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Class 2
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¨ Basic Questions (for today)

1. What do we mean by “sentence structure”?

2. How do we identify syntactic structures?

LING 2005 – Syntax I
Class 2 — Constituent Structure I

Lawrence Cheung

Outline
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1. Constituent Structure (Constituency) 成分結構 Constituent Structure (Constituency)

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2. Constituency Tests 成分測試 成分結構
¤ Substitution

¤ Movement
n Topicalization, Clefting, Pseudo-cleft
¤ Co-ordination (NEXT CLASS)
¤ Ellipsis/Deletion (NEXT CLASS)
 Constituent Structure Technical Terms: String
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¨ There is a strong sense among speakers that a
sentence can be divided into sub-parts or “chunks”.
¨ Words are grouped together to form a unit.
¨ The technical term for such chunks, word group or
syntactic units is “constituents”.
¨ Based on your subjective intuition, can you identify
any constituents in “The customer in the corner will
order the drinks”?
¨ String of words: a linear sequence of consecutive
words
¨ Example: The customer in the corner will order the
drinks.
Ø Strings: “The customer”, “The customer in”, “customer in
the”, “corner will”, “will order the”, “order the drinks”
Ø Non-strings: “The in”, “the corner the”, “in will drinks”

¨ Is “in the drinks” a string in the example sentence?

Technical Terms: Constituent Constituent Structure

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¨ Constituent: a string that speakers can manipulate as a ¨ What are the potential problems of the method of
single chunk/group/unit. (often somewhat meaningful) identifying constituent based on your subjective
intuition?
¨ Example: The customer in the corner will order the drinks.
Ø Constituents: “The customer”, “in the corner”, “order the
drinks”.
Ø Non-constituents: “The customer in”, “in the”, “corner will”, “the
corner will”
¨ Are the following strings and/or constituents? (For now,
just use your own intuitive judgment.)
Ø “The customer in the corner”, ”corner will”, “will order”
 Constituent Structure Constituency Tests
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102 Preliminaries
¨ Sometimes there may be different analyses that we ¨ Syntacticians have developed some tests to help us
Why Study the Geometry of Trees?
have to differentiate. determine
It is worth considering theit constituency
whether of a string
is necessary to concern relatively
ourselves with
more objectively.
the mathematics of tree diagrams. There are actually two very good
reasons why we should do this. First, by considering the geometry of trees,
we can assign names to the various parts and describe how the parts relate
to one another. For example, in the last chapter we were only able to give a
¨
vague definitionWe will learn a number of such tests this week and
of the term constituent. In this chapter, we’ll be able to give
next week.
a precise description. Second, it turns out that there are many syntactic
phenomena that make explicit reference to the geometry of trees. One of
the most obvious of these refers to anaphors. Anaphors can only appear in
certain positions in the geometry of the tree. The distribution of anaphors
Before that, let’s learn how to represent constituents
¨ of nouns is the focus of the next chapter.
and other types
in a diagrammatic way.
1. THE PARTS OF A TREE

Let’s start with a very abstract tree drawing:

1) M

N O
Tree Structure Notation
D E F H I J
(Carnie 2007: 102—103)
This tree would be generated by the rules in (2):
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2) M → NØO Branch 分枝: straight line

13 Tree Diagram 樹狀圖 N→DEF
O → HØI J Node 節點/結: the end of a branch (a branch has 2
You can checknodes)
this by applying each of the rules to the tree in (1). I’m using
an abstract tree here because I don’t want the content of each of the nodes to
Ø Label
interfere with : the name
the underlying given
abstract to a node
mathematics. (But if you find this
confusing, you can substitute TP for M, NP for N, VP for O, etc., and you’ll
¨ Constituent:
see that this is just a normal tree.) Now we can describe the various parts of
this tree. The ¤ A word
lines in theistree
a constituent, i.e. the smallest
are called branches. A formal syntactic
definition unit.
of
branch is given in (3), and the branches are marked in (4):
¤ Everything dominated by a node together constitutes a
3) Branch: A lineconstituent.
connecting two parts of a tree.
PP
4) M branches

N O
P D N
D E F H I J in the corner
 Tree Representation Syntactic Tree Diagrams
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Structure A Structure B ¨ In Syntax, we use syntactic tree diagrams to express

X X the constituency structure of sentences.
Y
P D N ¨ They encode how words are grouped together as
in the corner
P D N units progressively/ hierarchically in certain order
in the corner to form bigger and bigger units.
¨ Is “in the corner” a constituent?
¨ Is “in the” a constituent?
¨ Is “the corner” a constituent?

