MODULE-1

OVERVIEW OF CIVIL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING: It is a branch having a wide

variety of structural systems like buildings and various elements like columns, beams, slabs
etc., that must have adequate strength to safely resist the many loadings that act on it during its
lifetime. A structural engineer is involved in such design activity, where components of
building should be safely and economically designed. The scope of structural engineering is
very vast, that;

• The structural engineer plays a vital role in planning, designing and building the
structure.
• Structural analysis and structural design are the components of structural engineering.
• The structural engineer should be prepared to accept the natural calamities like
earthquake, wind etc., and provide remedial measures and structures that resist such
loads throughout its life time.
• The advent of electronic digital computer has completely revolutionized the planning,
analysis, design and drawing in structural engineering using software like AutoCAD,
StaadPro, Etabs etc.,
• This also includes repair and rehabilitation of buildings that are prone to fire accidents
and other disasters. And also strengthening of building components of various
structures that are of historical importance.

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING: This branch of civil engineering is also called soil

mechanics. It is a discipline of civil engineering in which the study of soil, its behaviour on the
application of load and its use as an engineering material in the construction of earth dams, is
done. The properties and strength characteristics of different types of soil are studied in this
subject. The knowledge of this subject is useful in the design of earth dams, different pile
foundations, buildings, foundations, etc. Foundation Engineering is a branch of civil
engineering in which the design, construction of different types of footings, foundations of
walls, pile foundations of buildings and other engineering structures are studied. This study is
of vital importance for foundations of buildings since there is a vertical rise of buildings due to
limited space. The study of foundation engineering is complementary in nature while studying
geotechnical engineering.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY: The scope of ‘construction’ is more comprehensive

here than that is in building technology. Based on sound principles of soil mechanics,
foundations to non-conventional structures are covered under construction technology. It is
comprised of different techniques of construction for different materials under different site
conditions. The study of construction machinery comes under its purview. The management or
organization of men (labour), materials, methods in relation to site, money and time is the
backbone of construction management. It involves almost every branch of engineering,
commerce and economics, for its ultimate aim is to ‘achieve the desired construction in the
most economic way’. A clear knowledge of the following points is necessary for reliable
construction and its management. The ten Ms of construction management are:
(a) Money, Materials, Machines, Manpower, Methodologies,
(b) Maintenance, Modernization, Monitoring, Motivations,
(c) Managements of all types.

FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS: It is a branch of science in which the study of

fluids, i.e. liquids and gases, at rest and in motion is done. Usually, the liquid is water and the
subject is titled hydraulics. When the water is as rest, the forces exerted by the water on
immersed areas are found out by the laws of mechanics. Thus, the knowledge of these forces
is useful in the design of the gates used to control the flood water in case of dams. When water
is drawn off from a reservoir and conveyed through closed conduits or open channels, the
knowledge of the behaviour of liquids in motion is useful here. Thus in the design of water
supply distribution systems, the study of fluid mechanics helps to solve the problems
encountered in the design. Certain machines which work on the water are used for the
generation of electricity and are termed hydraulic machines. Knowledge of fluids mechanics is
useful in designing these machines so that they give the best possible output.

WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING: Water is such a commodity

that it is vital for the existence of mankind. Human beings, animals and plants require water
for their survival. Surface water is easy and economical to harness, however, its availability
cannot be relied upon continuously since it varies with the season. Water Resources
Engineering can be defined as the science which deals with the subject of tapping water either
from the surface or subsurface sources. A water resource is such a vast subject that it includes
in itself hydrology, irrigation, hydraulics and water supply. Tremendous volume of water is
stored in the earth’s crust. According to one estimate the total volume stored under the surface
of earth may be about 80 million km cube, half of which may be at depths less than 600 m. The
use of surface water for irrigation is likely to create problems like waterlogging in certain areas.
Groundwater is obtainable all the year round and its use along with the surface water keeps the
subsoil water level within reasonable limits. The judicious use of water for purposes of
irrigation has gained such importance in the recent times that water management has become
a science in itself. Engineers have learnt to tame the water resources by construction of dams,
construction of bore wells and construction of hydroelectric plants for the benefit of mankind.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING: This subject deals with the transport of men and
materials through different communication routes such as land, water and air. The railways and
roads are the important modes of communication by land. The water transport is feasible only
where the rivers, canals are navigable or where the sea coast is available. Transportation by air
routes is also increasing day by day. The transportation of men and goods for short distances
can be speedily done by road transport, whereas railway transport is considered safe and
convenient for long distances. The knowledge of surveying and levelling is very useful before
deciding the alignments of roads or railway. The preparation of contour plan of a hilly region
obtained from a levelling operation is useful in deciding the alignment of hill roads. The
knowledge of surveying and levelling enables the engineer to decide the alignment of tunnels,
which become necessary when the road or railway transportation is to be done through the hilly
regions.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING: This is an important branch of civil engineering

