MONULY ~ 04 Feu ndarmen| abe _of Logic Tar} woduefion t bogie =» Method oP Reasoning Logie Ws expressect In Byenbolie fanquags Y catted Matheanefireat’ Logic..' (%) PROPOSITIONS: A proposrtionis oi Shefemenf Catecfaretion) Iihreh mn a given context, can be Sard bo be el-thew Qaue @ -fatge , but not poh. 1s testy ee Bangalore, 13 vi Karrnafaka ny : coat He ie Ce ee divis Ibe by 3. ade os a A = yh, : Sov Ania we cannot decravety Aay wihelher rene me @o nol, ainless wre Know Ihe what 3 % andy (vinetnes te 1a ege (oo Real me) igen bes: met a propositien. -~ p-ropasitiona ane “gps uatty | “gepresented by Samat} Qefyows Bruth agi py yr ee — Ohe Lwefh ( She farsity of a pronportin 2 cetttect 12% ~Ponefh «bcebhe, voulue. ° - te 1s otemofed by phe ~ Tf a pwoposition “Jrrue tauth value 4+ IS o pero posi pn tA folme ib 14 demoled by y jhe -lmeth value ‘0’. (4) Logi cal conmnecfives dhe jlords ake ‘mot’, i “if then’, | if and omy f , Such loads are called of Logical commnecfives, (#) Compound _propogition : One new prroposit ion ven pro posit1ons USING called oF compound \ obtained bY combining the tro 9) jhe logical prropoz!tion: comnecfives are Gr) Stmnple prropozition :- vinich do d Syenple : Proposition ef comfang an'f proposition. Logical conmecfives are calle @) Negahon (~) A proposition iB an an OPprap position. ‘pw denoted by oP obtained bY ingesting she riage piace az called She howd «mot? me gation of the given pro Dhe onegasion of O proposition eg: HPs iB wp: 3 Torfh table: Pale aa sion! o | 2 a prime mumber — 1 2 net a pwme mumber — O@) Pp: B rx divisible by 3 —O | amp: & w mot divisible by 3-4 Touth fable P_|oP ° a a7) 0 Ge) Comjunctson (A) A Compound proposition vs obtained by tngerting the Word tand’ peyween two given proposthons 12 called conjunction of the given proposition. dhe comj unefion of P and qs ts chenoted by PAY, Dhe conjunction of pand a rm true only lAthen beth p and qe are $e, tn at! ofher cases it I fSalge. adieu) P| gy | PAQ, m® ho ° ee ° af ° oO 1 a ae AeGY) Disjuncfim (v) A compound proposition 72 ebtained by ingerting the tatord 0’ befween 40 given Proposition is catled disjunefion of She given proposition Dhe disjunefion of Pandas ¥ dencfed by PVV. dagen eae (4) ahre ceva junchion of pone (-K) Dhe diajunction pyy ez falge only when onby peth Pv Ie false ofherianse itis fous = Fo o|w (#) Exctusive disjunction ( ¥) exclusive disjunction of tro propositions dhe 7 iB denoted by pyvq ( Read st as etthes pand 4 pm) Dhe exclusive a pwtue OY iz fre igjuncfion ts “jarite omly When cither but not befh Frush Jable:&) conditional (-+) cornpound proposition i oblained by tnzerfing A place r% Called the werd ‘tf then’ in an appropriate 4ne conditional. dhe conditional of pand a % denetect by P—bay [reead az if phen q). Dhe conditional p--ay iz falze only When P te 4rue and a % falze. : oo Truth table: To fo. 4 a | #) Bi-conditional t- () A comnpound proposition 72 obtained by rnseating he Word ‘Ff and only if’ vn an approperiate place 4 called a2 piconditsonal of the given proposition. 4 iB TL iz denoted by P~XYV- : jhe picenditional p (ear) [(~p) ¥ (way) o-jo|t ' O° | \ ° Oeeeeaell oO oO | ! | ajojoys ! o \ ) 2416.16 ° J oO Oo @) hef pray and x be the propositions having Jah OO sanded. nespecfively. Find Jhe -}mtth P tne following Compound POP Va)ues si tions. values OF @) (Pvy) ver NET RAG) ata dw pP+(v> (ow) Sol?) - Gj) (pyUv~ = (ovo)vl On| as (i (ong). a = (ore oe SO eae (i) pP+[vs(ey) = o-+[o-+ (0) = o>] Sat(4) construct the 4vesh table for tne following compound propas tions (i) Cprayt (em (i) vn(~rsp) ~ a ay [a | pay [or [prad-re9ler lavatory) olo]olo 1 ) Imo 5 1 2 > rye 2 fy | 0 o |! ° 0 e 1 } 0 ° le } ! o oO ! | \ 1 }o {o |] 0 ' | | ° Je leo ky ° ° | \ oO | | rho fut \ \ | \ | ! | | o | oO] ] Jy Tarefor ogy : A com : i pound Proposition uthich: 1 4oye for at Possible +mtth values of it8 comnponents ys catled a Lawefology. OH Comefrracticfion : | A compound proposition which 1g false for all possible fmtty values of its componenss ps called a comp wadiction. &) Contingency : ea, Compound. po posi ton Jnaf can he we ow false ( depending upon tne tmth Values of 1% componends) iB called a confingency. pound Proposition SNefe :- contingency vz a com ¥ mora conrad jcton inich JZ meither & Faceforog PROBLEMS: (1) prove Shot for any proposition p,» pv~P oe tautology and PANP a conmdradicfion. Hence PVP 18 a Lawlology and’ pA~p a comf-rad chon,propositions: pand vy (pva)) t% a Faefology PAY) % conf-rad chien (@) Show tnaf , for any +he Ccommpd. proposition Dar and the compa. proposition pa(~ pyay | Po (pyv) | oP | m~pagy | PAlHPry, oO a A o ° 4 