950s, and their tasks finally crystallized
in the 1960s.
 ● In 1965, a merger treaty was signed , which came into force after 2 years and reformed the
most important institutions of the existing European communities, actually establishing
today's European Commission, i.e. the actual government of the European Union.
● In 1973, the first enlargement of the European Communities took place - Great Britain ,
Ireland and Denmark joined . The number of members increases from 6 to 9.
● In 1981, Greece joined the European Communities and the number of members increased to
10.
● In 1985, the Schengen Area was established . In 1995, border controls were finally abolished
for Schengen signatory countries.
● In 1986, Spain and Portugal join the European Communities . The communities now have 12
members.
● As a result of German reunification in 1990 and the effective annexation of the GDR by the
Federal Republic of Germany, East Germany becomes part of the European Communities by
operation of law.
● In 1992, the absolutely crucial Maastricht Treaty, also known as the Treaty on European
Union, was signed. The treaty is accepted in a referendum by the nations of all 12 member
states. Pursuant to the treaty, the European Union is formally established on January 1,
1993. It was decided to deepen economic integration and begin more advanced political
integration. It was decided, among others: on the future introduction of a common currency,
European Union citizenship was established and existing institutions were reformed.
Cooperation in the field of internal security (judiciary, police), external security and common
foreign policy was strengthened.

The phrase "European Union" has existed only since the Maastricht Treaty entered into force, i.e. in
1993.

Source: https://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/1998/11/25/81cd79c8-b4aa-404f-b858-bdb8305cfbc6/publishable.jpg

● In 1995, Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the Union . Switzerland and Norway decide not
to join the EU. The EU has 15 members.
● The 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam introduced certain adjustments to the functioning of the
main EU institutions, also expanding the EU's competences vis-à-vis member states.
 ● In 2001, the Treaty of Nice was adopted . It reformed the way the European Union was
managed and prepared the Community to accept new members in the future. It was
established, among others: that each member state will have its representative (minister-
commissioner) in the European Commission, as well as how many members of the European
Parliament will be allocated to each country (after the expansion to new members) and how
decisions are to be made among the leaders of the Community. The provisions were very
beneficial for Poland, which obtained a high number of votes in the future European
Parliament (almost equal to the largest member states). The need to defend the provisions of
the Treaty of Nice became the basis for the then Civic Platform MP Jan Rokita's declaration
from the Sejm rostrum " Nice or death ", which became the vision of Polish policy towards the
European Union in the following years.
● In 2004, after many years of preparations, the largest enlargement in the history of the
European Union took place. Ten new countries joined the Community: Poland, the Czech
Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Slovenia, Malta and Cyprus. The EU
increased from 15 to 25 members.

Poland applied to join the EU in 1994, the accession treaty was signed in 2003, and joining took place
on May 1, 2004 - only after 10 years of efforts.

Source: https://i.iplsc.com/1/00037QY6K1F48UKD-C321-F4.jpg

● In 2004 and 2005 an attempt was made to adopt a "Constitution of the European Union" ,
which some member states rejected in a referendum.
● 2007 brought the EU two more members who did not have time to prepare for accession in
2004. These were Romania and Bulgaria , and the EU grew to 27 countries.
● At the end of 2007, another EU reform treaty called the Lisbon Treaty was adopted . He
undertook further reforms in the functioning of EU institutions, including: the position of
President of the European Council (commonly known as the President of the European
Union), which was soon taken up by Donald Tusk (in 2014).
● In 2013, Croatia , the last admitted member, joined the EU . For several years, the EU
consisted of a record 28 countries.
● In 2020, the United Kingdom left the EU after a referendum . Brexit has reduced the
Community to 27 countries.
According to the latest polls (2023), more and more Britons (almost 60%) regret the decision on Brexit
and consider this event a mistake - especially in Scotland and Northern Ireland

Source: https://kurierwilenski.lt/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/brexit-szkocja-2021-01-03.jpg

The complicated history of European integration has a significant impact on contemporary problems
within the community. One of them is the very essence of the greatness of the Union. The EEC, which
began its history as an agreement of 6 members, now has 27 of them. There are further candidates in
the queue for admission, several of which (e.g. North Macedonia) are in advanced negotiations. The
very consent of current members to admit new members has repeatedly been the axis of dispute
between EU countries.

