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CFLM 2

CHARACTER FORMATION WITH LEADERSHIP, DECISION MAKING,

MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chaper, you will be able to:

1. Know and discuss correctly the environmental influence in decision

-making.
2. Identify and elucidate appropriately the nine (9) characteristics of a good decision.
3. Recognize and demonstrate precisely the decision-making approaches and techniques.
4. Know and distinguish correctly the decision-making models in criminal justice.
5. Identify appropriately the different traits and values and their essentials in decision-making.
6. Know and discusss comprehensively the cultural influences in decision- making.
7. Identify and distinguish the different decision-making models.
8. Know and explain perfectly the effect of culture on decision- making.

DECISION – MAKING CONCEPTS

Decision- making can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is
considered to be ideal, or at least acceptable.
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Consequently, it is a mechanism that can be more or less logical or irrational and based on overt or
implicit knowledge and beliefs. In dynamic decision- making processes, implicit information is often used
to fill holes (Brockmann, 2016). Typically, all, implicit and explicit, of these forms of information are used
together in the decision-making process.
A significant part of decision-making involves evaluating a finite range of alternatives that are
defined in terms of evaluative criteria. So, the challenge would be to rate these alternatives in terms of how
appealing they are to the decision-maker while considering all the criteria at the same time. Another
objective may be to find the best alternative or to assess the relative overall value of each alternative when
all the parameters are simultaneously considered.
The Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) focuses on solving these problems. While
very old, this field of decision-making has drawn attention from many researchers and practitioners, and is
still widely debated as ther are many mcda approaches that can produce very different results when
applied to exactly the same data (Triantaphyllou, 2000).

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE IN DECISION MAKING

The environmental of decision makers will play a role in the decision- making process. A
factor affecting cognitive performance, for example, is environmental uncertainty (Davidson, 2006).
A complex environment is an environment with a great number of potentially different stated
that come and go over time (Godfry-Smith, 2001). Studies conducted at the University of Colorado have
shown that more complex environments associate with higher cognitive performance, suggesting the
setting can affect a decision. One experiment assessed complexity in a space by the number of small
objects and devices present; less of those items were in a simple environment. The higher measure of
environmental uncertainty has positively improved executive performance, making it harder to think
about the situation and make a rational decision.

(Monahan, 2000).

• Objectives have to be set first.

• Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance.
• We need to build alternate acts.
• The alternatives must be measured against all targets.
• Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all the objectives.
• The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences.
• The preliminary decision is reviewed for more potential implications.

• Decisive action is taken and further action to avoid any negative effects from being issues and to
continue all processes all over again.
• There are usually followed steps leading to a decision model that could be used to assess an
optimal production schedule
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THE NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD

DECISION

If you don’t know how to handle tension or if the results are less than optimal, decision-making
can be the single-greatest weight on your shoulders. So, how do you know what makes a strong decision?
Here are the nine attributes of a positive decision:

1. Decisions positively impact others.

2. Decisions are replicable.
3. Decisions foster opportunity. (Empowers others to act)
4. Decisions include others.
5. Decisions are executable.
6. Decisions is systematic.
7. Decisions are accountable.
8. Decisions are pragmatic.
9. Decisions involve self-awareness

Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories: 1. Group Decision-

Making techniques
2. Individual Decision-Making techniques

Individual decision-making techniques can also often be applied by a group.

GROUP DECISION – MAKING

Also known as “Collaborative Decision-Making”, is a situation faced when individuals

collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable
to any single individual who is a member of the group. This is because the result applies to certain
systems of indviduals and social classes such as social power. Community decisions often vary from
those taken by individuals.
Collaborative decision taking in workplace environments is one of the most effective models for
creating buy-in from other stakeholders, building trust and promoting innovation. In keeping with the
concept of cooperation, collective decisions often appear too be more successful than decisions made by a
single person. In this way, such collective agreements have the ability to deliver better net output results
than individuals working alone (Larson, 2010).
Collaborative or collective decision-making would often be preferred under normal daily
circumstances and will produce more benefits than individual decision-making when there is room for
proper deliberation, negotiation and dialogue. This can be achieved using committee, teams,
organizations, alliances or other social collaboration processes.
For certain cases, however, this approach may also have disadantages. Certain methods of
decision-making may be better in serious emergencies or crisis situations because emergency actions
can need to be taken quicker, with less time for deliberation.
On the other hand, additional considerations must also be taken into account when evaluating the
appropriateness of a decision-making framework. For instance, the likelihood of group fragmentation may
often also occur, causing certain groups to make more drastic decisions in the direction of individual
inclinations than those of their individual members (Moscovici, 1969).
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INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING

In general, a person takes prompt decisions. When in a group, keeping any one person
responsible for a wrong decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually saves time, resources, and
energy as individuals make timely and rational choices. Although taking group decision takes a lot of
time, money and energy.

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES

We make the majority of the decisions, as individuals. It is important to look at the approaches
that we follow in our individual decision-making in the effort to take more successful decisions.
As the outcomes of the decisions are not clear, it is necessary to concentrate on how a decision is
made to increase the consistency of the decision. By looking at the approaches to decision-making, we
aim to highlight

certain potential for change that can be accomplished regardless of a particular decision strategy.
There are variety of ways to describe decision-making methods but we will find three broad
groupings for our purposes. For certain cases, we all prefer to take actions at one time or another using all
of the methods. Think about which approaches will better describe how you make most of your choices,
or prefer making your choices.

1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

• Exemplified by systematic decision-making.
• Defines upfront success factors.
• Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each success factors.
• Decision-making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption of
the desired solutions except for major unforeseeable or unpredictable incidents.
• Consideration of the implications of the final decision.

2. INTUITIVE DECISION-MAKING APPROACH

• Relying on emotions and feelings.
• Careful planning is not possible or not desired.
• People will point to a “gut feeling” or “hunch” as the cause for a choice, reflecting that
explanation is not accessible through conscious thought.

3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH

• In this approach a decision is made on impulse without thought.
• Flipping a coin or using a “decision wheel” would be representative of
employing this approach.
• It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can
promote denial of responsibility.

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES A CONSEQUENCE OF PERSONALITY

Any of our emotional and thought processes can be defined by personality, so it’s natural to
assume that our preferred approach to decision making is a feature of our personality. There’s ample proof
that our personality develops over time and evolves. This may also imply changes in personality result
from our approach to decision taking that contribute to improvements in our thought processes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT

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Rational or Analytical Decision Makers

a. Have ready a decision-making process that you know works. This helps you to jump directly
through a decision-making phase without having to postpone deciding the steps you will be
taking.
b. Gain knowledge of pitfalls and prejudices in decision taking so they can be avoided when
making a decision.

Intuitive Decision Maker

a. Ask or accept broad questions well in advance of a decision. It helps the unconscious mind to
work behind the scenes to provide ideas and suggestions for a decision.
b. Kow where and where your intuition is working, and not. Intuition works best in places we have
a great deal of expertise in.
c. Increasing reflection. This makes insight more credible, as experiences are interpreted and
applied with thought to the subconscious that helps to categorize the experience more accurately.
d. Play games which involve decision-making. Games that simulate life choices provide a low-risk
environment where patterns can be formed to improve intuition.
Random or Chance Decision Maker

a. Improve awareness and appreciation. Recognizing positive results as they arise increase the
probability of successful outcomes.
b. Apply know-how. It will increase the basis for understanding good opportunities versus
bad ones.
c. Know the risks and uncertainties. Choosing where the chances are in your favor, is a smart
way to maximize positive results.

SIMILAR DECISION – MAKING

1. GOFER (Mann, L., 1980)

FIVE DECISION-MAKING Steps:

1. Goals clarification: survey values and objectives.

2. Options generation: consider a wide range of alternative actions.
3. Facts – finding: Search for information.
4. Consideration of effects: weigh the positive and negative consequences of the options.
5. Review and implementation: plan how to review the options and implement them.