which covers both water supply and sanitary engineering. The importance of clean environment
was felt with the rapid growth in population, and the growth in urbanization and industries.
Environment is polluted through the mediums of air, water or such other agents. The science
of civil engineering deals with the subject of tapping water from different sources, testing its
quality, purification processes and distribution of water to the consumers. Similarly, the
environmental engineering encompasses the subject of treatment of wastes which originate
from different sources and deals with the removal of harmful substances in these wastes by
different processes. The impact of wastes originating from industries is felt by living organisms
if such wastes contain toxic substances. The Central Government as well as state governments
have enacted laws for the protection of environment needed for the safe living of human beings.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS): is a special purpose information

system designed to acquire, store, retrieve, manipulate, analyse and output in desired forms
geo-referenced data for the purpose of planning and management of land, water and other
natural resources, transportation, environment, urban facilities, socio-economic development
projects and other administrative records. GIS is considered to have four key components –
hardware, software, data and users. It is a data management system that provides many facilities
for surveyors and planners. The difference between GIS and other data management systems
is the need to have special database management wherein the locational coordinates of points
need to be maintained. GIS is a computer-based information management system which
collects and stores spatially referenced data with other relevant attributes and enables us to
manipulate, analyse and display in suitable formats, such data for various planning and design
purposes. The name implies that this system deals with the geographic space on the earth and
its features. The data is organized in such a way that it provides useful information to the users.
It is a system because it is composed of many interrelated components. One of the earliest GISs
was developed in Canada and is credited to Tomlinson. This was a true operational GIS for
land records and many other uses. The data for the GIS can come from many sources. The data
may come from existing maps, surveys, aerial photography or satellites. The data is digitized
using scanners to make it compatible for computer processing. The basic objectives of the GIS
are as follows:
 • To collect, analyse and manipulate spatial data
• To produce maps and other products in standardized formats for use by different
agencies.
• To supply information in useful formats for logical decision-making.
• To support research activities using spatial data.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING: It provides the fundamental concepts, principles and

application of seismic analysis and design of structures. A study of earthquake engineering
calls for a good understanding of geophysical process that causes earthquakes and various
effects of earthquakes. Seismology is the study of the generation, propagation and
measurement of seismic waves through earth and the sources that generate them. The word
seismology originated from Greek words, ‘seismos’ meaning earthquake and ‘logos’ meaning
science. The study of seismic wave propagation through earth provides the maximum input to
the understanding of internal structure of earth. Earthquake engineering is
an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyses structures, such as
buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures
more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures
that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or collapse in a major
earthquake. Earthquake engineering is the scientific field concerned with protecting society,
the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting
the seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable levels. Traditionally, it has been narrowly
defined as the study of the behaviour of structures and geo-structures subject to seismic
loading.

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATION: A Civil

Engineer has to play a very important role by looking into the public needs through shelter,
water supply for drinking and irrigation of crops, sewerage, transportation, energy and disaster
protection, which forms the basic infrastructural demands of the society but keeping our social
and cultural heritage. The various jobs to be performed by a civil engineer are:

• Providing shelter to people in the form of low-cost houses to high rise apartments.
• Should be competent in various fields of surveying, planning, analysing, designing,
estimating, scheduling, execution, inspection and maintenance of work.
• Providing transport network through roads, railways, harbours, port & docks, airports,
tunnels, subways etc.,
• Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams and canals for supplying water to
agricultural fields.
• Supplying safe and potable water for public and industrial uses.
• Providing proper drainage system and water treatment systems.
• Improving ground water by providing rain water harvesting and water management
techniques.
 • Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas. Tunnelling across
mountains and also under water, to connect places easily and reduce distance.
• Civil engineer plays vital role in disaster management and rehabilitation.
• He should make use of his best experience in providing the optimum benefit to the
public and government, which helps in further development of the infrastructure of the
nation.