2. Functional problems of the European Union

The European Union is a complex entity with a number of problems. Some of them become more
intense periodically, others are permanent, and still others are transient. However, all of them cause
turbulence within the community, which may even lead to leaving the EU, which Great Britain decided
to do in 2020.

Expanding the European Union

One of the basic problems that the European Union has been facing since its establishment is the
membership of subsequent countries. There is a rule in the EU that all existing members must agree
to accept a new member. While in the case of some countries, their potential membership not only
raises no objections, which would even be welcomed, there are also countries that cannot be
admitted for various reasons. For example, enlargement in 2004, when as many as 10 new countries
were admitted, was a serious challenge. Not all so-called countries The "Old Union" were convinced
whether the countries of the former Eastern Bloc were ready for integration with the Union (e.g.
whether their democracy was "mature" enough). Admitting new members means higher expenses
(usually poorer countries join the richer ones and need to be supported) and more problems to solve.
The community is also losing cohesion , among others. on the issues of mentality and culture that
underlay its creation.
 Subsequent stages of enlargement of the European Union in the years 1957 - 2022

Source: Own study.

Currently, the following disputes regarding the enlargement of the Union can be distinguished:

● The reluctance to fully integrate with the European Union on the part of countries such as
Norway, Iceland and Switzerland with clearly compatible identities, whose membership
would not raise any objections, is in fact for seemingly trivial reasons. Despite numerous
attempts, it was not possible to convince the societies of these countries to join the EU - the
Norwegians twice rejected this option in a referendum, the Swiss rejected various proposals
in referendums several times (e.g. membership in the EEA), and Iceland withdrew its
candidacy before it was submitted to a national vote. . Ultimately, however, all of the above-
mentioned countries cooperate to a greater or lesser extent in the economic field within the
EEA or EFTA.

Although Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and Liechtenstein did not join the EU, they did create an EFTA
free trade area with it.

Source: https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europejskie_Spowiedzenie_Wolny_Handlu
 ● Failures in accession negotiations with Turkey . Although this country has been formally
applying for EU membership for several decades, the negotiations have actually been frozen.
The problem is the dispute over the territory of Northern Cyprus, unstable Greek-Turkish
relations and repression against the Kurds. The admission of Turkey, as a Muslim country, to
a community with Christian roots was also controversial. Finally, the negotiation process
collapsed completely as democracy in Turkey fell into a deep crisis in recent years.
● The problem of integration with countries in the Balkans . Although Slovenia and Croatia have
already joined the EU, all former Yugoslav countries and Albania want to become its
members. Albania and Montenegro are currently closest to membership . In the case of North
Macedonia, the problem is the name of the country, and its candidacy has been consistently
blocked for years by Greece (recognizing the name "Macedonia" as the name of a Greek
historical region), which even led to the official change of the country's name, which allowed
negotiations to begin. The most difficult situation is in Serbia , Kosovo and Bosnia and
Herzegovina . These countries are in a frozen conflict, and the Kosovo issue has even divided
members of the EU itself. Membership of Serbia and Kosovo will probably not be possible
until these countries normalize their relations. In turn, in the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
it is necessary to improve internal stability.
● Moldova's membership is controversial not only because of its low level of socio-economic
development, but primarily because of the unresolved problem of Transnistria, where the
Russian army is still stationed. Although Moldova has a strong supporter of its membership
in Romania, its accession will probably be delayed, at least as long as Russia's war with
Ukraine continues, which also directly threatens Moldova's independence.
● Ukraine is the largest candidate country, and its main spokesman is Poland. Although most
EU countries sympathize with Ukrainians in their conflict with Russia, as long as the war
continues, but also until a lasting and stable peace is concluded (also regulating the issue of
Crimea), Ukraine's membership is a distant prospect. In addition, the country still needs to
meet a number of requirements in terms of internal reforms and rebuild itself from the
destruction after the Russian invasion.