4 4 a ° a ® ° ° ° ae 4. Os;5 ° fe) fl Hence, Pr (PY) 13 true for" possible meth value hence tb 18 f£awfology PACH PAG) 18 falze “Por atl possible, Leth, values hence o£ 18 ComfracitHon. (3) prove that fowany propositions p,as,% then the compound proposition, p> (y-ra} >f[lPray-prt 13 a Laufology. Bele = é ' -| lar | Prerral Pay | px [Payer May} Mira aor e PRooOo:a PpPrBon, PPP pap EDP im Po Pe PO Fo is > yPsco Pp ep Ppp J ocP colts 5 [peo fF ofen -a, PTOVE that for any proposition’ p,q, the Compound proposition. [ (evan at tema tr-+13) i tautology, |p y | v | pry} Poy lar] Fes 7 oo Ter a Olojoloa |; | 1 ; ofolsfo Pry ; ° ofalola ]y fo a is QyAKa pdt) 1 ) \ a]ojo}! o}) ° % ; ajloja]t | ) ) BY ' , oO} ao | olo e 6 : a{ofals flee ' Hence) fepvanntipraalaray] 77 # a tautology, <7) eo facttology yea confrradicsion ei that (i) (PY WV (P | Ry (pya) A( P<” freiaich | Gi. (PYWA(P>% 4 a comfingency > [p fay |pyv|pod| pHa] @ | a) [aw Ooo ' ah ° a oO | ' ° 1 | ¢ ele ! ° fo} ! o O° Bat i if oiebogical Equaiva lence {€) Two propesilions wand Vom gated fo be Prop Logically eqrtivatemt iaihe meyer th and Vv hewe the S game mth value Inte Wane, Use We, Hewe “She Brymbol foe Sandy ” Pow "ogicatty eqaivalent to J Neter i. Ithen the prrmpositiong wand a7 mot Pogicatly eyo. 2. laihenever doen Wey 1s cdfoays Lcurlology equi vetfemt pWwe polkt a uand yoare logreatly equ atent preoblewns + ve that Por cainy three propositions PrUsie ) pro [Cpvaa aye [pr May], soln ; =o oe P fla | + | pva|(pvaya] poy | (Pa) a (oy > yi ojo}jol;o 1 \ | ! ojo} | o ! ' ! 1 : Ox Tt 16 | ° I fe] 6 ovr yet 1 1 J | rfo}jo}l ° ° a4 o VAO: || ) } ! ) Ls) eer bo pi ° ° ° ° wae eet ft t ) | Lh ww Logreatly equivalent 4(®) Examme frihefhea compound proposition [ (pv) [pry pyy7| oF (py) | wry e(pvay) olololo! 1 4 ofolifo] 4 al a Oly aa oO 1 ° oO i o}| 0 | rjofo/1}] ° Feo é rjofrfa] cat Iie oe! . ) cS c eta \ 0 a ; Hence | Th 6 Pogrcatty equivalent 9 one bens of bogie = ). poove Sha Pow any three propositions poyia (pr launrVDey ((praaleod) she corapound propositions pr yar) are Logically eayuivalent. | (muvv &. Show that and pv(qXK Inthe following Naws , To denofes a facjology Px) The bans of Logic and Fo clenoles a comtracticsion. 1. kaw of Double negation. (~~ p)=Y P Q. Idempojent law Gj) cpvperp W (PADS? P 3. Tdentity Paw (i) (pvr) p WIPATISYP WE traverse’ aw | G) (pyePer To (i) (PACPYEY Fo %. Domi nafion Laws. (i) (PV To) P tip [paCeva]} <7 P(Got a) De-Morgars haw (it) wCpvaey PP ARV (WD ~(pay)<&y ~ pv rv (9) Associatve Law Gi) pv las va) <> (PYVV™ (ii) palas nx) E> (PAW) A™ Wo Pisfributive Law (i) pyar CpvayaCpve? (iv) paleay va) (PAV) v (PAW) Yi) Law Sow the conmeti tional pow é&y ve VV a( PV, ipod ey 6) sli) procf a - ae pa pve (pve) ee Oe ha oO oO oO ! I ! ! 0 t |! 0 ! oO oO MeO | oO Oo | 1 ! I ° ° 0 oe Pienre provedPROBLEMS: (D prove fhe following hogical eqttivia tence Iti hou using fmuth Fable. (i) pv [pat pva}<>P St — p . bY am idempotent i : Law. (i) [ pvarv (~PrAwy rn) (pvvvy) soln [ puayy (w pang na)) cy [pvvv(x(pyy)ar)] by De-morgosis lao gE (pyy vy), ( J) (iii) (Cep Vey) + (payan]eyr pray Soln:- comsidey, [ (epyea) (Prva [pvFJyy <=y PNY YY (ii) (paajal[rvn il veg) ]e> a(vvp) ars fF poawalev aA(7wv ny) (ay-y ) po(evv7) & wpv(e ny v2) alprw vo Vary ( Assocrative fet) commiyfafive Lew. (3) prove tha f(pvaprrvf{rpa(nR oe ~Q) BA £aufology Vi (0 pared soln Lef wi demote the given poposHion, ee [cpvayrr{e pana Veg Vv (xpr~a)v (~Pvs a wy vd Now a €y ((pyayrnfe Pra ve®) very by. clemoxgan’s wiK=yu vw “=P V (QA RI} vel PY (QARIF ey To y Shus tne given comporing proposition 1B Laufology. &) Stmprfy the following compound proposition . using She kqws of kogtc. @ (pyvqg)n [ nw {(~p aws) <> (pva) al vopy ~y) by demorgan's Cars xy (pvay)at pv wa) Py (by adem} ity Laws) (b) ~[ wf (pvaary vew] &y ofa fipeyns wm: [cpvayae] Awngy Aemorgans lary w[enp Vv v(vva] => oP velyva)) demorgoms Law ee << wp rlyve) aw nok veal mo and fis a aeefiowal 1p oer 1raflomaf no .Suppose Sul ws a Compound proposition ane jks cuality 2 obtained by replacing (i) each a and V by MW andr ~vespesively (ii) each To & Fo by Fo &% respectively @), Duality Dra 12 wg demofed by ud, exis wt pa(as Ve) V (SATo) ud: pv (uv rwna(sv Fe) Cr) Converse _, Inverse Comsides a comfitionaf pry tren catled Jhe COmMVEmRE of poy we cathed Jhe tmverse of PY zs called he confrapositive of py, (4) Warp @ ~paweyv (3) wy 7>eP @) RULE OF INFERENCE ¢ consider a Bef of propositons Py s Pa» Pan Pn Ohen a Compound prroposikicn | and a proposition Q- pA Pr PN > => A Pry) Ft @ yw called Py» — ~~ Pay AE called the of the Porn ( a An umenf . Joeve P, premises of the