BUILDING MATERIALS
STONE: it is defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material
which are present in rocks. Use of stone in building construction is traditional in the places
where it is produced, although even there its high cost imposes limitations in its use. The
conditions which govern the selection of stone for structural purposes are cost, fashion,
ornamental value and durability. Rock may be defined as the portion of the earth’s crust having
no definite shape and structure. Almost all rocks have a definite chemical composition and are
made up of minerals, and organic matter. Some of the rock-forming minerals are quartz,
felspar, mica, dolomite, etc. The various types of rocks from which building stones are usually
derived are granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone and limestone. Stone has been used in
the construction of most of the important structures since prehistoric age. Most of the forts
world over, the Taj Mahal of India, the famous pyramids of Egypt and the great wall of China
are but a few examples. Stone has also been extensively used in almost all the elements of
building structures, as load carrying units as well as for enhancing the beauty and elegance of
the structure. As building material stone has gradually lost importance with the advent of
cement and steel. Secondly, the strength of the structural elements built with stones cannot be
rationally analyzed. Other major factors in overshadowing its use are the difficulties in its
transportation and dressing which consume a lot of time resulting in slow pace of construction.
The rocks may be classified on the basis of their geological formation, physical characteristics
and chemical composition as shown below:

Use of stone as building material depends upon the nature of the work, type of the structural
element in which it is to be used and its quality, availability and transportation cost. For
structural purpose, granite, gneiss, trap, sandstone, limestone, marble, quartzite and slate are
most useful. The uses of the stones as building material are as follows:
 • STRUCTURE: the stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches,
roofs, floors, damp-proof courses, etc.,
• FACE-WORK: the stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. The
walls are of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as the
composite masonry.
• PAVING: the stones are used to cover floor of buildings of various types such as
residential, commercial, industrial, etc., they are also adopted to form paving of roads,
footpaths, etc.,
• BASIC MATERIAL: the stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic
material for cement concrete, murum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones,
hollow blocks, etc.,
• MISCELLANEOUS: in addition to above uses, the stones are also used as ballast for
railways, flux in blast furnaces, blocks in the construction of bridges, piers, abutments,
retaining walls, light houses, dams, etc.,

The only operation involved in the production of natural stone is the quarrying process. The
open part of natural rock from which useful stone is obtained is known as quarry. While
selecting a quarry site, the points to be borne in mind are availability of sufficient quantity of
the stone of desired quality, proper transportation facilities, cheap local labor, problems
associated with drainage of rain water, location of important and permanent structures in the
vicinity and site for dumping refuse. Rocks suitable for the manufacture of stone materials are
called useful minerals and the operations involved in obtaining minerals are called mining. In
the process of mining, voids formed are called excavations and the mined deposits are the
quarries. The purpose of quarrying is to obtain stones for various engineering purposes. A
knowledge of various quarrying methods is essential but does not make one very much more
competent to choose or specify a stone for building work. Depending upon the nature and
surface of rocks and the purpose for which stones are needed, quarrying is done by excavating,
wedging, heating or blasting.
The natural bed of stone is the original bed, plane or position occupied by a stone during its
formation in sedimentary rock. The stones should be so placed that the load line is at right
angles to natural bed. A good building stone should have the following qualities – appearance,
structure, strength, weight, hardness, toughness, porosity, absorption, seasoning, weathering,
workability, fire resistance, specific gravity, thermal movement. The building stones are to be
tested for their different properties. Following are such tests for the stone – Acid test, Attrition
test, Crushing test, Crystallization test, Freezing and Thawing test, Hardness test, Impact test,
Microscopic test, Smith’s test, Water absorption test.