The EU supports Ukraine, but the prospect of its membership is very distant

Source: https://klubjagiellonski.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/e0a47534db071690b2909d89dd65effc-1634021009-1440×960.jpeg
 ● Georgia is also an official candidate for the EU , but its situation is similar to that in Moldova.
Part of Georgia's territory (Abkhazia, South Ossetia) is actually occupied by pro-Russian
separatists. Despite its European roots, the state is located far from the rest of the
community and is geographically located even in Asia. Georgia's membership prospects are
effectively impossible until the fall of Russian imperialism. However, its potential joining
would also open the door to Armenia and Azerbaijan and perhaps even Kazakhstan .
● The European Union officially rejected Morocco's candidacy in the 1980s . It was considered
that the country is located in Africa and its level of development does not allow integration
with the EU. On the other hand, Asian Cyprus was admitted to the EU. Potentially, Morocco
could perhaps be admitted in the future, but the problem of Western Sahara must first be
solved and the country's economy would have to approach the European level.
● Israel is a potential candidate for the EU . The overwhelming majority of the population of this
wealthy country supports European integration. The obstacle is (apart from the location in
Asia) the issue of Palestine and difficulties in relations between Israel and some EU countries
(e.g. due to the history of World War II).
● Brexit is the first time in history when an independent country decided to leave the EU.
Although it seemed that Great Britain's membership would be saved (by a slight majority of
votes, but still), ultimately the majority of United Kingdom citizens decided to leave the EU.
This caused permanent turbulence that both parties in the "divorce" cannot cope with to this
day. Once the trial was brought to an end with great difficulty, there was a change in the
attitude of the British public, most of whom now regret their decision. Therefore, the question
of Britain's return to the Union in whole or in part remains open, e.g. in the event of Scotland
declaring independence , the overwhelming majority of whose inhabitants are supporters of
the Union.

Different pace of integration

The reluctance to adopt various forms of integration and avoidance of implementing the community's
provisions by its individual members is the basic functional problem of the Union.

Countries belonging to the euro area and Schengen area in 2023

Source: Own study.

Due to the divergence of interests and fear of the balance of benefits and losses, some Member
States refrain from implementing the flagship pillars of EU membership - adopting the common
currency Euro and joining the so-called traffic zone without border control. Schengen zones . Most
Member States have adopted both elements, but some are lagging behind in achieving these goals,
thus failing to fully integrate into the Community.

The Eurozone (currency union) is formally valid in 20 of the 27 EU member states. These countries
gave up their own national currencies in favor of a common currency created by the European Central
Bank (ECB) based in Frankfurt am Main (Germany). By adopting a common currency, countries
facilitated trade, eliminated the problem of exchange rate differences and accelerated their economic
growth rate. This solution favors business and tourism. The newest user of the euro is Croatia (from
2023). Bulgaria is in line to adopt the euro and plans to join in 2024. Romania would also like to adopt
the currency within a few years (according to the government's declaration). Some countries, such as
Sweden and Denmark, plan to adopt the euro, but in a multi-year perspective, not in the near future. In
turn, countries such as Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary clearly distance themselves from
adopting the euro in the near and foreseeable future. During its membership in the EU, Great Britain
also resigned from adopting the euro. The reluctance to adopt the euro results from the government
losing control over monetary policy and handing it over to the ECB. This prevents national
governments from regulating the level of interest rates, and thus reduces their impact on the level of
inflation, the rate of economic growth and loan interest rates. The societies of these countries also
believe that there is a risk of "expensive costs" resulting from the adoption of the euro, as well as the
loss of national subjectivity. Formally, all member states that have signed the accession treaty are
obliged to adopt the euro sooner or later (including Poland). Interestingly, the euro is also used by
several non-EU countries - Montenegro, Kosovo, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican.