2. DECIDE (Guo, K., 2008)

1. Define the problem

2. Establish or enumerate all the criteria (constraints)
3. Consider or collect all the alternatives
4. Identify the best alternative
5. Develop and implement a plan of action
6. Evaluate and monitor the solution and examine feedback when necessary.

3. Other

1. SEVEN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES (Brown, P., 2001)

a. Outline the goal and outcome.
b. Gather data.
c. Develop alternatives (i.e., brainstorming).
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d. List pros and cons of each alternative.

e. Make the decision.
f. Immediately take action to implement it.
g. Learn from and reflect on the decision.

2. EIGHT STAGES OF MORAL DECISION-MAKING (Pijannowski, J., 2009)

a. Create and nurture the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how
problems are understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a
moral dilemma.
b. Recognize that a problem exists.
c. Identify competing explanations for the problem, and evaluate the drivers behind those
interpretations.
d. Sift through various possible actions or responses and determine which is more
justifiable.
e. Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral course of
action and then prioritize and commit to moral values over other personal, institution or
social values.
f. Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision.
g. Reflection in action.
DECISION MAKING MODELS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE

For criminal justice, decision-making requires more than studying the rules and applying them to
individual cases. Decisions are based on discretion, that is, the exercise of human judgement in order to
make decision about alternative courses of action.
Professional in criminal justice have little time to make important decisions which may be the
difference between life and death. While there is no decision-making process that is fool proof, training,
conditioning, and practice among criminal justice leadership can help these professionals react more
rationally and strategically in the heat of the moment.

DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS

Events of over-exposure, which are characterized as unpredictable, erratic, volatile and under
conditions of high stress, impair the capacity of a criminal justice professional to make a reasonable,
rational decision. Criminal justice practitioners will experience a lag period in their decision-making skills
during these events. Many obstacles called psychological prisons may also have a negative impact on the
willingness of a police officer to take decisions.

The Consequences of Making the Wrong Decision

• Loss of life
• Department or jurisdiction administrative costs
• Negative media attention and public opinion.
• Demotion in position and/or loss of job.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Family problems and other psychological
concerns.

Due to the aforementioned consequences, it is important that criminal justice leadership provide
the training needed to make reliable, ethical decisions in all circumstances.
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Scenario-based conditioning and preparation are required to prepare criminal justice personnel to
take critical duty-focused decisions. Simulators for police training are constantly dependent on criminal
justice experts to refine the decision-making capabilities of officers as finely as possible. In a built use-
of-force scenario, some simulators also require trainees to experience near-misses or an impact. This
will bring a truly comprehensive experience.

In addition to simulator training, there are other tips that criminal justice practitioners may apply
to their decision-making processes, which can save a life like:
❖ To increase the number of options, look at a problem from multiple viewpoints and angles.
❖ Assess the situation with a view to recognizing threats and non- threats; seek to make
rational decisions about how to respond accordingly.
❖ Visualize the way situations play out before they act. Challenge assumptions about a
situation.
❖ Seek support and advice from colleagues in circumstances that require it.
❖ Make choices about the most important information, and seek to commit it to memory.
❖ Be mindful of and accept the feelings before making a conscious move to make
rational decisions.
❖ Practice verbal and non-verbal coomunication skills with colleagues to communicate
information about how to respond to a situation.

Criminal justice professional is responsible for their own mental, emotional and physical health
which all affect their decision-making capacity. Criminal justice leaders will also respect their
team’s ongoing mental, emotional and physical decision-making preparation. This rigorous
preparation makes a huge difference in the willingness of criminal justice practitioners to take
action in both operational and strategic situations.

DECISION MAKING STYLES IN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Many peole believe that decision-making is not a rational option but a product of personality.
With that, leaders must understand that personality cannot stand in the way of critical decision-making.
Good leaders will adapt their decision-making strategy to match the demands of various circumstances.
The most influential leaders learn how to tailor their decision- making style to suit specific
circumstances. Different contexts and situations call for individual management responses, and sometimes
multiple decision-making approaches. Leaders can learn how to make informed choices in a variety of
diverse situations by understanding the different ways of decision-making and being mindful of warning
signs.

