Introduction to Indian Philosophy:

• Philosophy originates from the Greek words "Philos" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom).
• It involves systematic exploration of fundamental questions about existence, logic, cognition,
consciousness, and communication.
• In antiquity, philosophy included various rational inquiries, including natural philosophy.
• Modern philosophy is more narrowly focused on metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
• Philosophy exists in diverse traditions worldwide, such as Western, Arabic-Persian, Indian, and
Chinese philosophy.
• Major branches of philosophy include epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
• Philosophers use methods like conceptual analysis, thought experiments, and critical
questioning.
• Philosophy intersects with other disciplines, offering interdisciplinary perspectives.
• In the Indian context, philosophy is referred to as Darśana or tattva.
• "Darśana" implies realization or knowledge, aligning with the concept of "to know."
• "Tattva" means "ultimate reality," connecting with the metaphysical aspect of philosophy.
• Indian thought blurs the distinction between the knower and reality, adding a value dimension
to philosophy.

Sources of Indian Philosophy:

• "Véda" in Sanskrit is derived from the root "vid," meaning "to know."
• Generally, "véda" means "knowledge" or "wisdom" in Sanskrit.
• The meaning of "véda" can vary depending on the context in which it is used.
• In some contexts, like the Rigveda, "véda" can refer to "obtaining or finding wealth or
property."
• In other contexts, "véda" can refer to "a bunch of grass together," often with ritual or symbolic
significance.
• The term "Vedic texts" can mean texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period or
any text considered "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas."

Corpus of Vedic Sanskrit Texts:

• The Samhitas: These are collections of metric texts or "mantras" and include the Rig-Veda,
Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. They are the oldest Vedic texts and contain
invocations to deities.
• The Brahmanas: Prose texts that provide commentary and explanations for rituals found in the
Samhitas. They explore the meaning of rituals and are associated with specific Samhitas.
• The Aranyakas: "Wilderness texts" composed by recluses and discuss interpretations of
ceremonies, ranging from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic perspectives.
 • Older Principal Upanishads: Philosophical works, including Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya,
Kaṭha, Kena, Aitareya, etc., composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period. They
are foundational to Hindu philosophical thought.
• Later Upanishads: Composed after the Vedic period, interpret and discuss the Samhitas in
philosophical and metaphorical ways. They explore abstract concepts like Brahman (the
Absolute) and Atman (the soul).
• "Vedic" as Corollaries of the Vedas: Encompasses post-Vedic texts, including later
Upanishads and Sutra literature like Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras, which are smriti texts.
• Transition from Ritual to Spirituality: The texts show the evolution of ideas from actual
sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice and the development of spirituality in the Upanishads.
• Classification by Hindu Scholars: Scholars like Adi Shankara classified each Veda into
karma-kanda (action/sacrificial ritual-related sections, the Samhitas and Brahmanas) and jnana-
kanda (knowledge/spirituality-related sections, mainly the Upanishads).

In Hinduism, two fundamental categories of sacred texts are Śruti and Smṛti:
Śruti ("What is Heard"):

• Śruti texts are considered the most authoritative and sacred in Hinduism.
• They are believed to be divinely revealed and not of human authorship.
• The Vedas, including the Samhitas (collections of mantras), Upanishads (philosophical
teachings), Brahmanas (ritual explanations), and Aranyakas (wilderness texts), are classified as
Śruti.
• Śruti texts are viewed as eternal and unchanging, forming the foundation of Hindu religious
practices and philosophy.

Smṛti ("What is Remembered"):

• Smṛti texts are considered of human origin, based on memory, tradition, and cultural
knowledge.
• While not as authoritative as Śruti, they are highly respected and influential in Hinduism.
• Well-known Smṛti texts include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana, and
Mahabharata, which contain moral and ethical teachings and stories.
• Smṛti texts often provide practical guidance for religious and ethical matters and are accessible
to a broader audience.

Note: The boundaries between Śruti and Smṛti can be blurred due to linguistic, historical, and regional
variations, but this classification helps understand the varying levels of authority and significance
attributed to different texts within Hinduism.
Orthodox (āstika) and Heterodox (nāstika) philosophical
traditions: Cārvāka, Jainism, Buddhism. Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṁkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṁsā and Vedānta
Orthodox (āstika) Philosophical Traditions:

• There are six major Vedic philosophical schools within the āstika category.
• These schools align themselves with the teachings of the Upanishads and accept the authority
of the Vedas.
• The six darśanas or philosophies in this category are:
1. Sānkhya: Focuses on understanding the nature of reality through analysis and
categorization.
2. Yoga: Emphasizes spiritual and mental discipline as a means to attain liberation.
3. Nyāya: Concerned with logic, epistemology, and the structure of valid reasoning.
4. Vaisheshika: Examines the nature of the material world and its constituents.
5. Mimāmsā: Concentrates on ritual and sacrificial practices prescribed in the Vedas.
6. Vedānta: Explores the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the relationship between the
individual soul (Atman) and Brahman.