On January 1, 2023, the euro zone expanded to include Croatia, which will strengthen the
development of tourism in this country

Source: https://m.natemat.pl/5a550657c83b9674a293f3c17867a6c9,0,0,0,0.jpg

The Schengen Agreement, in turn, is an agreement abolishing border controls between the countries
that join the agreement. 23 of the 27 member states have joined the agreement, and three more
(Romania, Bulgaria and Cyprus) are trying to join. Only Ireland (and the UK while it was an EU member)
voluntarily opted out of joining Schengen. However, non-EU countries joined the zone: Norway,
Switzerland, Iceland and Liechtenstein. The newest member (as of January 1, 2023) is Croatia.
Moreover, in several microstates (Vatican, San Marino, Monaco) there are no border controls,
although they are not formally part of Schengen. Only Andorra maintains border control with EU
countries.

In the context of the euro and the adoption of other legal mechanisms commissioned mainly by the
European Commission, we often talk about a two-speed Europe. The first group includes the so-
called countries. "Old Union" . They are willing to quickly and unquestionably adopt pan-European law
established in Brussels, and at the same time they are willing to continuously deepen integration.
They are also reluctant to refer to the second group of countries, which includes most of the former
Eastern Bloc countries, including Poland. These countries are currently focusing on catching up on
their socio-economic backlogs, using funds from the EU budget, and putting full integration on the
back burner. There are constant disputes and conflicts of interest between these countries.

Europe of Nations or United States of Europe?

There is a fundamental, even fundamental problem among EU countries regarding the future of the
community. Some countries, e.g. the Netherlands (Netherlands), Germany and Italy, support the
ultimate creation of a unified, federal European state modeled on the USA. Each member state would
retain its internal autonomy, but there would be a common government, army, foreign policy and pan-
European law. A manifestation of this concept is the creation of many elements typical of a unitary
state:

● The European Commission, which is the equivalent of a national government at EU level, with
the chairman of the committee as the equivalent of the office of Prime Minister.
● A common European Parliament derived from democratic, universal elections.
● Office of the President of the European Council, equivalent to the President of the European
Union.
● High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is equivalent to
the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
● Undertaking joint initiatives, e.g. in the field of defense or energy policy, as well as common
mechanisms, such as refugee relocation.
● Uniform policy in selected socio-economic areas, e.g. Common Agricultural Policy.
● Pan-European transnational programs such as Erasmus.
● A common budget in which all member states and their citizens participate and benefit at
non-national level.
● Adoption of most legal acts at the EU level in the form of pan-European directives and their
implementation by national governments (e.g. in the field of equal treatment or labor law).
● Common currency and traffic without border controls.

The idea of the United States of Europe assumes that although the nations of the Union are different,
together they will be stronger and will be able to better cope with the challenges of the modern world,
and instead of competing, we should cooperate.

There are transnational political factions in the European Parliament, which are the equivalent of pan-
European political parties
Source: https://media.vaticannews.va/media/content/dam-archive/vaticannews/agenzie/images/afp/2020/12/14/18/1607968370960.jpg/_jcr_content/renditions/
cq5dam.thumbnail.cropped. 750.422.jpeg

On the other hand, Euroscepticism has been growing stronger in Europe in recent years . Its
advocates are politicians who would like to limit the role of the European Union to the so-called
Europe of Nations , i.e. a loose socio-economic community limited to free trade, but without
Community interference in the policies of national governments. In every European country, including
Poland, there are political forces calling for limiting the EU's influence on the country, or even seeking
to leave the Community. The greatest success of the Eurosceptics was achieving Brexit. Eurosceptics
believe that national subjectivity and sovereignty are more important values than the EU community.
The main views of Eurosceptics include:

● Limiting the role of EU institutions, especially the European Commission.

● Reducing the extensive EU bureaucracy that issues a huge number of legal acts that need to
be implemented in member states.
● Recognition of the superiority of state law over EU law.
● Superiority of judgments of national courts over judgments of the Court of Justice of the EU.
● Maintaining its own national currency.
● Typically a conservative system of social values, with an emphasis on Christian elements.
● Protecting native culture from external influences.
● If there is pressure for further integration - leaving the European Union.