argument and Q comcluston of the awgument. ze cathe &De er eee dhe fos of fabulas foowm y Je Py Po Ps ’ ' Pay a “ Q = She prre cect ing argument 1 gaid +o be valid f each of the premises Pre Por 77 Px ts fmte , then tne conc|usion Qs Qikenwe Gamue. Qn efher lords eine avquinent (Py A Pa A PA —-APa) FS whenever vw Valid when (BARA RAAT? Pa) YW For finding Fhe valrdity of Ay tumenf USE The auleg are catted Fhe Rules of hogrc and these Rules of Taference. (4) Rule of _compunceive pvopor ifiong pant Y Bimplicasion. WP PAY Fow any 4Jwo tnen Pp tF tame ve true i.e prav = tpRate of Disjundive Amphifical ion for any +0 proposifions P and cy “phen of pts ue pvyyv 1s tauc be p= PVG 5) Rule of Sytogram: for any Jhvee proposi and yYv7 B &nve gions » P1V ade if pow % ime phen pre rs Same re f(prayayay =y Pw In ta bulas form PY Woe Raaace A) iene mene hig aule safes thet vw ime -then Y rg Joue re fpAtPaMaV Tay Fapulay fowm p Pav pala OW ip pis krue and pv5) Modus Tollens : ohig aule States that if py w fue Ua qy false then p v8 false {(poya wah = ~P In fabulax fown, poy wy mp 6) Rule of pwsjuneive Syttogiam : Ohig wule Skates Jhaf if pyy % fre and p tw false then % fue [-e [(pv ay) AP] = y tn tabular form , pyvy ~P . vyPROBLEMS + Jest Whethey Ihe following are Va hd argument. A) If Sach hts a Cenfursy cthen he ges a-f-ree car. Sachin hits a Cenfisy +s Sachin gefz a-fvee car. So|n:- hef pi Sachim hrig a cerusy qt Sachem ges afwee car. Dhe gwen aregumen} vs of the form poy p 8 oY [(pPra)rrJonv %)- wa) =>. ~p [ by Modus Tomes) i el awalrd argument ail] Mef become A (5) ZL will become famouz (oI Musrclan T Wl) become a musrcian * LL Will become Pamoas, solm:- khef pi TL Wilt become famous ve T Will) become aq musician Ohe given argument 13 Pyey vu ay P[(pvew ag] =) p aos (VP)Ay WIKT by W=r Vv => Pp Hence 12 1x a valid argument. (6) Tf T study, doen J cto Mok —Peit in She exeminalier If I do notfat 1m the exarminafion, mY fafher Gifs a 100-mtheeltr tom PL Study then my father grhts a qo ~Wheeler fo me. Solhs- kef pi J study qt t ao nefPail in tne examiayion es my fafner gts a Jroo-tuiheelqy yore as peers —y pr (by Rule of [tray ' 2 i oi Te w a walrd argument(3) af Ravi gore orf Wh forends he Laiill mot 26 udy TH Ravi does not study , hs Safher becomes angry Hig fedner 38 Mol angoy a Ravi has nok gone ouf ith Priends, Soln:- ket p: Ravi go out with Porends qi Ravi does mot Sfudy at Hg feher becomes angry Ohe gig) argument Ww pry yar wT os wp { (pag) a(y-+Da wr] = ~P aa (UaAMAe®, Now, [ (parayrlur) J (Rule of syloguem) >(p> yoo) (by Rule of Modus qollen > oP %) sf 1 study, 1 will mot fail ra the exarminayion TP i dv mo Watch TV 7 She evenings 1 will Skudy J faited en the examination J must have lAlafched TV 9 the evenings,Solm- hef pr T Study Yt 1 fail in-the excemimefion wi: IT Watch Tv in the evenings. She given aregumerd YB P4ey uty P Vv oO Ty [ (prea alorrpagy) = > [ (orp) A (prew)ag] Rule of syttogis™ 7 [or rey) - vy) Modus -folleng =y w(or) (0 pry)ary ~P) et He a vabd arequrnent (9) Twin qc grade A oon this couwe or Twill nok Ganga rf do mof- grracucde LL wil) yon She amy Ce i}] mot orn she amy, So|m- heb pr LT ge Geeer en hie COUmze ay. TL do mot graduatev1 IT join jhe avmy Shen he given argument 3 pyvy Qey ee ny [(pvaa (v7) Pp] =y [ hmpva)r (v-r9r9) Low for concittona f & [ (opayrtay-9 re) eae ce Palle, oy. Sy logon: vy Tk 1% mot a valid dhere mo NUE (is) TP 1 have fale; & and look hawt ,+hen T wn) become Buccessfil) im Lrfe then 1 will be happy Wook hart TF IT become Breccessput mn ore TP Will mot- be happy, then T aid mot ( IT do not have talent. SOMs- Ref pt TL have talent Vi LT will wok havet a! Twill become successfull m frfe3B. L will be happy Ohe given argumen$ 1B (pay ® +B oB-¥ (HV VOPR) [ (( pay-+a)an (+3) ays a (ev veP) now, (prag—yr) A(r-79) > (paws = XS 7 el parry) (de-morgans) Ss mpvey ty WS ey veP Rute of Syllogigm Te +3 asalid cragument (i 1) of Ravi Stuctieg then he wil] pass in Discrefe Metths paper TP Ravi does nef play cvckef , Then he fail] stacy Ravi failed in Discrd< Madhs papery Ravi play ec catckef- solM- ps Ravi studies Vi Ravi will pass m Discerrefe Moathy papty vy: Ravi play cor eKkef. oan arguments oe nvTy7pP eu ae18 [ (psa) (wr ypPya “v) yar Now , f (pou) A” (wr-rp) Ary) <= [er —y p)A( py) A wy) commufeefive fae) =~ [ (r+) any) (syllegrsm) > w(7) (by Modus teflens) oF Ze 12 qa Walid cargument.