Heterodox (nāstika) Philosophical Traditions:

• The nāstika or sramanic category includes three significant heterodox schools.

• These schools reject the authority of the Vedas and offer alternative philosophical perspectives.
• The three heterodox traditions are:
1. Jainism: Founded by Mahavira, Jainism emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa), truth, and
spiritual purification.
2. Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), Buddhism focuses on the
Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to attain enlightenment.
3. Charvaka: Also known as Lokayata, Charvaka is a materialistic and atheistic school that
rejects religious and metaphysical beliefs.

This classification into orthodox and heterodox traditions is based on the acceptance or rejection of
Vedic authority and helps categorize the diverse philosophical traditions within Indian philosophy.

Heterodox (nāstika) Schools

Charvaka Philosophy

• The etymology of the term "Charvaka" remains uncertain and has various interpretations.
• One interpretation suggests it may mean "chews the self," based on the Sanskrit root "carv,"
meaning 'to chew.'
• Another interpretation suggests it may mean "agreeable speech" or "sweet-tongued," derived
from "cāru" (agreeable) and "vāc" (speech).
• There's a hypothesis that "Charvaka" could be eponymous, referring to the founder of the
school, Charvaka, a disciple of Brihaspati.
 • Charvaka is an ancient Indian school of materialist philosophy considered atheistic within the
Hindu tradition.
• It emphasizes direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as valid sources of
knowledge while rejecting ritualism.
• Traditionally, Brihaspati is attributed as the founder of Charvaka philosophy, though this is
debated by some scholars.
• Charvaka's teachings are recorded in various historical secondary texts, including shastras,
sutras, and Indian epic poetry.
• A key aspect of Charvaka's epistemology is the acknowledgment of doubt when inferring truth
from observations or other truths, highlighting that inferred knowledge is conditional.

Charvaka is a notable heterodox school of Indian philosophy that stands out for its materialist and
atheistic perspective, emphasizing empirical evidence and skepticism in the pursuit of knowledge.

Charvaka's Epistemology:

• Charvaka considers perception as the most valid source of knowledge.

• They distinguish between two types of perception: external perception (through the senses
interacting with worldly objects) and internal perception (perception of the mind).
• In contrast, Charvaka views inference as prone to error and conditional.
• Inference, according to Charvaka, involves deriving new conclusions and truths from
observations and previous truths.
• They acknowledge the utility of inference but are skeptical about its reliability, arguing that
inferred truths are often uncertain and influenced by specific conditions and circumstances.
• Charvaka's epistemological argument is illustrated using the example of smoke and fire, where
they highlight that inference, such as inferring fire from smoke, is not universally true since
smoke can have other causes.
• Charvakas emphasize that complete knowledge is achieved when all observations, premises,
and conditions are known, but the absence of certain conditions cannot be established beyond
doubt through perception alone.
• They do not reject the use of inference in daily life but stress the importance of critical thinking
and skepticism.
• Charvaka asserts that truth is not inherent to inference but a contingent outcome.

Charvaka's epistemological stance had a significant influence on various schools of Indian philosophy,
leading to a reevaluation of existing doctrines and a new way of thinking about inference and
knowledge.

Charvaka's Metaphysical Standpoint:

• Charvaka's metaphysical perspective is deeply rooted in skepticism regarding the validity of

inference in establishing metaphysical truths.
 • They argue that none of the means of knowing can reliably establish an invariable connection
between a middle term and a predicate, rendering inference unreliable for metaphysical
matters.
• As a result, Charvakas deny the existence of several metaphysical concepts, including
reincarnation, an extracorporeal soul, the efficacy of religious rituals, otherworldly realms like
heaven and hell, fate, and the accumulation of merit or demerit through specific actions.
• They reject the idea of supernatural causes explaining natural phenomena, believing that all
natural events occur spontaneously due to the inherent nature of things.
• Charvakas hold a materialistic view of consciousness, asserting that all attributes associated
with a person, such as physical characteristics, reside in the body.
• They dismiss the notions of an afterlife, rebirth, and karma, advocating for a worldview solely
focused on the physical realm with no existence beyond it.
• Charvakas embrace sensual pleasure and do not view it as problematic. They believe wisdom
lies in enjoying pleasure while minimizing pain, rejecting austerities or the renunciation of
pleasure.

Charvaka's metaphysical stance is marked by skepticism, materialism, the rejection of metaphysical

concepts, and an emphasis on the pursuit of sensual pleasure in the physical world.