Eurosceptics often choose radical forms of manifesting their views

Source: https://www.bigmouth.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/tennn.jpg

Divergent interests of member states

Various interests are actually the key functional problem of the community. Each member country
tries to obtain the greatest possible benefits from membership at the lowest possible costs. This is
manifested by disputes over the implementation of specific elements of EU policies, the creation of
specific regulations protecting the interests of only selected countries, and constant competition over
the manner and purpose of spending money from the EU budget.

Differences in interests cover a number of issues. The first and one of the most important is the issue
of energy . The European Union has not yet managed to create a unified strategy, and most member
states are dependent on fuel supplies from outside the EU, especially from Russia. Dependence on
Russia (especially on Russian gas supplies) has become one of the main causes of tensions between
old and new EU members. The dispute escalated with the construction of the Nord Stream gas
pipeline and its second branch, Nord Stream 2 , on the bottom of the Baltic Sea. Despite the
opposition of countries fearing Russian hegemony, including the very violent opposition of Poland,
Germany and other Western countries made a commitment and became even more dependent on
Russian supplies. . Low prices of Russian fuels helped stimulate economic development, but at the
price of possible energy blackmail. It was only Russia's invasion of Ukraine that made Western
politicians come to their senses and declare that they would give up supplies of Russian fuel. Further
fuel conflicts include the use of hard coal in the economy, the policy regarding renewable energy
sources, the dispute over the construction of nuclear power plants and the import of fossil fuels (e.g.
crude oil) from Asian Arab countries that do not respect basic human rights. There are still frictions
between EU members in this area.
 The construction of the Nord Stream and Nord Stream 2 gas pipelines brought Poland into conflict
with Germany

Source: https://ocdn.eu/images/pulscms/MDQ7MDA_/f0ab1298-e26c-4920-a625-01fa0e885bec.jpeg

Even such a fundamental principle as the "single market" has become a source of dispute between
EU members. In order to limit competition from lower-cost transport companies from Eastern Europe,
Germany and France have introduced regulations forcing them to pay much higher wages when
traveling through their territory. In practice, the aim was to reduce the competitiveness of foreign
carriers and support their own enterprises. Although higher driver wages may be considered justified,
they were contrary to the fundamental principle of free movement of people, goods, knowledge and
capital.
 The violation of the fundamental principles of the single market demonstrates a conflict of interests
among the Member States

Source: https://d1dcnte8mfzkpv.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/10/2d37e1b89eb11ca0f3bc138e2c7-1024×681.jpg

An important and unresolved problem of the Union for years is the dispute over agriculture . The
Common Agricultural Policy based on a system of land subsidies periodically causes tensions when
adopting the EU budget. Countries such as Poland, France and Romania, where there is a significant
percentage of employment in agriculture and it is an important sector of the economy, insist on large
expenses and maintaining the subsidy system. In turn, countries such as Great Britain (until its
membership in the EU) called for limiting agricultural spending and freeing the agricultural market.
The dispute over agriculture became one of the causes of Brexit, even though Great Britain had
already won a special discount on payments to the EU budget many years earlier and retained its own
currency. Another problem in agriculture concerns the import of exotic products, which imported
from, for example, Africa would be cheaper than the same crops from Europe. In order to protect the
interests of farmers from Greece, Italy and Spain, however, this import is limited, and therefore prices
in stores are higher.
 European agricultural rules artificially maintain more employment in the sector, but at the cost of
higher food prices

Source: https://www.euractiv.pl/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2016/12/PPE-PL-922766-rolnictwo-pole-siano.jpg

Other important problems regarding divergent interests include:

● Attitude towards industry and the problem of reindustrialization and its financing.
● Migration policy, especially towards non-European countries (Africa and Asia) and granting
them social privileges financed by EU citizens.
● Solidarity in the event of economic problems of some countries and assistance provided by
other countries and EU institutions.
● Economic cooperation with non-EU entities, especially China and the USA, instead of within
the EU.
● Policy towards former colonies of some European countries.
● Cooperation in the field of strategic technologies, e.g. weapons.
● Tax differentiation and the existence of tax havens within the EU as well as non-uniform tax
regulations hindering the functioning of international enterprises.
● The deteriorating competitiveness of the European economy as a result of constant salary
increases and increasingly less flexible labor law in view of the expectation of continuous
improvement in the living conditions of EU citizens.
● The problem of using health services from other Member States during a stay abroad and
settlements between state insurers.
● Socio-cultural and moral problems, e.g. related to the rights and freedoms of citizens, such as
the right to abortion, sexual education or the availability of certain stimulants.