FOUR STYLE OF DECISION-MAKING

1. DIRECTIVE DECISION-MAKING
Usually a Policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of a situation based on what they already
know. Decision-makers in the directive are very rational and have little tolerance for uncertainty. Instead
of ongoing to others for more detail, their decisions are rooted in their own intelligence, experience and
reasoning. The upside to this style is that decision-making is fast, ownership is transparent, and no extra
communication is needed. Often, however, directive decisions can be taken impusively, without all the
necessary details.
• When to use Directive Decision-making
In situations characterized by continuity, repeated patterns, and predictable events, this style of
decision-making is fine. For situations where there is a straightforward and unchallenged cause-and-
effect relationship, reserve guideling decisions; in other words, a correct response exists and is
collectively understood.
• A leader’s role in Directive Decision-Making
A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear decision and an
appropriate response. Ensure best practices are in place for ongoing procedures. Remember to ask
yourself when classifying the situations: is this my decision to make, and do I have all the details
necessary to make this decision? Where appropriate, delegate but remember to communicate in a simple,
direct language. It’s the role of a leader to realize when there’s no need for intensive interpersonal contact
and to make clear decisions based on the knowledge they already have.
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• Signs you need to use a different approach

Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of complacency. Leaders must be
mindful of the changing complexity of specific

situations. When you start making complicated jobs simply by using simple decisions, you need to
change your approach. Understand that changing circumstances demand changing styles of decision making.

2. ANALYTIC DECISION-MAKING

Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. Analytic leaders, for example,
rely on direct observation, data, and facts to back their decisions. Like decision-makers in the guideline,
however, an analytic decision maker may seek information and advice from others to affirm or refute their
own expertise. These decision-makers have a high degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely
adaptable but they prefer to monitor certain aspects of the decision process. This style is a well-rounded
decision- making strategy that can be time-consuming.
• When to use Analytic Decision-Making
In situations where there may be more than one right answer, analytical decisions are helpful. Use this
decision-making style to solve issues where the relationship between cause and effect is discoverable but
not immediately apparent. You use this approach mainly to evaluate multiple options or approaches, and to
use fact-based management to direct effective action.
• A leader’s role in Analytic Decision-Making
Unlike decision-making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders must evaluate all
the details thay have available. Assembling a team of experts to assist with analytical decisions is
advantageous; Leaders must therefore freely consider contradictory advice and ideas. At the same time, to
make the most of the analytic decision-making process, leaders need to consider non-expert perspectives.
• Signs you need to use a different approach
Decision paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical decision form. When
you find yourself living in a state of over-analysis or over-thinking without taking action or making a
decision, this strategy must be removed.

3. CONCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING
Compared with the guideline or empirical approaches, the relationship decision-making process takes
amore collaborative approach. Conceptual decision-makers promote innovative thinking and teamwork
and take a wide variety of viewpoints into consideration. These decision-makers are based on success
and want to look well into the future when it comes to making critical decisions.
• When to use Conceptual Decision-making

Apply logical decision taking to issues involving several conflicting ideas.

This decision style is ideally suited to circumtances that are marked by unpredictability and tailored to
creative and inventive approaches. You see no immediate solution in these situations but trends emerge
over time. The use of a conceptual decision-making style accounts for long-term planning and the
unknown variables.
• A leader’s role in Conceptual Decision-Making
To be successful in analytical decision taking, leaders need to create an atmosphere that fosters
experiments designed to uncover instructive trends over time. Leaders will need to make a point of
growing coordination and interaction. Build groups of people who can share new ideas and assist with
difficult decision taking and execution. Patience is the key and leaders need to take the time to reflect.
• Signs you need to use a different approach
If the decision you need to make includes a situation that needs structure and established outcomes, a
conceptual approach should not be employed. Often, decisions that need to determine immediate
consequences and situations in which there is no space for error are not subject to logical decision taking.

4. BEHAVIORAL DECISION-MAKING
Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone is working together well. Like the conceptual
method, behavioral decision-is group-oriented; however, the community is given the choices available to
them, rather than brainstorming alternative solutions. From there the community will discuss each choices
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pros and cons. This decision-making method takes into account several different viewpoints and views in
the process.