Charvakas' Ethics:

• Charvakas rejected many conventional religious beliefs held by Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and
Ajivakas.
• They denied the existence of an afterlife, reincarnation, the concept of samsara (cycle of birth
and death), karma (the law of moral cause and effect), and religious rituals.
• Charvakas were highly critical of the Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as Buddhist
scriptures.
• They believed that the Vedas contained errors, untruths, self-contradictions, and tautological
statements.
• Charvakas pointed out the disagreements and mutual rejection between Vedic priests who
performed rituals (karmakanda) and those who pursued knowledge (jñānakanda), suggesting
that both could not be right, making the Vedas unreliable.
• They regarded the Vedas as incoherent rhapsodies that served only to provide livelihoods for
priests and were man-made, lacking divine authority.
• Charvakas rejected the need for ethical or moral guidelines and advocated a hedonistic
approach to life, emphasizing the pursuit of happiness and enjoyment, even if it led to debt.
• Jain scholar Haribhadra included Charvaka in his list of six darśanas (philosophical traditions)
of Indian thought and noted their assertions about the limits of sensory perception and the
rejection of the unseen or unverifiable as foolish.
• Charvakas were known for their rejection of traditional religious beliefs, criticism of the Vedas,
and advocacy of a materialistic and pleasure-centered philosophy of life.
Charvakas' ethics and philosophy were characterized by their skepticism toward traditional religious
and metaphysical concepts and their emphasis on the pursuit of sensory pleasure and enjoyment in the
present life.

Jain Philosophy

• Jain philosophy is associated with the Jain religion and emerged within early Jainism after the
passing of Mahavira in the 5th century BCE.
• Key features of Jain philosophy include dualistic metaphysics, which distinguishes between
sentient beings (jīva) and non-living entities (ajīva).
• Jain philosophical texts cover various topics, including cosmology, epistemology, ethics,
metaphysics, ontology, the philosophy of time, and soteriology.
• Jain thought primarily focuses on understanding the nature of living beings, their bondage by
karma (fine material particles), and the path to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of
reincarnation (saṃsāra).
• Jainism strongly associates renunciatory practices with the principle of non-violence (ahiṃsā).
• Jain philosophy rejects the idea of a creator deity and instead believes in a beginning-less and
cyclical universe.
• Jain tradition teaches that this philosophy has been imparted by enlightened tirthankaras
(spiritual leaders) in the distant past, emphasizing the eternal nature of Jain teachings.
• Key figures in Jain philosophy include Mahavira, who lived around the same time as Gautama
Buddha in the 5th century BCE, and possibly Parshvanatha, whose historical dating is debated
but is generally placed in the 8th or 7th century BCE.
• Jain philosophy has maintained doctrinal stability throughout its history, largely attributed to
the enduring influence of Umaswati's Tattvārthasūtra, a central and authoritative philosophical
text among Jains.

Jain philosophy explores various aspects of existence, ethics, and spirituality, with a strong emphasis
on non-violence and the pursuit of liberation from the cycle of reincarnation.

Jain Epistemology and Philosophical Concepts:

Means of Knowledge (Pramana):

• Jain philosophy recognizes three reliable means of knowledge: perception (pratyaksa),

inference (anumana), and testimony (sabda or scripture).
• Some texts also include analogy (upamana) as a fourth means.
• These pramanas serve as the foundation for acquiring knowledge.

Types of Knowledge (Jnana):

• Jainism categorizes knowledge into five types: a. Kevala jnana (Omniscience) b. Śrutu jnana
(Scriptural Knowledge) c. Mati jnana (Sensory Knowledge) d. Avadhi jnana (Clairvoyance) e.
Manah prayāya jnana (Telepathy)
 • The first two types are considered indirect means of knowledge, while the others provide direct
knowledge, meaning the object is known directly by the soul.

Relativity and Pluralism:

• Anekāntavāda (Theory of Many-Sidedness): Jainism embraces ontological pluralism, asserting

that reality is complex and multi-faceted. It emphasizes considering multiple perspectives for
understanding reality.
• Syādvāda (Theory of Conditioned Predication): Syādvāda suggests that every statement should
be prefixed with "syād" ("in a certain sense"), acknowledging the multifaceted nature of reality
and preventing dogmatic assertions.
• Nayavāda (Theory of Partial Standpoints): Nayavāda posits that there are partial viewpoints
from which anything can be seen. Descriptions focus on relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant
ones, explaining complex reality piece by piece.
• Syādvāda provides seven conditioned predications to express the multifaceted nature of reality,
allowing for nuanced descriptions from different perspectives.

Jain philosophy encourages a nuanced and open-minded approach to understanding reality,

emphasizing the importance of recognizing the limitations of any single viewpoint and the
multifaceted nature of truth. This philosophy has profound implications for Jain ethics, religious
tolerance, and the practice of non-violence (ahiṃsā).

Jain Ontology:

Realism and Pluralism:

• Jain metaphysics is considered a form of pluralism, affirming the existence of various distinct
realities.
• It provides a realistic account of the nature of existence.