@ P pee ny yet ea SP ED At ia cic Jem (eden ae) => PA( p4er) ( syNlogysm) > way by Medug pones () po43® Opts (pyw 7 Se ee (prada doy (wpa) toy) dy (wpanu)v Vv Vag Te 1g valid ©) POY Neat wy Vv “exCpan) Sols (pay) (x78) (wavs) jaw for cond!” > (pry)atrray (VF ~#) by commutasive (P78) A( 474) by confrapesitive => (poas)ahsse) > (pre) (by syllogism) > wpyer > wl(pady’ Ie ww avald argument -©) por eae CV, V+ ase Bolns- (pra) a (upg) a(4 8) cinema oY 0g/ am yx (pas (wpa) by contraposi five = (wr ep) \(~ ps) =) OTB by Syllogiam Tf 32 valid. a to ot FE Soln;- ((opveq) (778) )0 (HH ACE by MT =} [Wpveq) (ara) no% Ss [ (wpvay—r(ora))A wervesy (ry asqunchio) <> [ (wpvea)—+ (ara) a u(ang) demongan 7 by NIT =y wal paw) zy pay => Pp : (by comsuncfroy,» @) poy) aqy> vp P oe golm- (pr(y-rg) A(my—rep) Ap PY commutative seen ete = S(yaynjapal(er an 7 {pot yan) p rfev er) by Modus pores, PF (VADNA(CVTAP) py confrapositive > (VDAC PFU) py comanufafive low =y (poay)atv>%) Ss by Syl > pw4T 7 ate Cr prs doue then 7% atso- Prue) () w~p<+y qa ov (wer, Perey ce P same [apecray alr) 9 poy Sy (ep lay ¥ ep) 0 (YH) 0” =] (epryala apr vy 7 => wlmp) A(Y7eP) 7 pa aay = (yaep)rp_= a rh 13 ae by MT commefatve law by M.Twy p(y) PYng vy Bae So\n- i (Pa lyy)a (pyres) AY commufach ve lars = (p-ylary) A (os ve) AY —— comarfronaf haw => (pal(v-7) A(BOP)AY create Coamamuders Ve Jaw | ee a Byllog'ar) law for cond? = (84 (v9) AV ks ee 0 (~pvv) J ep Mey > PM wy demorga ns by comjunchve SimplrFicafion > P WV Te 1s Walid. we By pea apvr ar “OV soln. (PYV) A (HP va) a (et) — —— comdiponal Law Sy (WDA (PID NOT ay gar a) (repr y) A ~P =y (poV)Awp by Mp =a vy valid argument.(4) pay r+ © vas aofvu ny a B® ( poava(a5) A(t Ves) A(oeVu) Aru Ayllog!am Commudadive condi toner ( and cond tonal = Pa A334 HACE Ou)Awu Ay llogiam F (pra) Asa urwu ee > (pru)rcu by Mr Ss ~ PY TH iz Wali, We) pray ayy (ras) wr (vt vu) pak aoe Gees rl pnt) nie a/ ey ana) JAF V(r vu sol" Coe agen = (pots) a A [ery btvu)) (pat) alii2) ea) Commufahiy ¢ = [pocansy]alpan n Lotoney va) Coma onal > [ Planar (raral( moa> uy yy (Plana) JA Paka [ tank) 4) by m.p 7 Caayat a [eant)— x) Commufehye = bans Cant 7 Gak) a A (cont) —+a) commufative =y Gabjaltry—su] as ap WETS by ¢ ony unduve Aramplic ug) (iP (2) ep pray (evn) +H BVT oH (ANB) yyy Ares + Rvs 3 eee:OPEN STATEMENTS: s QUANIIFIERS STATEMENTS (9) _Open Skafements Dhe cecfavafive Zerfences Pike AtA= 3 , X=VNA > HO , A Aivigible by I , IM Jneze enfencex (a V noe adcfined, Such shajemenfZ are celle as open free variables. Stofement anc ‘n' ra callecl She can be converted info popes —y Ohig open Btofemen} —tions by giving jhe Vvalucs fo x) form universal eat (UD) > Open statements are denofed bY pla, and #0 0”. ql), ara) congider 443956 and dhe 2 ef of real mumber R. a proposition ext tf ng Pemgences pecomes Now, 2 any elemercf of R. nH WB replaced by Jae prropesieion For example > 3 replaced by 3 > a false fF % 1 becomes and fF A Y prroposifion , Here oepraced by 55 wie Say Ro wa (or universe 1 UNIVETEC of ol scourse) a} Bef cons sls ofatl open St afemen|S A, TOAD. 70 1 Suppose JIhe uni vets injegers , comasaer “ine, FOUeenTd prayr ALB 5 altar: aI rod jhe Qrush valusz of Jhe Pollowing , Example @ dopn Wiike(@@) pra sea Alea ve: PI: XX 3 Kad, si plat ALF. 1k 1 me. 1 (i) ogy (4) f- Weve Gla): AFL 19 oct a yara4tra odd wyla) 3 Suse 40 (i) PED A YY) py. : -1 <3 > true S ya: 442 =Q 8 motodd > false — oO. pepavi [ 20], 8 false. Gv) w pla) Vv ro) - pt aca % fue 7 a vps) % false —O xt): 070 false ~ ° mpg n ro) = oOAD= oO fen false. Ww) pier [veo) v w7(2)] ak \ ato: o¢2=4 4 odd , tm ae worl): Q@7o ay wrlayr aco ~falge - O ¥ pla): ax3 tmepts) [az to) Vv a ra)) an{ave) = 444 a) =y plarafayto) Vevr(2)) — Tree ty Quang fies comsider the Akrfements @) AN ine gers ave divisidl (i) Some rmfeqer. are dAiwisible by 3 (0 Evew ineg er ye rea| (vy) Shere exists an infeg er pohich 1B poime j proposifons _ the load 3 are aggociafect omdg are le by & On these tau’, Severy”, " some oy 0 thew, ox rgh3" prih the vdea of a aqyuartity « Such WW catled Quah fiers - has been aged +o demofe the “Pon each + ohe Symbol Vv phrases ‘for au” and these ave called , Por evesy", ‘forany", uarfifiesS. A proposition involving universal 6D existen -tial vaivergalqyuan}ifier 18 catled a qyeantifrer Statement =y Ohugs a qyttanpfred Stagement 18 a proposition of 4 ¥ ey » tne form “WxeS , POU” 6D“ neg, ply) there plot) 1 an open SRatewenf and S 1% the univerge Por % IN pla). "Ohe wWarsvtable present mm a qyeeanfified Statement ts Called a potnd Variable? Example:- Fowdjhe universe of al welegess » hef pcr) : 2% >0 Olay: HB even a(t) 2% 1B, peafect Soyuare BA). A divisible by 3. Atay 2B divisible by, F- Pollowing qy ean f ret shatemenZ (419.1. Ulet} e down the Symbolic form, (i) At Jeast ome mteger 8 even. lt fF HES» Q/0VY (i) Thene exists & posiéive inde g eo Jhaf 12 even som. of, HES (pew