3. Political threats to the European Union

Political issues are a completely separate group of problems for the European Union. They cover a
number of issues that are controversial in relation to the values professed in the EU. One of the
newest and most problematic for the community is the issue of the rule of law . In some EU
countries (including Poland and Hungary, but also in the countries of the so-called "Old Union"),
judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union are treated with great caution and are not
always respected and implemented in some Member States. Some of them concern, among others:
the issue of the organization and independence of the judiciary from government power. Therefore,
the European Union has created a special mechanism to block the release of EU funds for countries
that do not comply with the rule of law. Due to, among other things, the dispute over judicial reform,
Poland's payment of funds from the National Reconstruction Plan, designed as a special fund for
economic development after the COVID-19 pandemic, was temporarily suspended. Even greater
disputes regarding the rule of law concern Hungary, which has had almost all the money from the EU
budget blocked.

Poland has already been financially punished several times by the CJEU for failing to implement its
judgments

Source: https://i.iplsc.com/trybunal-spowiedziwosci-unii-lepszej-zdjecie-ilustracy/000DI04DSC9CYS32-C116-F4.jpg

Populism is another important internal political problem. Unresolved socio-economic problems (e.g.
unemployment, low quality of life) in some EU countries or their parts have led to an increase in the
popularity of political parties based on resentment and referring to nationalistic, anti-EU demands.
They are clearly Eurosceptic, even threatening the stability of the entire community. Many of these
parties, in addition to striving to take power, also aim to prevent European integration. In most EU
countries, as a result of the economic crises of recent years, the importance of populist parties, both
right-wing and left-wing, has increased. They most often propose a complete reevaluation of the
current political system and rejection of the existing political class.

There are many parties in the EU considered populist, both left-wing and right-wing. One of them is
considered to be, for example, the French National Rally led by Marine Le Pen, which sympathizes
 with, among others, with Vladimir Putin

Source: https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Bloch-photo-1.jpg

The latest, very serious problem is the attitude of member states towards Russia. The escalation of
the dispute over Russia is related to that country's attack on Ukraine. While most countries are
creating a coalition (under the actual leadership of Poland) supporting Ukraine in its European
ambitions and providing it with all possible military and economic assistance in its war with Russia,
some countries are still behaving in an ambiguous manner. For example, Germany still questions the
validity of increasing military aid, fearing Russian retaliation. Support for Ukraine is almost completely
sabotaged by Hungary, ruled by Prime Minister Viktor Orban, who sympathizes with Vladimir Putin.
Another problem is the imposition of further anti-Russian sanctions. In fact, however, Russia has
more "silent allies" who hope for a quick end to the war, the removal of the sleigh and the return of
Russia's cheap raw materials.
 Hungary's ambiguous attitude towards Russia's war with Ukraine is a serious challenge for the
European Union

Source: https://i.iplsc.com/wladimir-putin-i-viktor-orban-jest-zgoda-plika-fot-gerg/0003ZPX3FO5O27WV-C122-F4.jpg

4. Socio-economic inequalities in the European Union

In addition to functional and political problems, Europe is also divided by strong inequalities. The
European Union was created and developed, absorbing very diverse countries. The level of socio-
economic development is different in Poland, Germany and Italy, and there is a huge variation in the
quality of life not only at the level of countries, but also in their regions.

GDP per capita measured by purchasing power parity as a percentage of the EU average by EU
countries in 2021.