• When to use behavioral decision-making

The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual decision-making. This style
takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions that have worked in the past, rather than
attempting to disclose new patterns.

• A leader’s role in behavioral decision-making

Leaders in this style of decision-making need to open lines of communication. Again, build groups of
people who can contribute their opinions and promote democratic debate. Don’t only impose a course of
action when using the behavioral decision-making method. Consider what decision generates the most
unity within the company, instead.
• Signs you need to use a different approach
If group discussion sessions cannot reach a resolution, a new strategy will need to be considred.
Conversely, if new ideas never come up or no one questions views, then behavioral decision-making
might not be the best choice. Although this style of decision works for the good of the community as a
whole, a clear and definitive leader is required to get things done. Look for a ways and experiments where
possible to push people to think outside of what’s familiar.

TRAITS AND VALUES IN DECISION-MAKING

Decision-Making and Personality Traits

Personality characteristices have a much greater role to play in decision taking than you would
expect. Some people are indecisive, because of their very existence. They find most decisions quite
difficult to make. These people I also find very committed to the decision when they do. I am sure you
know this kind of people. Others make choices way too easily without taking into account all the
consecquences. Those are more impulsive people.
What you respond specifically to the environment will influence your decision-making process,
making your decision-making process special as well. There are many ways in which we can explain
how we respond to the environment, but one easy way is to suggest we respond from the brain, heart or
gut. Your personality will determine whether you approach decision in a rational or emotional manner.
It’s all tough decisions. There is no way this gets out. However, by getting an approach and
knowing how our attitude influences our decision we can make them a little easier.

HOW TO FACTOR YOUR PERSONALITY INTO YOUR DECISION-MAKING

As much logic as you bring in your choices, the way you make a choice will always affect your
personality. Individual personality is an unavoidable consideration combined with maturity and experience
but constructive self- awareness can help you weigh how much your intuition impacts your decision-
making process.
What is interesting about the choices is that they are all yours. No other being on earth will make
precisely the same choices that you do, using the same exact procedure. It’s because personality keeps
every decision you make updated. In conjunction with your degree of maturity, experience and ego
qualities (the way you cope with stress and retain stability), temperament plays a major role in the choices
you make and the process you make them.
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How Your Brain Makes Decisions

Decision-making is multiply-determine
forces at work simultaneously. Your personality characteristics and influences blend with your beliefs,
your desires and your inspiration as you navigate the decision-making process everyday. Your “style”
informs whether you rationally or emotionally, impulsively or cautiously, spontaneously or deliberately
approach decisions. If you have bold and adventurous components to your personality, you will find that
you make decisions easily, even impulsively, unlike your rational equivalent, who may need to consider
very angle before weighing in.
Any of us make decisions about following a certain internal norm, ethics or meaning. Others make
choices to minimize anxiety or increase self-esteem and /or the likelihood of closeness or distance from
others. For those strongly motivated by pleasure-seeking and immediate gratification, decision-making is
frequently deficient in logical thought, and is instead impulsive instead.
Personality tests provide a self-discovery process involving very useful applications. The more
you are conscious of yourself, the more consistently your opportunities, preferences, and perceptions
increase. Not only does self- awareness unblock us, but it also opens up possibilities that would
otherwise remain I unconscious or unknown. Let us look at the circumstances of productivity, for
instance. Many people appear to under-function themselves as their innovative thinking is motivated by
working on an engaging team.
Being aware of what we need as indivduals takes us out of marking ourselves as good or poor,
and helps us to consider what we need for our highest functioning level. It may be direction, structure,
space, flexibility, relation, humor – all depending on persoanallity understanding. Knowing what’s
important, how we learn best, what and how are most aligned with our personalities makes informed
choices that can improvers our quality of life.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN DECISION MAKING

Decision – making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and taking action in
a variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including though not limited to, budget preparation,
educational preparing, policy making, and career building. Such events include people all over the world.
The underlying cross-cultural disparities in decision-making can be a major contributing factor in cross-
cultural communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution performance.

DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Decision-making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and taking action in a
variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including, though not limited to, budget preparation,
educational preparing, policy making, and career building. Such events include people all over the world.
The underlying cross-cultural disparities in decision-making can be a major contributing factor in cross-
cultural communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution performance.
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DECISION-MAKING MODELS

Based on the perspective the researcher takes on the role that culture plays in decision-making,
one of the following models is used to think about and forecast behavioral trends in decision-making in
a given community:

1. The Universal Model – typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a
small difference in how people from different cultures make their choices. The fiindings
obtained from one party are usually related to humans.
2. The Disposition Model – the adherents of the dispositional view recognize that
decision-making differences are cross-cultural and support the cause of cross-cultural
study. They assume that the variations found in the studies reflect the omnipresence of
cultural inclinations in individuals ‘minds, and are expected to eppear in all situations and
situational contexts.
3. The Dynamic Model – adherents of this view often consider cross- cultural variations. They
view cultural knowledge not as a monolithic construct that is continuously present, but as a
collection of discrete knowledge that is operational as a function. We also promote the
development and testing of complex models reflecting the processes by which culture influences
decision-maker
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THE EFFECT OF CULTURE ON DECISION MAKING

Cross Cultural Variances

Western theories are known for the systematic use of logical analysis, a methodical approach to
solving complex problems by splitting them into their constituent parts and defining the patterns of cause
and effect of the constituent parts; While oriental philosophies are well known for their focus on holism-
the notion that the properties of a given system cannot be defined or clarified solely by the parts of its
components behave.
The individuals from high and low context cultures also differ in their communication style. The
former prefers the direct style, and thereby they are less explicit in stating their feelings, desires, and
intentions when communicationg verbally. The latter, on the contrary, are less likely to camouflage their
message and conceal their intentions.
The culturally normative communication style also enchances people’s responsiveness to the
transmitted message and influences the perception of the communicator. It influences hiring decisions.
HR agents are more likely to recruit direct, assertive, and even aggressive applicants in cultures of low
background, whereas the reverse trend is found in cultures of high background.

THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF

CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN DECISION MAKING

1. Priming
The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to elements of the
social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or purpose. We know from the common
schematic representations of a certain society, the stereotyped behaviors that later affect our decisions.
When a person is prepared with a definition, often through an impied order to think about it, it stimulates
all forms of relevant knowledge and affects decision taking.

2. Time Pressure
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Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures.

Cultural knowledge appears to represent a broad sampling of the events in life, whereas personal
knowledge is more based on individual or a typical experience. The other differences between their
accessibility are the cultural and personal awareness. Cultural community participants are prepared day
afer day with a collection of values, behavoirs, and storing cultural awareness. Cultural awareness is
therefore very available even under a heavy cognitive load of work. Personal awareness is a record of a
particular events and is not replicated in too many ways. That is why a concerned attempt is required to
access it, which takes more time and effort.
Independent individuals are expected to react better to information based on promotion, whereas
individuals with interdependent self-construction are assumed to respond better to information based on
prevention.

3. Peer Pressure
Individuals in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not encounter social
pressure according to their cultural values. According to what collectivist culture dictates, Japanese and
Chinese students are more likely to decided, compared to American and Italian students, whether they
will eat in fast or subject to the norms adopted in their societies, and less likely to make choices dependent
on their personal attitudes. This peculiarity, however, is much more salient when they make plans for eating
with their friends, and less salient when they decide to eat alone in a fast-food restaurant. The probability
that they will behave based on their attitudes increase dramatically according to the above situation.
The Pressure to Provide Reasons for The Decision
When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural awareness is recruited. The need
to include explanations evokes an information-processing approach focused on top-down application of
rules and standards, rather than bottom-up processing based on personal experience.
This can be clarified with the aid of the supposition that when asked to offer reasons, individuals feel the
need to adapt because thay do not want to be the outsiders. They feel more able to rely on their own
experience when they are not asked to justify their choices.
Chinese have been shown to have a slightly lower propensity to compromise, which was
previously considered to be one of their signature characteristics when they were not asked to give
reasons for their purchase decisions. On the contrary, Americans are more likely to compromise when it
is not their duty to provide reasons for their decision.