aa) (ig Some even-mbegens ce erthes eo carfoaode, sol A‘(it) Some even ingegeys ave divisible by 3, son. FG xe, [ycwnsca] fy) Every integers 18 erther even (oD old ry res y [vroy v ver] (U) TH 4 1% even and a perfect sqyucire then 1% mot divisible by 3, - yaes. [Ava vals vata) WW sf x wodd eM 1B MOE divisible by F>then a 13 divigible by 3. LOB f (PYM Veneta] OIF, (§) Toush_value of a Quantifies Statement joe , then ipshould be Rule as WY xes , pla # oo. be ot , SUpPowe rf « for atl values of e play 2 Pose pn Palge pineve dren KES, p(w Ppalee for atjease one value , we S The efemenf 'a’ 12 counter exampe, Fow prmving Fanes , ply Joe Jt 1B Rule a:- aes. emough yo Zhow that pray 1% 4}me where04) Toe value Of a Quantified Stofemer R : : ” Rule a: The stafement Wo xeES , Pla) ww tre only hihen pla) is toe for eath XES. only when pin 8 . w it Palse Rule @ The Statemenf F xES PC) 13 Palge Por every XE Si. Accordingly , & proposition of tne Poort "Yy ee, pray", ws false , it 18 emough to exhibit ome efement ‘a of S such-tnaf pla) 13 Palge catled Counter example ‘Onys elemenf ‘OB. tne fowm “ F xES pla)” 8 ity ca pevposition OF slt Dane, ib 3s enough to exhibie one element ‘et of S play 1s ene. (©) Tuo Rules of Lnferente : cefeanenf pla) 18° Known to be &) rf aml open St Ss and PH aes, 4me Por apt ob in ak universe then pla) 4jme (Rule of univ eagaf Speci reacfion) ® of an open star} eam ent Prom Bef os, pla) % proved +o be rue for any % chogen nen She qseecmchfied opatement WY KES - POU qoue (Rule of univees | Genevaliz ation)Disa blene (4) comsider the Open sJafemenf P(WIA>0 5 Via): AIF even F BAD: Ww a perfect square Ba): HIB divisible by 9 5 taps AIF divisible by + Express ectch of he Poll ovoing Symbolic Staf ements in words. (3) Yon), orca pron) (1) J a, [seracap] (i Va, Ler) (iv) YW a, [rev Eta) Soln:~ (2) For atl integer 1, if x9 a perfecf squore then X%>0 (ii) For Some infeger 1, ais clivisible by 3 and X18 odd. (ii) For aly infeger x, AB mot a perferf Square (iy For att integer 4, 118 a perfeef Square x i divisible by 4 —y Folze (ty- %= 8) (@) consider the Pollowing open Statements orth Ihe Bef of ttf wet] TO 4% Ihe an iverwe. pin: Jala a , la! x73 4 Find jhe jah values of Ihe statement Vir, [pew ven] So)™- Given plaj? la} > 3 for A=-A UN p(-4) 1 |-41 73 473 And (Yay i X%3 , fow aad , yey) t4 73 —false—o ga -}ue—aFor X=-4, pla)! 4 and ofa) 20 PpUrayly = 170 x. 0 = false C We've get tng result by taking K=-y Counter example) (3) Consider tne Pollowing open Stafements rorth the Bef of att real mumberg asthe Universe pla ADo fA(wiar eo 5 VO): A 3x4 =0 LA)E A= 3 >O Defermine the Fmefh valuss of tne followng Ghat ements © Fra pwagey W Vx, peor+vy GH) Yan, von asey (ivy) ¥ x, FOV BOW) &) Fa, plarn ra) Ww ivx ala) > Pla). (iy tm and a/(1) ave Fue So)n:- are OXIGSE A -rea} mumber 4V Por which both pla) 5 Pow instante Wa J prUaqimpa I Al = 4a. tute (i) For ath * ,oytw ww Emme hence pl —+ Ua) 38 fme (ii) For every weaf no % , BCA) Salze for x=) iy tome and ol) Pow AS) ohug, aca BA) 18 alge1-@ Ohe Statement glaA)-7Sla) BW Dok always -Jrue ’ Ym, Atay alay 1 Palee (iv) +layi 22-34 -4=0 Ga) (ary -e a) 1s tre omy for X=4 and x=—-) but for at} weal mp % tx) 2 motte 16 1b false and 3a) 1 falge for x=) Hence rea eaca) 18 Palee (not always ome) (V) FA, plrwn ra) for 1E4 , both pla) and x4) 13 tue hence, plraprarta) = JA} = | te, Wi) WA, wleay—r Play oty) 13 tue for 1=-1 axlay— pla) 1% aot afways tome put pla) false for 4=-} Onuy, Yt, aay pry 1s Palas, (4). ef plc at -aadio=o 7 ve X* QX-3=0, estan a0 Defermine She ash @ falsity of-the PSollowing shafemenfg Where the wunlverse U confang omly the wnfeqers Q ands. If a Shejemer} w false, provide QA Courfer example (oo ex planation, (4) WX Pla)—y watay (ii) Wo, WO TOY)GW) Fx, artay tay 0M) oa, pty re Sons. pep V = 2.53 plads 2° BattD = 6 yea) | W2-QA- 3 =0 pla : (x-5) (A-a) = 0 quay Casa) 0 a a Mow 223, W=-) CO) Wx play > 2 FOV ply 6 Fmt for atl EU and wr(V 6 Jone for ay xXEU Wid. POvie7 wll rte, WM WA Yer —7eew gta 3 false for aul seu and ra) false for al HEU ~~ Ya qt > wou 1 Smee, dip pa, VV ata) aca) cinch xn) falge af A= 2 Fayteayavey fue, Gv) Fa pla) —> ata) play we tee for H=R pute aca) ws false for A= | a PM, pra ar? fa lae(+8) hogiea Fayttivatence : Two qyuanfifiedt Skafementz ave Said fo be logicatty eqyuivalenf jrlhenever -Jney have -Jhe Zame Jucsh Valuey wy ctl possible Bikucef tong, (i) woe. [pea Aqueu)0 —false (take x=0) fp 3 perfect svuarea) Negate and Simptrfy each of Ihe following @) Fa, f pro Vv yt) SoM: { Fx, [ ptov vaca} ky Are p ya, [o (pra vain) acu) J aay Way {| ( pear vaycmy) > ato) J “ey wufe [we playvayta)) v rewy vx, [(p vam) a wryly () wate down the following proposition in Aymbolie Foam and find 4 negation “ py indeqgerz are crafsonal Numbers and Zome ~vrafional cpumbew o1e TO} infegete”. 