Jīva (Living Being):

• Jīva refers to sentient or living beings, often equated with souls.

• Jīvas are immaterial and characterized by unlimited consciousness, knowledge, bliss, and
energy.
• They are eternal in one sense but impermanent in another, as they undergo cycles of birth and
death.
• Decay and origin are seen as modifications of the jīva.

Ajīva (Inanimate Substance):

• Ajīva encompasses all insentient substances.

• There are five categories of ajīva: non-sentient matter (pudgala), the principle of motion
(dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa), and time (kāla).
 • These six ontological substances (dravya) come together to form impermanent bodies or
objects.

Key Concepts Related to Karma:

• Āsrava (Influx): The process by which good and bad karmic substances flow into living beings.
• Bandha (Bondage): The mutual intermingling of living beings and karmas, leading to changes
that cumulatively determine future rebirths.
• Samvara (Stoppage): The cessation of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul, leading to a
halt in the accumulation of new karma.
• Nirjara (Gradual Dissociation): Involves the separation or shedding of part of the karmic matter
from the soul, gradually reducing its bondage.
• Mokṣha (Liberation): The ultimate goal of Jain spirituality – the complete annihilation of all
karmic matter bound to the soul, leading to liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Nikshepas (Gateways of Investigation):

• Jain thinkers analyze each entity from various perspectives or "gateways" of investigation,
known as nikshepas.
• These gateways include considerations like name, symbol, potentiality, actuality, definition,
possession, cause, location, duration, variety, existence, numerical determination, field
occupied, field touched, continuity, time-lapse, states, and relative size.

Jain ontology seeks to reconcile permanence and change in every entity, emphasizing the importance
of considering various facets and perspectives in philosophical analysis. It characterizes existence as
both enduring and subject to change, reflecting a complex and multifaceted understanding of reality.

Buddhism
An Indian religion or philosophical tradition founded on the teachings attributed to the Buddha in the
5th century BCE.

• Spread : Originated in the eastern Gangetic plain and spread throughout Asia via the Silk Road,
with over 520 million followers worldwide.

• Branches : Two major branches - Theravāda (emphasizing nirvāṇa) and Mahāyāna

(emphasizing the Bodhisattva-ideal).

• Texts : Vast Buddhist canon with diverse textual collections in different languages.

• Theravāda : Predominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

• Mahāyāna : Predominant in Nepal, Bhutan, China, Malaysia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and
Japan.
 • Four Noble Truths : Fundamental principles in Buddhist philosophy and practice:

1. Dukkha (Suffering) : Inherent to samsara, arising from attachment to impermanent

things.

2. Samudaya (Origin or Cause) : Dukkha arises with craving (tanha) or attachment.

3. Nirodha (Cessation or Ending) : Dukkha can end by letting go of tanha, leading to

liberation.

4. Marga (Path or Noble Eightfold Path) : Eightfold path to end tanha includes Right
Understanding, Intention, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness, and
Concentration.

• Purpose : Four Noble Truths provide insight into human existence and guide the path to
liberation from suffering and enlightenment.

Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Arising) : A Buddhist theory explaining the nature of existence and
reality.

• Interdependence : Emphasizes that everything in existence depends on and arises from other
pre-existing states.

• Nirvana Exception : Nirvana is the only state considered independent; everything else is
interconnected.

• Causality : Dependent arising asserts that causality is the foundation of ontology, not a creator
God or a universal Self (Brahman).

• Cycles of Rebirth : Dependent arising explains the origination of cycles of suffering (dukkha)
and rebirth in Buddhism.

• Twelve Nidānas : Links in the cycle of dependent arising, starting with ignorance (Avidyā) and
leading to old age, death, sorrow, and pain (Jarāmaraṇa).

• Liberation : Buddhism aims to break the cycle of dependent arising through enlightenment,
leading to liberation from suffering and rebirth.
Not-Self (Anatta/Anatman) : The doctrine that rejects the existence of an unchanging, permanent self
or soul within phenomena.

• Five Aggregates : Personal identity is deconstructed into five aggregates: form (physical body),
feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness, none of which are permanent or
absolute.

• Emptiness (Sunyata/Shunyata) : A concept emphasizing the lack of inherent existence in all

phenomena.

• Early Buddhism : Emptiness means that the five aggregates lack a self or inherent existence,
particularly in Theravada Buddhism.

• Mahayana Buddhism : Emptiness takes on profound significance, especially in Nagarjuna's

Madhyamaka school, asserting that all phenomena lack inherent existence or svabhava.

• Impermanence and Interdependence : These concepts challenge the idea of a permanent self
and highlight the impermanent and interdependent nature of all things.

• Central to Buddhist Philosophy : Not-Self and Emptiness are central to understanding

suffering and the path to liberation in Buddhist philosophy, influencing various Buddhist
traditions.