BRICKS: one of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular and leading
construction material because of being cheap, durable and easy to handle and work with. Clay
bricks are used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings and other
load bearing structures. A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently
handled with one hand. Brick may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime or of
Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since these are economical and
easily available. The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below:
Length of brick = 2 x width of brick + thickness of mortar
Height of brick = width of brick
For India, a brick of standard size 190mm x 90mm x 90mm is recommended by the BIS. With
mortar thickness, the size of such a brick becomes 200mm x 100mm x 100mm and it is known
as the nominal size of the modular brick. Thus, the nominal size of brick includes the mortar
thickness. Weight of such a brick is 3.0kg. An indent called frog, 1-2 cm deep, is provided for
9cm high bricks. Frog is not provided in 4cm high bricks and extruded bricks. The size of frog
should be 10x4x1cm. The purpose of providing frog is to form a key for holding the mortar
and therefore the bricks are laid with frogs on top.
The constituents of good brick earth are alumina, silica, lime (a small quantity not exceeding
5%), oxide of iron, magnesia. And the ingredients which are undesirable in the brick earth are
Excess lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, vegetation and organic matter. In the process of
manufacturing bricks, there four distinct operations like, preparation of clay, moulding, drying,
burning. The good bricks which are to be used for the construction of structures should possess
the following qualities:

• The bricks should be table-moulded, well-burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free from

cracks and with sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and bright.
• The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
• The brick should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
• The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform
compact structure free from voids.
• The brick should not absorb water more than 20% by weight for first class bricks and
22% by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24
hours.
• The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression be left on brick surface, when
scratched with finger nail.
• The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height
of about one meter.
• The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound-proof.
• The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts
when allowed to dry in shade.
• No brick should have the crushing strength below 5.50 N/mm2.
A brick is generally subjected to the following tests to find out its suitability for the construction
work – Absorption, Crushing strength, Hardness, Presence of soluble salts, Shape and size,
Soundness, Structure. The bricks can broadly be divided into two categories – unburnt or sun-
dried bricks and burnt bricks. The unburnt bricks are dried with the help of heat received from
sun after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in construction of temporary
structures. The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are classified into
four categories – First class bricks, Second class bricks, Third class bricks, Fourth class bricks.
Following are the uses of bricks:

• The first class and second class bricks are widely used for all sorts of sound work
especially of permanent nature. These structures include buildings, dams, roads,
sewers, bridge piers, tunnels, pitching works, etc.,
• The use of first class bricks is specified for obtaining the architectural effects on faces
of structures where they are to be kept exposed for beauty.
• The masonry with second class bricks is generally plastered to make smooth surface
obtained due to the irregular shape and size of bricks. The mortar required in brick
masonry using second class bricks will also be more.
• The third class and sun-dried bricks are used for construction work of temporary nature.
These bricks are not used in damp situations or at places subjected to heavy rains.
• The fourth class bricks are used as road metal and as aggregates in the foundation
concrete.

WOOD: wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and
branches of a tree. It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material which practically does
not age. Wood or timber as a building material falls in two major classes--natural and man-
made. With the advances in science and technology, wood in its natural form as timber, lumber,
etc. is being rapidly replaced by composite wood materials in which natural wood is just a basic
ingredient of a matrix or a laminate. The latter are found to be more useful and adaptable as
they may be treated chemically, thermally or otherwise as per requirements. Some examples
are plywood, fiberboards, chipboards, compressed wood, impregnated wood, etc.
Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred over many other building materials. It
is easy to transport and handle, has more thermal insulation, sound absorption and electrical
resistance as compared to steel and concrete. It is the ideal material to be used in sea water.
Wood is good absorber of shocks and so is suitable for construction work in hilly areas which
are more prone to earthquakes. Finally, since wood can be easily worked, repairs and alterations
to wood work can also be done easily. Owing to mentioned advantages wood is very widely
used in buildings as doors, windows, frames, temporary partition walls, etc. and in roof trusses
and ceilings apart from framework.
Characteristics of good timber are as follows:

• Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength

• Compact medullary rays
• Dark colour
• Uniform texture
• Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
• When struck sonorous sound is produced
• Free from the defects in timber
 • Heavy weight
• No woolliness at fresh cut surface
Seasoning of timber is the process of reducing the moisture content of timber in order to prevent
the timber from possible fermentation. It can also be defined as the process of drying the wood
to a moisture content approximately equal to the average humidity of the surroundings, where
it is to be permanently fixed. Very rapid seasoning after removal of bark should be avoided
since it causes case hardening and thus increases resistance to penetration of preservatives.
Some of the objects of seasoning wood are, to reduce the shrinkage and warping after
placement in structure, to increase strength, durability and workability, to reduce its tendency
to split and decay, to make it suitable for painting, to reduce its weight.
There is hardly any material other than timber which can be used as an all-round substitute in
construction work and its various uses can be summarized as follows:

• It is used for door and window frames, shutters of doors and windows, roofing
materials, etc.
• It is used for formwork of cement concrete, centering of an arch, scaffolding, etc.
• It is used for making furniture, agricultural instruments, sport goods, musical
instruments, etc.
• It is used for making railway coach wagons.
• It is used for making toys, engraving work, matches, etc.
• It is used for railway sleepers, packing cases, etc.
• It is used for temporary bridges and boat construction.

GLASS: It is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle,

transparent or translucent material. The raw materials used in manufacturing glass are sand,
lime(chalks) and soda or potash which are fused over 1000℃. Oxides of iron, lead and borax
are added to modify hardness, brilliance and colour. It is the most common material glazed into
frames for doors, windows and curtain walls. The most common types used in building
construction are sheet, plate, laminated, insulating, tempered, wired and patterned glass. Most
ordinary colorless glasses are alkali-lime silicate and alkali-lead silicate with tensile and
compressive strengths of about 30-60 N/mm2 and 700-1000 N/mm2 respectively and modulus
of elasticity in the range 0.45x105 to 0.8x105 N/mm2. The strength is very much affected by
internal defects, cords and foreign intrusions. The main shortcoming of glass is its brittleness
which depends on a number of factors, the chief one being the ratio of elasticity modulus E of
the material to its tensile strength. The procedure adopted in the manufacture of glass has 5
stages as follows, Collection of raw materials, Preparation of batch, Melting in furnace,
Fabrication, Annealing. The properties of glass are mainly governed by factors such as
composition of the constituents, state of surface, thermal treatment conditions, dimensions of
specimen, etc. Depending upon the constituents glasses are classified as soda-lime glass, lead
glass and boro-silicate glass. Some commercial forms of glass are sheet glass, plate glass,
tempered glass, wired glass, obscured glass, laminated glass (heat and sound proof glass, bullet
proof glass, insulating glass), heat absorbing glass, ground glass, block glass, coloured glass,
opal glass, enamel glass, optical glass.

ALUMINIUM: The aluminium occurs in abundance on the surface of earth. It is available in

various forms such as oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, etc. But it is commercially
produced mainly from bauxite, which is hydrated oxide of aluminium. The principal
constituents of bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) which yield aluminium on a commercial scale are
hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron with some silica. The aluminium is extracted from
bauxite ores. The bauxite is ground and then it is purified. It is then dissolved in fused cryolite
which is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, AlF3, 3NaF. This solution is then taken
to an electric furnace and the aluminium is separated out by electrolysis.
The properties of aluminium are that it is silver white in color with a brittle metallic
lustre on freshly broken surface. It is malleable, less ductile than copper but excels zinc, tin and
lead. Aluminium is harder than tin. Aluminium is very light, soft, strong and durable, has low
thermal conductivity but is a good conductor of electricity. Aluminium can be riveted and
welded but cannot be soldered. It can be tempered at 350℃. The melting point is 657℃, tensile
strength is 117.2 N/mm2 in the cast form and 241.3 N/mm2 when drawn into wires. Aluminium
is found to be resistant to the attack of nitric acid, dissolves slowly in concentrated sulphuric
acid and is soluble in hydrochloric acid. At normal temperature it is not affected by sulphur,
carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, vinegar, sea water, etc. but is rapidly corroded by caustic alkalis.
Pure aluminium is very soft and is unsuitable for structural purposes. Satisfactory properties
are derived by alloying copper, manganese, zinc, silicon, nickel with aluminium. It is most
suitable for making doors, window frames, railings of shops and corrugated sheets for roofing
system. Aluminium sheets are used over doors in bathrooms to protect them from getting rot
and for stamping into a variety of shapes. Aluminium powder is used for making paint.
Aluminium is extensively used in making parts of internal combustion engine, surgical
instruments, airplanes, utensils and packings for medicines, chocolates, etc. aluminium alloys
are widely used for the manufacture of rolled sections, such as angles, channels, I-sections,
round and rectangular pipes, rivets and bolts.