2- play: 2B O -rafiona] murnber alfa). A wan ing egeaZ, zi Sef of all integew . O- sef of at] wafional no Symbolic form , [wxez, prajals HOG, $009) ey of [wae z pimjral sn ease} zy af xez, ply) v of 3 xea revi) ey [A neznpayy {7 100, 4°H)), Some infeqerg are no} vrafional np (7) atl rrofional numpen are infers, (a) paAhe ZA z of au infeeqers pe jhe universe, conden She Aosemenls PI OVAN ED caind qytayr a= 4 totam She sae gee}.son of. She qyucinfrfrect SG) efeonen} Bare z,[pennayn) and express if- im words,Solm Ohe negehion of Ihe given Sha ement 1g of Jez, (pew ratv]} ey WHEZ, ro[ pear rcutay) Ky WPwee, rv play Vv gstr), Tr woods, For atl integers, Qutb £ 5 OY UE (5) wate down the following propos fom in Bymbohe fowm and find 128 megasion, TP ath Fviangles ave aight angled, Jnen NO fvrangie 18 eqyetiangulay””, Solns- hef S be the sep of att &mangle pray: WB wight evngled ck)! HB eqpywiangular. yn Symbolic fowm, [waxes , pea)? [wre som] Now, 43 meg afion, " Fonee ney a0) 16 3 Jen ALA OD ADA. Solns- “Z' bestheset of atl infegers and "R' be the Sef of atl weal MD ) play: mig divisible by & m 18 odd J ela) ! symbeatie form, WREZ, Ts negation, ow[¥ nex, copia a0) ay mex, a (eps ever) ay Fnex, w[owpy vv) dy FmeZ, WPM A LIYC) ! Pow Some mncpegews n, aI “got drvistble by & and m i mot odd”. ww pla) 7 cyl)(it) pews (Keay wooded = vtay: (Km) 1B even aytay: Fm-a) 12 ode Symbolic form, “XJ Kymin eZ, (peapaaytay—7 eta) 2 Ohe Megasion of the Slafement 1 5 nf Wkimin OZ, (pean qty) > wea) cy FRM ez, w[ (pacing xt) Hy FKiMMES, wl o( prsaninY rex) xy FRim ex, (piaraaken) A wy C4) In words, U(k-m) and (o-m) ave u For Some inef gers, Kim odd and (Km) % mot even”. (li) Here,yeR 1 * pow: ja-al< Ft § vy YT aER, pea qyln) caps p< 10. (18 Oy ot Symbolic fom, One megasion B of HER, pera key AER, ov ( pow um) kay FueR, cul eopen v 0%) dey F HER, PCA moyen) Tm words, Fow Some veal 10, af (4,10). Ju-3)< + anck(iM) peas xP 16 QE H LA TOAD AOA Syambohe form, YxeR, play—y (yea vary) Tks Megasion 1B of V xer, [ pear (ayea vee) ) F <=y wr XER, ~ play (ovtayv ren) <=> Fewer, wf ep v (arta) vrew)] <=y Fruer, playa wv (qytov v0) EY FREER, POYVA KYU A wala) In Words, for Some reef mo , ary 16 and % y —A and Ax A. (x) hogical Tmpticofion Involving _ Quanfifiew fied Stafemenf P aid +o logicatly f) qyuari fipred Stacfemen} QrPraQe ronply QA Yue forte whenever P 8 Qoue hen we wae P= e rn acegurnent PLD Pat PaAc-- MPa 7 Q yvaud arg umnent: sf Q 13 Foe Whenever ectch of Pir Por ~~~ Py 18 Joe @) PIAPg A P3A-—- Pm = QSachin anor} hey s denote the igef of att men a 13 motes pew f a: Sachin Dhe given aregument , Wues, play Gie.5 pla) pla) % Foue and aes . means play 1% emwe ong 13 Valid by ani Vvews a] apecifrcapion Ihefher jhe following wa avalid evaguenent- (@) Find Ww yw the Bef of at| Students Pow which dhe wnivewse No Engimeesing student 13 pad Jn shudres Aor mot pad I Studies on Ant 12 an emgim ec ong ghucdenf. Solm- S: Sef of att sudends, Diese Ae emgine erring Student ata) 5% 1% pad In ofucies Qt Ani. : =< [poe — wala) 7 way) B peciryeaion) xy pta) (~~ te mot MT (9 MP), Because mo me applicable Tk 13 an wvalid ofafemnent. P55 Pond phefner ne following Variable 1A valid No engineering otudends: of rt or TI gem Gtudrex Logie Anil Bw an engineering Becond Bemetor . ghudent who Studies togte Yo Aol & mot Im colm- Gs Sef of at engineering SHud ents, play: % I at gem cya) 2 As 1 yd sero aol. 4 studies Logic a: Anil{ [pew vata) ¢ = { { pea vaqsca))— way Aaa) | ( : ne by MT i (Poovey ~P => wl prayvaytar) Aemorgans law = pla) A rqta) Eee ey oe =~ VOY AS play Commujahye > ogy Ca) (by comjuncfion Sinmplif reafton) Te rw valrd, eA p-T he following argument 1% mof valid Al) sayuares have four 8 1deg Dhe Quadarifaf evaf | ApcD hw four xideg e ABCD B& Square golm- §! sef of ctf qyttad vita evar plw: nm 13 a Bquare aytay 2 ob nas A Bids. a: ABCDWYxues, play ayy) gy Ca) pla) [pew => qo) A ayta) = Ca) —» v6 : => [p ay) a ata) ; [ me tthea M.p nor 1.3) 4y pra) B- Te 13 valrd. (5) Over the universe of al} qyuadritafere| ™m ; plane geomefry. verafy the vatiarty of the argument “since every Scyuare ye a wecfangle and evens aefangle ig paratle feg-ram ib follows frat every Square vO parattetogram” eoln:- St set of atl peccasd quad riteferal play: % waSquare lat. . A wo recfangle atop HB pavatlefogram. Yruests plaice ola) cya) — aH) -— pa? al Now, {pea yew) A ye) x0)=> [ peyraytar] A area rca] - pla —+ ra) [ | Syllogism) - Te B