Nirvana (Nibbāna) : The central goal of Buddhism is to attain Nirvana, which signifies the end of the
cycle of rebirth and suffering.

• Meaning of Nirvana : Nirvana means "blowing out" or "becoming extinguished." It is

described as a state of restraint and self-control that leads to the end of suffering associated
with rebirths.

• Early Buddhist View : Early texts describe Nirvana as liberation, enlightenment, happiness,
bliss, fearlessness, freedom, permanence, and non-dependent origination.

• Later Interpretations : In later texts, Nirvana is associated with "emptiness" and

"nothingness," suggesting a state beyond conventional conceptualization.

• Practical Focus : In traditional practice, lay Buddhists often focus on accumulating merit
through good deeds, donations, and rituals to attain better rebirths rather than Nirvana.
 Orthodox (āstika)
• Nyaya School :

• Sutra Name: "Nyaya Sutras" or "Nyaya Darshana" (attributed to Sage Gautama).

• Commentary: Systematic exposition of logic, epistemology, and debate principles.
• Vaisheshika School :

• Sutra Name: "Vaisheshika Sutras" (attributed to Sage Kanada).

• Commentary: Classification of the material world and exploration of atoms and their
properties.
• Samkhya School :

• Sutra Name: "Samkhya Sutras" (attributed to Sage Kapila).

• Commentary: Explanation of the dualism of purusha (spirit) and prakriti (matter) and
insights into reality and liberation.
• Yoga School :

• Sutra Name: "Yoga Sutras" (attributed to Sage Patanjali).

• Commentary: Outlines yoga practices and philosophy, focusing on meditation, ethics,
and spiritual realization.
• Mimamsa School (Purva Mimamsa) :

• Sutra Name: "Mimamsa Sutras" (attributed to Sage Jaimini).

• Commentary: Provides guidelines for interpreting Vedic rituals and sacrificial
ceremonies.
• Vedanta School :

• Sutra Names: "Brahma Sutras" or "Vedanta Sutras" (attributed to Sage Badarayana or

Vyasa), "Vedanta Paribhasha" (attributed to Dharmaraja Adhvarindra for Dvaita
Vedanta), "Sarva-darśana-saṅgraha" (attributed to Madhvacharya for Dvaita Vedanta).
• Commentary: Foundational texts for various Vedanta sub-schools, exploring ultimate
reality (Brahman), the self (Atman), and their relationship.
 Samkhya Philosophy :
• Enumeration of Tattvas : Samkhya philosophy focuses on systematically enumerating and
classifying fundamental principles known as "Tattvas.". These Tattvas are categorized into two
main groups: [Purusha] , [Prakriti]
• Purusha (Soul) : Purusha is the eternal, unchanging consciousness or self, distinct from the
material world and the source of individual consciousness.
• Prakriti (Nature) : Prakriti represents the material aspect of reality, including physical matter
and the three Gunas (qualities).
• Goal : The primary aim of Samkhya is to help individuals attain liberation (moksha) by
discerning the difference between Purusha's unchanging nature and Prakriti's ever-changing
nature.
• Rational Approach : Samkhya is known for its rational and analytical approach, emphasizing
discrimination (viveka) and knowledge (jnana) in achieving liberation.
• Influence on Yoga : Samkhya philosophy has significantly influenced the development of Yoga
philosophy, particularly in terms of purifying the mind and attaining self-realization.

Causality in Samkhya :
• Sat-kārya-vāda Theory : Samkhya philosophy is founded upon the theory of causation known
as Sat-kārya-vāda.
• Effect in the Cause : According to this theory, the effect already exists within the cause, and
there is only an apparent or illusory change in the cause when it transforms into the effect.
• Prakṛti as the Original Cause : Samkhya posits that effects cannot arise from nothing, and the
ultimate source of everything is Prakṛti, the primordial matter.

Prakṛti-Parināma Vāda in Samkhya :

• Parināma Concept : In Samkhya, Parināma signifies that the effect is a real transformation of
the cause.
• Prakṛti as Primary Cause : The primary cause considered is Prakṛti or Moola-Prakṛti, which is
the concept of primordial matter.
• Evolutionary Theory : Samkhya is known for its evolutionary theory of matter, starting with
Prakṛti. Prakṛti undergoes transformation and differentiation, leading to the evolution of a
variety of objects.
• Dissolution Phase : After evolution, there is a phase of dissolution where all worldly objects
merge back into Prakṛti, which then remains undifferentiated and primordial.
• Individual Evolution : Samkhya suggests that Prakṛti evolves separately for each individual
soul (Jiva), resulting in the creation of individual bodies and minds.
• Post-Liberation : After liberation, the elements of Prakṛti merge back into Moola-Prakṛti.
• Unconscious Mental Entities : Samkhya views even mental entities like the mind, ego, and
intelligence as forms of unconsciousness, distinct from pure consciousness.
Prakṛti as Source of the Perceived World in Samkhya :
• Source of the World : According to Samkhya, Prakṛti is the origin of the perceived world,
representing pure potentiality.
• Sequential Evolution : Prakṛti undergoes sequential evolution into twenty-four tattvas or
principles.
• Gunas' Tension : This evolution is made possible because Prakṛti is in a state of tension among
its constituent strands or gunas, which are sattva (purity), rajas (activity), and tamas (inertia).
• Equilibrium : When the three gunas are in equilibrium, Prakṛti is considered "unmanifest" and
unknowable.
• Pure Consciousness : Pure consciousness, referred to as nirguna, is devoid of modification and
stands in contrast to the modified state of Prakṛti.