Source: Own study based on: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=GDP_per_capita,_consumption_per_capita_and_price_level_indices

Even after many years, there are huge statistical differences between EU countries. Luxembourg has a
GDP per capita (PPP) of 268% of the EU average, and the poorest Bulgaria - only 57%. Statistically,
countries that created the Union or joined it earlier, e.g. Ireland, Sweden or Germany, fare better.
Poland and other eastern countries, the so-called "New Union" are gradually catching up. The closest
to the "Old Union" countries, apart from tiny Malta, is the Czech Republic, which obtained as much as
92%. However, despite almost 20 years of membership in the Union, no "New Member State" has yet
reached the level of the EU average. This shows how great the scale of differences in the
development of the West and the East is. However, there are also visible differences along the north-
south axis. Ireland, Denmark and Sweden are much wealthier than Spain, Portugal or Greece. Even
Italy, which founded the European Union, is below the EU average

GDP per capita measured by purchasing power parity by region (NUTS-2) in 2019

Source: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4187653/11571499/GDP_per_capita_ver3-01.jpg

Even greater disproportions are visible at the regional level, even among very well-developed
countries. This can be seen, for example, in Spain (the center and Catalonia) or Italy (the rich north,
the poor south). Even in a relatively united Germany, the eastern states have still not caught up with
Bavaria and western Germany. In the new member states, disproportions are particularly visible
between capital regions (Warsaw, Vilnius, Prague, Bucharest) and regions - voivodeships and poviats.
The richest regions, apart from small Luxembourg, are the south of Ireland (240% of the average),
Prague and Burssels (202%), Hamburg (195%). The worst results are achieved in north-western
Bulgaria (32%), with the remaining regions of the country achieving results ranging from 35 to 41%
(except for the capital).
In addition to the GDP measure, the unemployment rate tells us a lot about the diversity of life. A
particular problem in the EU is unemployment among young people (15-24 years old). It has long been
the highest in Southern European countries, in Greece it reaches up to 40%, while in Central Europe it
reaches several to several percent.

Youth unemployment (15-24 years) by EU countries in 2019

Source: https://ednh.news/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/13261F_Englisch-1024×848.jpg

Such huge development differences ultimately lead to migration and political conflicts . The
European Union is often perceived as the cause of problems, especially in times of periodic
turbulence (e.g. debt crisis, Eurozone crisis, etc.). Another problem resulting from the enormous
diversity of Europe is friction related to culture, ethnicity and religion. Separatist movements are
emerging in Europe, also on the basis of socio-economic inequalities. For example, in Catalonia - the
richest region of Spain, there was a revival of national identity and an attempt to declare
independence by the region. The main cause of this dispute was the division of profits from tourism,
which partly went to the poorer regions of Spain. These events were extremely troublesome for the
EU, which was unable to take a clear stance towards them.
 Centrifugal movements in the Member States threaten to disintegrate the entire Union into small
entities

Source: https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ElAmyc3iaUM/WcdkV-VNg1I/AAAAAAAAQZg/f2LJ9z7nGz8Mdu55qHkwH435Rgo1jM3mgCLcBGAs/s640/Espa%25C3%25B1a1.jpg

Another problem is immigration issues . Currently, in addition to the influx of refugees from Ukraine,
migrants from Africa and the Middle East dominate, especially in Western Europe. They represent a
different cultural background and are most often Muslims. They often do not know the language and
do not have professional qualifications. For this reason, they have difficulties with assimilation and
finding work, so they often create poor housing estates around large cities. This leads to conflicts
with the local community and anti-immigrant sentiment, especially when migrants are entitled to
social benefits.

In Paris, migrants can camp on the streets in the city center

Source: https://static.prsa.pl/images/40147794-b08c-4ea2-99cc-fd22875a216d.jpg
5. Challenges of the modern world and the European Union

The problems of the European Union as a whole, as well as of its member states, are the challenges
that must be faced in the 21st century. The most important of these is global climate change . The
European Union is one of the world's leading and emitting economies. With a sense of responsibility
for the state of the environment, the European Green Deal policy was adopted . As a result of the
implementation of this policy, the European Union is to be emission neutral and significantly increase
its forestation level.