CEMENT: The artificial cement is obtained by burning at a very high temperature, the mixture
of calcareous (limestone, chalk, shells) and argillaceous (clay, shale) materials. The ordinary
cement contains 2 basic ingredients, namely argillaceous and calcareous. In argillaceous
materials, the clay predominates and in calcareous materials, the calcium carbonate
predominates. The mixture of ingredients should be intimate and they should be in correct
proportion. The calcined product is known as the clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is added
to clinker and it is then pulverized into fine powder which is known as the cement. The common
variety of artificial cement is known as the normal setting cement or ordinary cement. This
cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin of leeds in England in 1824. He took out a
patent for this cement and called it Portland cement because it has resemblance in its colour
after setting, to a variety of sandstone which is found in abundance in Portland in England.
Following are the important properties of a good cement which primarily depend upon its
chemical composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding:

• It gives strength to the masonry.

• It is an excellent binding material.
• It is easily workable.
• It offers good resistance to the moisture.
• It possesses a good plasticity.
• It stiffens or hardens easily.
Setting action of cement: when water is added to cement, the ingredients of cement react
chemically with water and form various complicated chemical compounds. The formation of
these compounds is not simultaneous. But setting action of cement continues for a long time.
The mixing of cement and water results in a sticky cement paste and it goes on gradually
thickening till it achieves a rock-like state. It is found that ordinary cement achieves about 70%
of its final strength in 28 days and about 90% of its final strength in one year or so. The three
distinct operations that are involved in the manufacture of normal setting or ordinary or
Portland cement are – Mixing of raw materials, Burning, Grinding. Field tests carried out to
ascertain roughly the quality of cement are – colour, physical properties, presence of lumps,
strength. And the laboratory tests are chemical composition, Fineness, Compressive strength,
Tensile strength, Consistency, Setting times, Soundness. At present, the cement is widely used
in the construction of various engineering structures. It has proved to be one of the leading
engineering materials of modern times and has no rivals in production and applications.
Following are various possible uses of cement:

• Cement mortar for masonry work, plaster, pointing, etc.

• Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather sheds, stairs,
pillars, etc.
• Construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts, dams,
tunnels, storage reservoirs, light houses, docks, etc.
• Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, roads,
telephone cabins, etc.
• Making joints for drains, pipes, etc.
• Manufacture of precast pipes, piles, garden seats, artistically designed urns, flower pots,
etc., dust bins, fencing posts, etc.
• Preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.

AGGREGATES: These are the inert or chemically inactive materials which form the bulk of
cement concrete. These aggregates are bound together by means of cement. The aggregates are
classified into two categories – Fine and Coarse. The material which is passed through BIS test
sieve no. 480 is termed as a fine aggregate. Usually, the natural river sand is used as a fine
aggregate. But at places, where natural sand is not available economically, the finely crushed
stone may be used as a fine aggregate. The material which is retained on BIS test sieve no. 480
is termed as a coarse aggregate. The broken stone is generally used as a coarse aggregate. The
nature of work decides the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. For thin slabs and walls, the
maximum size of coarse aggregate should be limited to one-third the thickness of the concrete
section. The aggregates to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and clean.
The aggregates should be completely free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter,
fine dust, etc. The presence of all such debris prevents adhesion of aggregates and hence
reduces the strength of concrete.
Aggregates are the materials basically used as filler with binding material in the production of
mortar and concrete. They are derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or
manufactured from blast furnace slag, etc. Aggregates form the body of the concrete, reduce
the shrinkage and effect economy. They occupy 70-80% of the volume and have considerable
influence on the properties of the concrete. They should be clean, hard, strong, durable and
graded in size to achieve utmost economy from the paste. Earlier aggregates were considered
to be chemically inert but the latest research has revealed that some of them are chemically
active and also that certain types exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregates and
cement paste. To increase the bulk density of concrete, aggregates are used in two markedly
different sizes – the bigger ones known to be coarse aggregates(grit) and smaller ones fine
aggregate(sand). The aggregates may be classified into natural and artificial aggregates based
on geological origin. According to size-coarse, fine and all-in aggregates. Based on shape-
Rounded, irregular, Angular, Flaky aggregates. Based on unit weight, aggregates are classified
as Normal-weight, Heavy weight and light-weight aggregates depending on weight and
specific gravity. The properties to be considered while selecting aggregate for concrete are
strength, particle shape, specific gravity, bulk density, voids, porosity, moisture content and
bulking. Soundness is defined as the ability of aggregate to resist changes in volume as a result
of changes in physical conditions. The conditions affecting this property are freezing and
thawing, temperature changes and alternate wetting and drying.