Causality and Creation in Samkhya :

• Fundamental Relationship : The relationship between Purusha (consciousness) and Prakṛti
(primordial matter) is fundamental in Samkhya cosmology.
• Prakṛti as Material Cause : Prakṛti serves as the material cause of all physical creation in the
universe.
• Satkārya-vāda : Samkhya adheres to the theory of causation known as "Satkārya-vāda" or the
"theory of existent causes," which asserts that nothing can be created from or destroyed into
nothingness.
• Transformation of Primal Nature : All evolution is considered the transformation of primal
Nature (Prakṛti) from one form to another.
• Pre-existence of Effects : Samkhya philosophy emphasizes that effects preexist in their causes.
• Interplay of Gunas : The interplay of the gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas) within Prakṛti is
central to the understanding of causality and creation.
• Distinction Between Purusha and Prakṛti : Samkhya underscores the distinction between
pure consciousness (Purusha) and primordial matter (Prakṛti) in the context of causality and
creation.

Purusha (Witness-Consciousness):

• Purusha is the ultimate, unchanging, and independent consciousness in Samkhya philosophy.

• It serves as the "witness" or observer of the material world and mental activities.
• Purusha is absolute, imperceptible, unknowable through the mind or senses, and transcends
words and explanations.
• It remains in a state of "nonattributive consciousness" and is neither produced nor does it
produce.
• Any designation or qualification of Purusha comes from Prakriti and is considered a limitation.
• Samkhya posits the existence of multiple Purushas, unlike Advaita Vedanta.
Prakriti (Cognitive Processes):

• Prakriti is the first cause of the world of our experiences in Samkhya philosophy.
• It is the unconscious and unintelligent principle, also known as "jaḍa" or unintelligent.
• Prakriti consists of three essential characteristics or Gunas: Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas.
• Sattva represents poise, fineness, lightness, illumination, and joy.
• Rajas signifies dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain.
• Tamas reflects inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction, and sloth.
• In its unmanifested state, Prakriti is infinite, inactive, and unconscious, with the Gunas in
equilibrium.
• When Prakriti comes into contact with Purusha or consciousness, it gives rise to the
manifestation of the world of experience.
• Prakriti becomes manifest as twenty-three Tattvas, including intellect, ego, mind, sensory
capacities, and subtle and gross elements.
• Prakriti is the source of our experience and describes the relations between its elements, rather
than explaining the origin of the universe.
• The interplay of the Gunas in Prakriti defines the character of individuals, nature, and life's
progression.
• Consciousness (Purusha) illuminates the material configurations assumed by the mind, creating
conscious thought structures.
• Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, personalizes mental experiences but is distinct from
the illuminating consciousness.

Evolution of Universe According to Samkhya Philosophy

• Purusha and Prakriti :

• Purusha: Represents unchanging witness-consciousness.

• Prakriti: Dynamic and unconscious principle responsible for the material world and
mental processes.
• Purusha's Nature :

• Purusha remains untouched and independent.

• It is separate from the activities of Prakriti.
• Prakriti's Nature :

• Prakriti is the source of all experiences.

• Characterized by the interplay of the three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas).
• Ego (Ahamkara) :

• Personalizes experiences facilitated by Prakriti.

• Evolution of Universe :

• Result of the interaction between Purusha and Prakriti.

 • Cooperation between Purusha and Prakriti in the process of creation.
• No Real Contact, Only Nearness :

• Contrary and independent substances of Purusha and Prakriti don't have real contact.
• Nearness alone is sufficient to create disturbance and initiate evolution.
• Disturbance in the Gunas (Guna Ksobha) :

• Prakriti consists of three gunas: Sattva, Rajas, Tamas.

• Equilibrium among gunas disrupted by the nearness of Purusha.
• Rajas, being dynamic, is the first to change, triggering changes in other gunas.

Order of Creation: The process of evolution unfolds in a specific order:

• Mahat :

• The first distortion in evolution.

• Includes intellect, ego, and mind.
• Dominated by the Sattva element.
• Responsible for the entire creation.
• Ahamkara (Ego) :

• The second product of evolution.