The European Green Deal is the EU's response to environmental problems

Source: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=comnat:COM_2019_0640_FIN.POL.xhtml.COM_2019_0640_FIN_POL_34002.jpg

The Green Deal poses the greatest difficulties in the area of energy , which is the main source of CO2
emissions. Meanwhile, most EU countries rely on conventional energy. Only France has a low-
emission nuclear power plant, and small countries such as Austria rely on hydropower from Alpine
rivers. In the case of most countries, e.g. Poland, the Green Deal will mean the need for gigantic
investments in renewable energy sources and possibly nuclear energy instead of coal. However, the
problem is not only the enormous cost of transformation, but also the social issues related to it. The
most affected by the changes will be the highly influential coal mining industry, which will be gradually
phased out. This will cause turbulence in the labor market and political problems. At the same time,
there is an ongoing dispute within the EU itself about whether nuclear power plants should be built.
Their opponents are, for example, Germany. Finally, not all countries have geographical conditions
that would allow them to produce enough energy from renewable sources.
Miners are an influential group in every country, including Poland. This makes it difficult to implement
the energy transformation

Source: https://www.pzdrowie.pl/storage/image/core_files/2021/10/13/a5e57e2c7c718f4bef6eeb88a274628c/jpg/pzdrowie/articles-single-lg/o2128457416.jpg

On the other hand, within the EU itself there is a growing society convinced of the need for profound
changes for the environment. In recent years, Greta Thunberg, the initiator of the Youth Climate
Strike , a Swedish activist of the young generation , has become the epitome of the climate
movement . She and people like her are fighting to save the world from the consequences of global
warming as quickly as possible. The voice of young people is becoming increasingly louder in the
offices of European decision-makers.
 The young generation is demanding energy transformation, putting the EU's elites in a difficult
position

Source:
https://ocdn.eu/pulscms-transforms/1/Ulvk9kpTURBXy9hOGRiNTUwZjFjZjAwNTY3MzgxY2JmZjZiMTgwNWQ3Yi5qcGeTlQMAzJzNE5jNCwWVAs0EsADDw5MJpjI3YWRj
YwbeAAGhMAE/greta -thunberg-fights-with-climate-change.jpg

Although the climate transformation is necessary and global warming is one of the most important
problems of the modern world, the transformation of the European Union itself will only deepen its
problems in another area, which is the competitiveness of the economy . While Europe is trying to
save the climate with great effort, other countries, such as China, the USA, Russia and India, which are
much larger emitters of CO2, completely ignore this problem. The EU is responsible for 9.5% of global
CO2 emissions (2017), while the four countries above are responsible for over 54% of global
emissions. The challenge for the EU is therefore to avoid falling into an economic crisis by reducing
its own emissions. While Europe undergoes a costly transformation, other countries will continue to
produce using cheap fossil fuels. Moreover, the high standard of living in the EU, which translates into
high salaries, is a serious limitation to the development of its economy, especially compared to Asian
countries. As a consequence, further economic difficulties (e.g. more expensive energy from
renewable sources) may make it easier for China and India to compete economically with Europe. The
EU must therefore try to influence other countries to also take care of the global environment so that
the entire environmental policy makes sense. The competition for global domination is another
challenge of the modern world that the EU faces. The EU is currently in a phase of competition for
hegemony with the USA and China, whose GDP is similar.
 The European Union is fighting to maintain its global position in the face of the growing power of the
US and China

Source:
https://ocdn.eu/pulscms-transforms/1/RyJk9kpTURBXy8zNTNmZTVhNzViM2JhOGQwNjM1MWVlNjZmMjllNjU4NC5qcGeTlQMAPs0H0M0EZZMFzQSwzQKkkwmmZjI3N
WFlBt4AAaEwAQ/spot joe-biden-and-xi-jinping-kinie-at-the-top-g20-indonesia.jpg

Other challenges the EU must face include:

● Aging of society, the need to care for the elderly and the economic consequences of this
process.
● Low birth rate - extinction of native Europeans.
● Successive waves of migration that are changing the socio-cultural landscape of Europe.
● Growing social inequality between the poor and the rich.
● The ever-increasing level of debt in the European and global economy.
● Challenges related to new technologies and space exploration.