The Individual Tolerance for Cognitive Ambiguity

Widespread common cultural awareness offers a validated context for individuals to view
potentially ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with a sense of epistemic protection and
protecting against ambiguity and unpredictability. The degree to which persons of all cultures need firm
high answers varies. It is found that the people with high tolerance for ambuigity are less likely to act
with the consent of their society.
The universal effects of situational demends on decision mode selection across cultures.
Culture shapes the prevalence of cultural factors nature of decisions, motivations for decisions,
and situational demands and affordances and shares how functional factors are converted into decision-
making modes- modes of measurement, acknowledgement, law, position, and impact-based decision
making. Nevertheless, societies do have a variety of common tendencies.

For example, when action is called for, members of both independent and interdependent social orientation prefer to employ
position -, rule-or case- based decision-Making, as they are far more open and require less cognitive load, whereas
calculation-based mode would be less frequent in both
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1. It can be regarded as a problem-solving activity yielding a solution deemed

optimal, or at least satisfactory.
a. Decision-making
b. Conflict resolution
c.Manangement
d. administration

2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of decision-making?

a. Objectives are last to be established.

b. Objectives must be classified and places in order of importance.
c. Alternative actions must be developed.
d. The alternatives must be evaluated against all objectives.

3. Which of the following is a character of a good decision?

a. Decisions negatively affect others.

b. Decisions are irreplaceable.
c. Decisions foster opportunity.
d. Decisions include only top priority.

4. What is the other term for group decision-making?

a. Cooperative decision-making
b. Collaborative decision-making
c.Individual decision-making
d. Operational decision-making

5. It is an approach in decision making which relies on emotions and feelings. Careful

planning is not possible or not desired. People will point to “gut feeling” or “ hunch” as the
cause for a choice,reflecting than explanation is not accessible through concious thought.
a. Chance approach
b. Intuitive Decision-making approach
c. Rational approach
d. Random approach

6. It is an approach in decision-making where decisions are planned, and choices are made
under the premise desired solutions can be achieved except for large unforeseeable or
unknowable events.
a. Chance approach
b. Intuitive Decision-Making Approach
c. Rational approach
d. Random approach
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7. It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can

promote denial of responsibility.
a. Analytical Approach
b. Intuitive Decision-Making Approach
c. Rational Approach
d. Random Approach

8. Which of the following is not a consequence of making the wrong decision?

a. Loss of life for a law enforcement specialist or an innocent party
b. Monetary costs to a department or a jurisdiction c.Public scrutiny
and negative public perception
d. Being promoted

9. It examines much information before taking action.

a. directive decision-making
b. analytic decision-making
c. conceptual decision-making
d. behavioral decision-making

10. This style of decision -making considers many different outlooks and opinions in the
process.
a. directive decision-making
b. analytic decision-making
c. conceptual decision-making
d. behavioral decision-making

11. Alex acts and decides impulsively, without all the necessary information. What
type of decision making is he portraying?
a. directive decision-making
b. analytic decision-making
c. conceptual decion-
making

d. Behavioral
decision-making

12. what situation can a conceptual decision making be of use?

a. situations characterized by unpredictability and suited to creative and innovative
approaches.
b. situations which needs to be decided promptly.
c. situations which there is a need to discussed solutions that worked
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in the past.
d.situations that there is no need for extra communication among it’s members.

e. Dynamic model
f. Episodic model

13. It views cultural knowledge not as a monolithic, continuously present construct,

but as a set of discrete knowledge that becomes operative as a function of the
situation.
a. Universal model
b. Dispositional model
c. Dynamic model
d. Episodic model

14. We learn the stereotyped attitudes, which later influence our decisions from the
shared schematic represenations in a certain culture. What condition accelerating or
hindering the salience of cross-cultural differences in our decision-making?
a. Time pressure
b. Peer pressure
c. Priming
d. Individual tolerance
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