Tree Representation Triangle

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¨ According to this tree diagram, what are the
constituents in the analysis?
¨ Triangles are sometimes used to simplify some parts of the
structure to save time and space when the details of these
parts are not as important in the discussion. BUT students should
be cautious when using triangles in your assignments or exams,
as you are often expected to show that you know these details
and be explicit as possible.
S

NP VP

The visitor V NP
from France ate
D N
the sandwich

19 Constituency Tests
How can we identify constituents?
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2. Based on constituency tests [relatively more
objective tests to find out whether a string of
words is a constituent]
¨ Note: The purpose of the constituency tests is to
identify units. How the units should be labeled (e.g.
NP, VP, etc.) is a different matter. We will deal with
labeling now but will do it in the next few classes.
How can we identify constituents?
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1. Based on native speaker’s intuition (judgment)
¤ BUT things are not always as straightforward …
How do we know
which one is the
correct one?
Constituent Analysis
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¨ The central intuition underlying models of constituent
analysis was that the structure of an expression [or
sentence] could be exhibited by dividing the
expression into parts (its immediate constituents),
further subdividing these parts, and continuing until
syntactically indivisible units were obtained. (Blevins &
Sag 2013)
Ø Whether this is a good model/hypothesis can
be debated. Indeed, not all syntacticians
subscribe to such formulation. It is, however, the
dominant working hypothesis or approach in the field.
 Constituency Tests Basic Assumptions of Constituency Tests
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¨ Constituency tests are some more objective ¨ Constituent: a string that speakers can
means to confirm the judgment of constituents. manipulate as a single chunk/group/unit.
1. Substitution
2. Movement ¨ Rationale of Constituency Tests:
¤ Topicalization Ø If an operation can affect a string of words,
¤ Clefting that string of words is probably a constituent.
¤ Pseudo-cleft
3. Coordination (next class)
4. Ellipsis/Deletion (next class)

Substitution
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¨ If a string of words is a unit/constituent, the group of

25 Substitution words can be replaced with another thing that we
know for sure is a unit, e.g. a pronoun (or proform),
without changing the meaning.
1. The customer in the corner will order the drinks.

2. He will order them before the meal.

¨ Non-constituents generally cannot be substituted by

proforms, e.g. “corner will”, and “will order the”.
 Substitution Substitution (“do so”)
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¨ A string of words is a constituent if it can be replaced
by a “proform” (or pronoun).
1. a. The customer in the corner will order the drinks
before the meal.
b. He will order them before the meal.
2. a. John will have a performance at 10am.
b. He will have a performance then.
3. a. The student will be presenting in Room 11.
b. She will be presenting there.
4. They say that John is very happy and so he is.
¨ “Do so” is a proform that substitutes a verb phrase.
1. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal. However, in order to do so before the meal,
he will first need a wine list.
2. The customer in the corner will order the drinks before
the meal. However in order to do so, he will first need a
wine list.
3. Robin slept for twelve hours in the bed, and Leslie did so
on the sofa.
4. I learned the answer, although Bill told me not to do so.

Attention #1 Attention #2
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¨ When we do substitution, we want to ensure that we
only substitute the target string under consideration.
¨ Q: Is “take it” a constituent in the following sentence?
¨ Sentence: John will take it out.
Ø Test Sentence 1: John will do so.
Ø Test Sentence 2: John will do so out.
¨ Which one is the valid substitution test sentence?
¨ When we apply the substitution test, the meaning
before and after the substitution should be maintained.
1. a. This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on
your desk before tomorrow.
b. This girl there will put a picture of Bill on your desk
before tomorrow.
2. a. John said that his car was stolen.
b. It was stolen.
¨ Even though “there” and “it” can successfully substitute
the corresponding strings in red, the meaning gets
changed after the substitution.
 Attention #3
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¨ Not all constituents can be substituted by a simple

proform or pronoun due to the inherent semantic or
33 Movement Test
categorical restrictions of individual proforms/
pronouns. • Topicalization
a. While “then” can substitute “at 10am”, it is not possible • Clefting
to find a good proform for “before the meal”. • Pseudo-cleft
b. Nor can we find a proform for the underlined part in
“John is wondering whether it would rain”?
¨ Not being able to find a proform to substitute the

target string does not necessarily mean that the

target string is not a constituent.

Movement
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¨ Some syntactic operations (e.g. movement) affect

and displace constituents as a whole.
35 Topicalization
¨ Movement: realization of a string in a position
different from its canonical position.
¨ If a string of words can be “moved” together, it is a
unit/constituent.
Ø Non-constituents generally can’t undergo movement.
¨ We will learn three movement tests:
¤ Topicalization, clefting and pseudo-clefting
 Topicalization (NP) Contrastive/Emphatic Contexts
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¨ If we can move (or topicalize) a string of words to the
beginning of the clause, that string is a constituent.
1. I thought Tom believes the explanation needs such examples.
à Such examples I thought Tom believes the explanation
needs ___.
I didn’t like this book.
2.
à This book, I didn’t like ___, but that one, I really like ___.
3. A: Do you like Belgain beer and Belgian wine?
B: Belgian beer, I like ___ , but Belgain wine, I hate ___.
4. Hamburgers, I like __. Hot dogs, I can’t stand __.
¨ One should note that topicalization in English in
isolation is often not as acceptable.
¤ e.g. ! ?Belgian beer, I like.
Ø Topicalization is more acceptable in the
contrastive context or emphatic context.
¤ e.g. " Belgian beer, I like, but Belgain wine, I hate.
Ø When you construct a test sentence using
topicalization, please provide such a context.