CONCRETE: The cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, pebbles or crushed rock and
water, which, when placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, becomes hard like
stone. Concrete a composite man-made material, is the most widely used building material in
the construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixture of binding material such as
lime or cement, well graded fine and coarse aggregates, water and admixtures(to produce
concrete with special properties). In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix
which fills the voids of the fine aggregate and binds them (fine and coarse) together. The matrix
is usually 22-34% of the volume. Freshly mixed concrete before set is known as wet or green
concrete whereas after setting and hardening it is known as set or hardened concrete. The
moulded concrete mix after sufficient curing becomes hard like stone due to chemical action
between the water and binding material. It would be impossible to discuss all the aspects of
this material in few pages and the discussion is confined to the general characteristics and
quality tests necessary for its use by civil engineers and architects. Most of the ancient
structures and historical buildings had been constructed with lime concrete. With the advent of
cement, the use of lime concrete has been confined to making bases for concrete foundations
and roof terracing. The major factors responsible for wide usage of cement-concrete are
mouldability, early hardening, high early compressive strength, development of desired
properties with admixtures to be used in adverse situations, suitability for guniting, pumpability
and durability. Most of the chapter is devoted to cement concrete because of its versatility. The
simple reason for its extensive use in construction of almost all civil engineering works is that
the properties can be controlled within a wide range by using appropriate ingredients and by
special mechanical, physical and chemical processing techniques. Buildings – from single
storey to multistorey, bridges, piers, dams, weirs, retaining walls, liquid retaining structures,
reservoirs, chimneys, bins, silos, runways, pavements, shells, arches, railway sleepers are but
a few examples of cement concrete applications. The cement concrete has attained the status
of a major building material in all branches of modern construction because of the following
reasons:

• It can be readily moulded into durable structural items of various sizes and shapes at
practically no considerable labour expenditure.
• It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete within a wide range by using
appropriate ingredients and by applying special processing techniques – mechanical,
chemical and physical.
• It is possible to mechanize completely its preparation and placing processes.
• It possesses adequate plasticity for the mechanical working.
The cement concrete possesses the following important properties:

• It has a high compressive strength.