• Gives rise to the sense of 'I' and 'mine.'
• Basis of worldly activities.
• Has three forms: Vaikarika (Sattva-dominant), Taijas (Rajas-dominant), Bhutadi
(Tamas-dominant).
• Manas (Mind) :

• Internal organ processing sensory perceptions.

• Plays a crucial role in both activity and knowledge.
• Jnanendriyas (Organs of Perception) :

• Five organs responsible for procuring and producing knowledge.

• Includes skin, nose, eyes, ears, and tongue.
• Karmendriyas (Organs of Action) :

• Five organs carrying out various bodily actions.

• Includes mouth, ears, feet, anus, and the sex organ.
• Tanmatras (Subtle Elements) :

• Subtle elements of objects.

• Include sound, touch, form, taste, and smell.
 • Mahabhutas (Physical Elements) :

• Five physical elements originate from the tanmatras in a specific order.

• Each element inherits qualities of those that came before it.
• Elements are ether, air, fire, water, and earth.

Epistemology
:
• Pratyakṣa (Perception) :

• Direct sense perception.

• Includes both external and internal perception.
• Correct perception defined by four requirements: direct sensory experience, non-verbal
nature, consistency, and definiteness.
• Consideration of "unusual perception" and rules for accepting uncertain knowledge.
• Anumāna (Inference) :

• Process of reaching conclusions based on observations and previous knowledge through

reasoning.
• Acknowledged as a valid means of knowledge.
• Inference consists of hypothesis, reason, and examples, with further division of
hypothesis into the idea to be proven and the object on which it is predicated.
• Conditionally true when positive examples are present and negative examples are
absent.
• Emphasis on vyapti, ensuring that the reason accounts for the inference in all cases.
• Śabda (Verbal Testimony) :

• Reliance on the word or testimony of reliable experts.

• Accepted as a valid means of knowledge.
• Emphasis on knowledge transmission through words.
• Reliability of the source of testimony is crucial, with a preference for knowledge from
the Śabda of the Vedas, though establishing this reliability can be a subject of debate.

Samkhya philosophy recognizes these three valid means of knowledge, Pratyakṣa (perception),
Anumāna (inference), and Śabda (verbal testimony), as essential for acquiring knowledge and
understanding the world. Each of these means has specific criteria and considerations within the
Samkhya epistemological framework.
Concept of Moksha in Samkhya:
• Moksha as the Ultimate Goal :

• Samkhya philosophy considers Moksha (liberation) as the ultimate goal and supreme
good.
• Moksha is seen as permanent freedom from suffering and pain.
• Root Cause of Suffering :

• Ignorance (avidya) is identified as the root cause of suffering and bondage (Samsara).
• Ignorance leads individuals to identify with products of Prakriti like intellect (buddhi)
and ego (ahamkara), resulting in endless transmigration and suffering.
• Path to Moksha :

• Attaining Moksha in Samkhya is through knowledge (viveka).

• It involves understanding the fundamental difference between Prakriti (material nature)
and Purusha (eternal pure consciousness).
• Role of Purusha and Prakriti :

• Purusha mistakenly identifies itself with Prakriti's elements, causing suffering and
bondage.
• Realizing the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti leads to isolation (kaivalya) and
freedom (moksha).
• Bondage Ascribed to Prakriti :

• Samkhya asserts that while conventional terms may attribute bondage to Purusha, it is
Prakriti that binds itself.
• Bondage should be ascribed to Prakriti, not Purusha.
• Metaphorical Example :

• A metaphorical example is given: Like a king ascribed victory or defeat, it is the

soldiers who experience it.
• Bondage is mistakenly ascribed to Purusha, and liberation is attributed to Prakriti alone.
• Methods for Attaining Moksha :

• Different forms of Samkhya suggest achieving Moksha through developing higher

faculties of discrimination.
• Practices like meditation and yogic techniques are often used to attain Moksha.
• Moksha is described as a state where the quality of sattva guna predominates, signifying
purity, clarity, and harmony.

In summary, Samkhya philosophy views Moksha as the ultimate goal achievable through knowledge
and the realization of the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti. Liberation is a state of permanent
freedom from suffering, and various methods, including practices to develop higher faculties of
discrimination and purity of consciousness, may be emphasized to attain it.

Yoga Philosophy
• Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism.
• It became distinct from Samkhya around the first millennium CE.
• The foundational text of Yoga philosophy is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which has
influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy.
• Yoga Sutras of Patanjali :
Patanjali divided his Yoga Sutras into four chapters or books (Pada), with a total of 196
aphorisms:

1. Samadhi Pada (51 sutras): Discusses Samadhi, a state of direct perception

where individual consciousness (Purusha) abides in itself. Emphasizes calming
the mind's fluctuations as key to reveal the true Self.