asalrd “prove fhe following argument 1 vaticd ya, [pera tauey Arc] FX, { pear A aca) 2 WH, [cay ner) son [ pray fvrmarcnny] A {pew Asay] = [peartacanrtas) aL reese) ‘ 7 = fay nveay} ABCA) = (a) A BCa) (by comjuncfive Srmplica}19) > y(n) AF OW) F ses rwalid, @ prove the following argument yw wala \e a, [ prov gen) Vu, [t ~ PCW AQUMI7 ca) _—__—_—__ WTA, [woo —> pow) soln:- [ pta) vaycn) a[ Leper yew 719]= [pty vow) A foes Agent 19] haw for condn => { pcay vasea)) 9) 0 feo(epey Agta) Vv ca) demorgans > [peas vayca)) A AL pray vega) v-rea) distatbufive > [pea Vv (aytay awaycay)) Vv ta) yy plavrR vey > pra v Ca) y Ca) V play =y na rtyv pCa) ZF world) —>y pca) =) orn pl Te yw valid. e Salid (8) prove thea the following argum rf 13 © Wty, [ pea vey) A; co pl” Wx, [vata v7) Wr, Lata wren) A, w3ta) Sojn- [pea vaca] A 2 playa CroeyenyVaeay) A Lacar—y v7) zy [pear vevear)a aoptay alereyeay vacay) [stay or) by disyuctive sylivgrsr= alan [vata “ = Ven Loren vice] [204° yy aagupe zy rays [ sca) + ws¥Ca)] ce a = wy A [ 3a) V wey) by disjucfive Syllegisr =y wAla) =y war) re 1g valid, (9) Find Whefher jhe following argument ys valrd, rE ; Tf a Lrrangle has A eqyuct| ices Phen ih os rsoce les af a forangle 5} rzocefes, Shen it has @ equal angles The 4erangle Abc does mof have & eye angka Apc does mop have Q eget Sites. Ins~ Ss Sef of atl Frrangles, | Play: % has Q eqrual Ardes rzocefes, 8 | q/6a) * xX B ata: * has & equal angles. a: Ale page (counter example) N NI Nf nes , pla) eycy cyt) > wl) waa) Geenesunnieeee wv pla)Epew yey) a Carer ey) Ao la) if pla) —r ala) Alvcy—y ra] A wrta) 7 f piw—y ata) Aw ra) Sy logise Modus pone y ~ pla cue eee Defeamine of Fhe cegument sz valid 6» moe cermed abot ne enviconment, ok concerned oes of recycle Al people Com aecycle Aner plastic comfainers, BIBT about the envivonmenf, OSherefore .B ol hig plaghie confainess. olns- 3+ Sef op alt people. a) cs comcerned abou} tne omvicronmert qe a reaycle Sherr comfainers. ann * CB Yaes, ply avy mpla) a *. vay (4) [ptr yen) APY = Cptag rar] SPD) [beth mp and MT Ly evogta #7 % ave invalid + Aregument 1 invalid, —GH) Open srare amends orth more than one Variable . comsider the following Statements A-Ay 0 Band A-Gre= ©, these ave the open Statements phich comfaing move than one Prec -Ohese pecomeg pwopositions fe eptarced, by an efemenf In Q unive Open statements comparing -Hoo \ denoted by plarty) artary) ~- 4007 Open Statements comfaining by pla qr) , ay x04 1z) S 7° ay lary)? (ata) <¥Y Lathese mumbevs . D efermine Warrables. each wariables J aga Sef. JATIADIES AVE 3 varrables w denoted —- 0 om. ex) ket play) sate a and y Ore 4ne aef op ay veel ne fmgh values of fne following Shafer ends, eo (1) pla) (i) pls.) Gi) pl-3.g) AVnD (iy) p(t -t) Vas (-a,-3) uv 4 ¥ 2 t x 2 B | pp(13): (4y<3 3x3 —falge —O

False -0 y(-a,-3) : (atw)< 3 => 0ox<-3 yfalze —0 Pla’s) Vv wy(-a.-3) 270d yp a -tne. eaenf Comfeung amove than ome When an open Stat pued +o each Pree noacvtable , qyuanfrfrecefion may be ap of She avawiable . P propeaties Ge) Wa wy player Va" Wx pluey Wary Pap (i) Jady pape Sey Fa player Sry pry (i) War Fy plray< fy Fy, iP Pray Gy) Wy, Fe play) Ay Fa Wy Pry), ae _~_simasty for_8 varnbie)platy) Ary 1 even 4 ite down the Pollowing SafementsZ 10 Words o}n- (iPr Al) wmtege™s A) there exish an integer Y pc 2 eve (ij) here ex iste an integers ay Beach that AY B even Pow every ingeger Y- (i) Fow at, indeger® andy, FY is even, wy) Find +he Negodion for the Pottorongt shetemeeds (i) You tye [{ ptawa yay} atuy)) SO\M:- af WH ty :, [t play Aycan J = ry} 7 sno y-L (pron creny)) Fro 2) gn Wy, flor sven) 7D) | = sas Wy sof (pony raven) Yerd) = Juty, [poumavny) A arlyuy [acy Fz (1 = Fz, (xe z Fai (rcxey) Su, Fy) (rey) Ae F2(Ke ZK =7y) | e ofa vy [inrelyl + (yes)F t4. Sy wo [ir styl > (y =t9) » = tu ty wf ofrapetyy) Vv (y=t9) aS Jn5y (rciyyayFevz Jn I nf Wavy (Creo) tyre (Fz ,(42 oy} | re {o(vawy, [m haz of ragic and tnee Known facts conshfufes 1 poof of the ondtfrona| . dhe prracess of establishing haf a prroposiéron x false comsitufes a drzproof. G) Direc} proof dhe avec} prroof of & Condrtonaf Py nas the z ‘ol|oweing Zhe. (1) Hypothesrs : Frost assume Shat Pe owe (@) Andlysis 2 Stating toh ne cules © have of beg ynferthaf Vv % goue he hy pothesis and Fe and ofhew employ IN) 4 Ynown fats» (3) comclusin : p-yaqr 14 tate.problems ) Give o Aivrecf proof of +he s4afementf : Whe Square of an odd infeger 12 an odd infeger’ Mm rs of the form, “rh nm w an odd infeger then w® 19 an ode infeger” Dw, pr Mm 18 an odd mfeger yi mt 18 an odd’ integer. Hypothesis: Assume fhaf- ante cin odd nfeger raf ger" ' i re Ma AK+) Pow Somer F