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PP = Preposition Phrase
Topicalization (VP) VP = Verb Phrase Topicalization (PP/AP) AP = Adjectival Phrase

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1. It is really too bad that Joseph left, if leave he did. 1. The team members all wear ties, and very smart they
(Ward 1990) look __. (AP)
2. One wonders how he managed to find the error. 2. On the desk, Mary put the picture ___ yesterday. (PP)
But find the error, he did. 3. I’ll accept that pigs can fly. That they have a
3. “They must talk about it, and talk about it they language, I just can’t believe __. (clause)
must,” he said.
4. I told him that I wasn’t sure how I was going to
¨ Based on the previous slides, we can see that
manage it, but manage it I would. topicalization works well with NPs, PPs, VPs, AP or
clause.
 Topicalization (non-constituent)
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¨ Non-constituents tend to produce negative results on

the topicalization test.
41 Clefting

Ø Sentence: Mary put the picture on the desk yesterday.

1. *Desk yesterday, Mary put the picture the.
2. *Mary put, the picture on the desk yesterday.
3. *The picture on, Mary put the desk yesterday.

Clefting Clefting
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¨ A cleft construction puts a constituent into focus
position right after It is/was …
¨ Cleft: It is ____ who/that {subordinate clause}.
¤ Good for testing NPs and PPs.
1. The guy who got hurt in the accident wants to run
the marathon.
à It is the guy who got hurt in the accident who
wants to run the marathon.
2. John wants to look at her messy notes.
à It’s her messy notes that (which) John wants to
look at.
3. Ann bought the novel for $500.
à It was for $500 that Ann bought the novel.
4. We cancel the meeting in everyone’s interest.
à It is in everyone’s interest that we cancel the
meeting.
5. John drove the truck to the terminal.
à It is to the terminal that John drove the truck.
6. We will have an exam before Christmas.
à It is before Christmas that we will have an
exam.
 Clefting Clefting
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¨ Why is clefting considered to be a movement ¨ BBC Masterclass: Giving emphasis

construction? ¤ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P7dcdEoNA_E

¨ It’s her messy notes that John wants to look at.

Clefting (non-constituent)
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¨ Non-constituents tend to produce negative results on

the clefting test.
47 Pseudo-cleft
¨ Sentence: Mary put the picture on the desk
yesterday.
1. *It was the desk yesterday that Mary put the
picture on.
2. *It was on the that Mary put the picture desk
yesterday.
3. *It was put the picture that Mary on the desk
yesterday.
 Pseudo-Cleft Pseudo-Cleft
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¨ In a pseudo-cleft, the focused element (a constituent)
appears near the end of the sentence, following a form
of the verb be.
¨ Sentence: John washed the dishes yesterday.
1. What John washed yesterday was the dishes.
2.
¨ When the focused chunk is a VP, one needs to
insert “do”.
1. Sentence: This girl in the red coat will put a
picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow.
2. *What this girl in the red coat will is [put a
picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow].
3. What this girl in the red coat will do is [put a
picture of Bill on your desk before tomorrow].

¨ No such requirement for other categories like NP

3. and PP.

Pseudo-Cleft Pseudo-Cleft
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¨ Besides NPs, PPs and VPs, pseudo-clefts are ¨ BBC Masterclass: Giving emphasis using 'what'
good for identifying APs, CPs (clauses) and ¤ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-80zSEMCrgw
infinitival phrases.

1. John became afraid of flying. (AP)

⟶ What John became was afraid of flying.
2. John told us that he had resigned. (CP/clause)
⟶ What John told us was that he had resigned.
3. John wants to write a novel. (infinitival phrase)
⟶ What John wants is to write a novel.
 Attention Attention
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¨ Sentence: This girl in the red coat will put a picture of Bill on
your desk before tomorrow.
1. What this girl in the red coat will do is [put a picture of Bill
on your desk before tomorrow].
2. What this girl in the red coat will do is [to put a picture of
Bill on your desk before tomorrow].
¨ Question: Which one is correct? (1) or (2)?
¨ Infinitival “to” in (2) is optional when the moved unit is a VP.
¤ Reference: Huddleston & Pullum (2003) The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language. CUP. (see pdf)
¤ Based on corpus data, it is found that British speakers tend to use the
one without “to” more often.
¨ Many speakers can only use “what” (but not “who”,
“where”, “why”, “how”) in pseudo-clefts.
¨ Sentence: John hates the sales representative.
1. %Who John hates is the sales representative.
2. %Where John put his bike was the storeroom.
3. %Why John could not come was because the road
was blocked.
¨ % = acceptable to some speakers (i.e. speaker
variation)