2. Sadhana Pada (55 sutras): Focuses on Sadhana (practice/discipline) to discern

the Seer from mental objects and hindrances. Introduces Kriya Yoga and
Ashtanga Yoga, the yoga of eight limbs.

3. Vibhuti Pada (56 sutras): Explores Samyama, the union of concentration,

meditation, and absorption. Practitioners may gain Siddhis (supra-normal
powers), but these can become obstacles to liberation.

4. Kaivalya Pada (34 sutras): Discusses Kaivalya (isolation/liberation) of the Seer

from the mind's contents. Emphasizes the idea that Kaivalya leads to a state
where the mind is no longer disturbed by its own activities. Used
interchangeably with "moksha" (liberation) in other texts.

• Key Concepts :

• Yoga philosophy aims for higher states of consciousness and liberation from suffering.
• Samadhi is the central concept, achieved through mental fluctuation restriction.
• Ashtanga Yoga involves eight limbs: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara,
Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi.
• Vibhuti Pada explores Samyama and warns of Siddhis as potential obstacles.
• Kaivalya represents isolation/liberation of the Seer from the mind's activities.

The Yoga Sutras provide a comprehensive guide to yoga philosophy and practice, emphasizing the
attainment of higher states of consciousness and liberation from the cycle of suffering.
 • Metaphysical Foundation:

• Rooted in Samkhya's dualism, Yoga philosophy conceptualizes the universe with two
fundamental realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and Prakṛti (nature).
• Jiva, a living being, is a state where Puruṣa is bound to Prakṛti in various forms with
different elements, senses, feelings, activity, and mind.
• Imbalance or ignorance in this state leads to bondage, while liberation (mokṣa)
represents the end of this bondage. Both Yoga and Samkhya emphasize liberation as the
ultimate goal, achievable through insight and self-restraint.
• Ethical Basis:

• Yoga philosophy's ethical framework is based on Yamas and Niyama, moral and ethical
principles.
• It incorporates elements of the Guṇa theory from Samkhya to understand the qualities
of nature and their impact on human behavior.
• Epistemology:

• Yoga philosophy relies on three of the six Pramanas (means of gaining reliable
knowledge): Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), and Sabda (Āptavacana,
word/testimony of reliable sources).
• Incorporation of Deity:

• Unlike the closely related Samkhya school, Yoga philosophy introduces the concept of
a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" known as Ishvara.
• Yoga philosophy acknowledges the dualistic nature of reality with Puruṣa and Prakṛti as
foundational concepts but introduces the idea of a personal deity.

In summary, Yoga philosophy is a significant school of Hindu thought that shares commonalities with
Samkhya but distinguishes itself by introducing the concept of a personal deity. It emphasizes the path
to liberation through self-realization, ethical principles, and reliable means of knowledge while
maintaining the dualistic nature of reality with Puruṣa and Prakṛti as its foundational concepts.
 • Definition of Yoga :

• "Yogaś-citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ" (Sutra 1.2).

• Translated as: "Yoga is the restraint or inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the fluctuations (vṛtti) of
the mind (citta)."
• Objective of Yoga :

• Yoga aims to quiet the mind.

• By restraining or inhibiting the fluctuations of the mind, the true Self or seer is revealed.
• Consequence of Unrestrained Mind :

• Without yoga practice, the seer becomes absorbed in the modifications of the mind.
• This absorption leads to a loss of connection with the essential nature of the Self.
• Central Aim of Yoga :

• The central goal of yoga is to attain self-realization.

• This is achieved through inner stillness and gaining control over the mental activity of
the mind.

This definition underscores the importance of achieving inner tranquility and mastery over the mind as
the fundamental purpose of yoga.

Ashtanga Yoga
• Yamas :

• Ethical rules and moral imperatives.

• Include non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possessiveness.
• Niyamas :

• Virtuous habits and observances.

• Include purity, contentment, perseverance, self-study, and surrender to a higher power.
• Asana :

• Physical postures and poses.

• Prepares the body for deeper yogic practices.
• Pranayama :

• Breath control and regulation.

• Involves conscious manipulation of the breath to calm the mind and enhance awareness.
• Pratyahara :

• Withdrawal of the senses from external stimuli.

• Redirecting attention inward, detaching from the external world.
 • Dharana :

• Concentration or one-pointed focus.

• The practice of fixing the mind on a specific object, idea, or concept.
• Dhyana :

• Meditation.
• The state of continuous contemplation where the mind remains focused on the chosen
object of meditation.
• Samadhi :

• The ultimate goal of yoga.

• Often referred to as a state of absorption or enlightenment.
• In Samadhi, the practitioner experiences unity with the object of meditation, leading to
self-realization and liberation (moksha).

Ashtanga Yoga's eight limbs provide a comprehensive path from external observances and physical
postures to inner contemplation and the highest state of consciousness. It is a holistic system designed
to help individuals attain spiritual growth and self-realization.