Analysis : comsequently m>= @k Oe a WHARF 1 + 4K, whieh 1s | mot adivisble by @, F m> 19 an odd infeger. —comeasion: pq Poue, Vf @) pet por att infegers kK and 2. if K & 0 are both odel, then Kg 1% even and kf 9 add. | com pt K&L ave both ode Qr: KEL even and KL 19 ode Hypo: Assume Jnat K §& 2 are odd re Kz Q@mtl ,§ = anti ». mimesrnaly 5 comseqyuertly , REQ = (Qa + (antl) K4L paAmMmPFAn tA, which 13 divisible bya pie Meet ee een) Ko = (ams) (ant) = ymaramrant | , which mot divisil by Q kQ w odd ye: poy pmte, 3K) Indirect proof VYIKT py = Qk)” => m= AK , divisible by & ~ M18 even Hence cop 8 pmce pacluston: qs rap 6 tote Hence py 18 pene. (2) "Ohe prroducf of ro even infegeys 18 an even ingeqess- I TP am and m ave even infegers then TD 1s AN even infeger. pe an Gy ore even infeg ews yi mn 18 an even infeger. ST! coq ep is Rute. Hypo: Assume that cogs 15 bate Le mn 13 OH odd infegey, Arnaty: ann mof divisible by & > ms mo} divisible by & m Bw mef divisible by & | “OM Ww ode & mB odd ay mEn ave odd ingegess=> wp 8 Joue me YFP IB Ame, RienGeT aCe gate. ) For attf antegens K and 2, Hf K+E 1s even then “K & Q ave pofh even W& befh oat ‘ BR pr K+L 12 even Y. K& 0 ave befh even © beth odd. a8 was ep. 1g Poe poih: Assumetnaf way 1% pene re KR & Q ave beth mot even (D befh nef odd (Ahef--m cans ome 13 even g ofner one 18 odd) ne KL A™M , Q= Qn+ | ee oe mot divisible by 2 ‘ Ysis +- on Kak oda -y wp etme concly : wy 7 OP 1g Jove Henee pgs is nie provide an indirect proof of the following Shofement-. © for all posrHve areal Mumbo aay YF the product ay exceeds QF Jhen A>S TF Yrs”?. ps %Yy 7 as ST wg ep % Fue F 4 ys Ars OF YOK pa: Assume eoay 12 Jae re AK and YX F nalysis: YS Src on AY Sas =) wp is true conclusion: mqs—- op 13 true Hence prq, 1s fae, proof by compradidfion : ypelnes!s + Assume tna pray ig false re pw foue and ay 1g false. jake gy BSalge , USE ANY ales oF Laws alyars ¢ 0 ST pw false. ( Known fags t Hence Our agsumplion ¥ porrong. ondusion; Hence pray # tet. problems : ) provide a povof by confaadicfion of the following Shaf-ement.odd?. p: n> i odd Vv: n 18 odd pry '% +me by confrarcdiefion Le ypetnesis : Assume that py % falye re prs tre and gy w falye 2 fake ay 8 falge MIS even Mr AK comseqpucrfty mea 4KZ divisible byQ xy 9? 1 even Hence p 18 false Hence OU® agsgsumphon 18 WANG pry sw fue, ‘ 2 Tf am sa an even infeger tren "1B aH even mbege p: o* % an even infeger— Qe Oe One ey ch infeger . pry 1% me by conf racicfion Hypothesis: Assume Jhaf pay 1s false re pp 18 -}oue and qy 1s falseAnalysis: bake Y 18 false, meang 1 1 anodd rafeger Le T= AK+I comsecyuenfly mes @k+))> ms AKA + 4K, NOf divisible by a m2 13 an odd inflegew a> pe falge Hence our agsgumplion 19 rng rc Poy -fuce. T for at{ weal Number'g % and y , Sf a+y % 100 then AYSO OF YRSO pr WFYy 7% Joo ars XK B&SO or Y%S0 po: Assume Jnaf pv ¥ falze ye p etme and ay false, Rake q w false, reas A prs false, our aggumplion is rorrong onclusion: p—ray 12 false. Gwe a @) civeef proof (i) inctirecf proof ii) proof by confrradicftay por +he following ofeefemen ith mn ie an ade infeger fren MEQ 18 an even integer a prin 1% an odd infeger Qt N+ 1 an even infeger 0) dicecf proof : ST pwrg 1s bmueYpothesis: Assume that p 1% true i.e N is odd Nn-OAaKt4 alysis : N+TV= QAK+149 M49 = 8K+I10 | divisible by @ ~ AFA 18 even indeger -7 7 ww +me pas 18 tue. ndivrecf proof + ST! mqs+p w Ente 0: Assume fnaf ny 1% 4ou6 1e@ M49 15 an odd infegey alyss: om 4+q = Akt J a. mM 18 even infeger re pop me - eqs op rs Pmte Hence p—raqy 19 Fre ce ypolhesia : Assume p-+ay 19 false re pss foe and q, Palge alysis: Take gy 1% false M+9 19 an odd infegers M2 Ok +I-F = AK-B Lig divisible by,~ M+V= AK+I maakt! —-F9 N= AK-G, FS divisible by & mM 18 an even infieg ers re pls false Hence our aggzumpion 1 w7Ng. omelur- pqs 2 que. a) Dis proof_by combracdies ion. F Hy pethesis ! fAyssume re het py +e p i fre and a t& Bue Dnatygis s Take P i tre by using THs8 y Lane, OY any other Known fats fost YY false Hemce Our agzgumplion 13 pry 2 Pal ge. prong. Om clUSION + Dia proof tne Statement : ) “1P m ts an even infeges Jhen m+ 18 an even ingeger ”, ‘ol - pi ™ 1B an even Infegey Qt m+ 13 an even wecfeger. Hy pothezia: Assume that py ts bre ne pw fave and vy 1s €ntenalysrs! Jake pis fave .l.e mm 1% an even infeger m= ak comsy, M++= AK+H IB mol divisible by & an+yt 1 an odd infegers Gy is falge Hence Otrr ceseimpeion wn melts : prog i false. DisprooP by counter example : Digpwove Ine proposifton. Ohe product of any Roo odd mfegers 12 % pevfeef Sayuare - Ins =fake Ma 3 and “=5- an =(a)(s) = 1S 1s nota perfeef Saruare fhence the propos! b-ton 1g aig proved.