• It is free from corrosion and there is no appreciable effect of atmospheric agents on it.
• It hardens with age and process of hardening continues for a long time after the concrete
has attained sufficient strength. It is this property of cement concrete which gives it a
distinct place among the building materials.
• It is proved to be more economical than steel. This is due to the fact that sand and
pebbles or crushed rock, forming the bulk of cement concrete, to the extent of about 80
to 90%, are usually available at moderate cost. The formwork which is of steel or
timber, can be used over and over again or for other purposes after it is removed.
• It binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak in tension, the steel reinforcement is placed
in cement concrete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses. This is termed as
the Reinforced Cement Concrete or simply RCC.
• Under the following 2 conditions, it has a tendency to shrink:
i. There is initial shrinkage of cement concrete which is mainly due to the loss of
water through forms, absorption by surfaces of forms, etc.
ii. The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens. This tendency of cement
concrete can be minimized by proper curing concrete.
• It has a tendency to be porous. This is due to the presence of voids which are
formed during and after its placing. The 2 precautions necessary to avoid this tendency
are:
i. There should be proper grading and consolidating of the aggrgates.
ii. The minimum water-cement ratio should be adopted.
 • It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.
• It should be remembered that apart from other materials, the concrete comes to
the site in the form of raw materials only. Its final strength and quality depend entirely
on local conditions and persons handling it. However, the materials of which concrete
is composed may be subjected to rigid specifications.
A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and
fine aggregate and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical reaction
between cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function. The
coarse aggregate acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up voids between the paste and
the coarse aggregate. The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The
mobility of the mixture is aided by the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly
by the use of admixtures. Most of the properties of the hardened concrete depend on
the care exercised at every stage of the manufacture of concrete. A rational
proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the essence of the mix design. The stages
of concrete production are – Batching or measurement of materials, Mixing,
Transporting, Placing, Compacting, Curing, Finishing. The water/cement ratio is the
water used to the quantum of cement in the mixture by weight. For proper workability
the w/c ratio varies from 0.4 to 0.6. however, maximum strength is derived at w/c=0.4.
when it is decreased to less than 0.4 there is improper consistency and workability of
cement and honeycombed structure. w/c ratio is responsible mainly for the porosity of
the hardened cement paste. There are many tests conducted on concrete. Some of them
are meant to test the quality of fresh concrete while others are meant to test the strength
of hardened concrete. The following are the important tests to be done on fresh concrete
at the site as soon as it is discharged from mixer or when it is delivered as RMC. They
test the placing quality of the concrete

• Slump test (for plastic workability)

• Compaction factor test (for stiff concrete)
• Vee-Bee test (for quality of concrete with respect to cohesiveness, consistency
and tendency for segregation)
• Bleeding test
• Setting time
The following tests are needed to check the hardened concrete

• Compression test for compressive strength

• Tension test for tensile strength
• Flexure test for modulus of rupture
• Additional tests like Schmidt rebound hammer test, ultrasonic test etc.

STEEL: As per as carbon content is concerned, steel forms an intermediate stage between cast
iron and wrought iron. Cast iron contains carbon from 2 to 4 percent and wrought iron contains
0.15 percent. In steel the carbon content varies from 0.25 to 1.5 percent. The steel is
manufactured by the following processes:
• Bessemer process
• Cementation process
• Crucible steel process
• Duplex process
• Electric process
• L.D. Process
• Open-hearth process
Physical properties of steel:
i) Carbon content: Variation in carbon percentage produces steel of different grades. Carbon
always assists in increasing the hardness and strength of steel and decreases the ductility of
steel.
ii) Presence of impurities:
a) Silicon content is about 0.30 to 0.40 percent, elasticity and strength of steel are considerably
increased.
b) Sulphur content between 0.02 to 0.10 percent, no appreciable effect on ductility or strength
however malleability and weldability decreases.
c) Phosphorous content below 0.12 percent reduces shock resistance, ductility and strength of
steel.
d) Manganese content 0.3 to 1.00 percent, the steel becomes very brittle and hence, it loses its
structural value
iii) Heat treatment processes: It is possible to alter the properties of steel by heating and cooling
under controlled conditions. The following are the purposes of heat treatment

• To alter magnetic properties of steel

• To change the structure of steel
• To increase resistance to heat and corrosion
• To increase surface hardness
• To make steel easily workable
• To vary strength and hardness
The principal processes involved in the heat treatment of steel

• Annealing- To make steel soft

• Case hardening-The core of specimen remains tough and ductile
• Cementing- The skin of the steel is saturated with carbon (880 to 9500C)
• Hardening- It is reverse process of annealing to make hard
• Normalizing-To restore steel to normal condition and it is adopted when
structure of steel is seriously disturbed for any reason
 • Tempering-This process is applied to steel, which are treated with hardening
process
iv) Magnetic properties of steel: Steel widely used in electrical machinery, generates,
transformers etc. For making steel suitable for such use, its magnetic properties are given
supreme importance and these properties are obtained by carefully adjusting its chemical
composition.

• Carbon – carbon content as low as possible and should not exceed 0.10 percent.
• Silicon-presence of silicon results in considerable increase of electrical losses and hence
it highly undesirable.
• Sulphur and phosphorous: Combines content of Sulphur and phosphorous exceeds 0.3
percent, magnetic properties of steel are greatly affected.
• Manganese: If manganese content exceeds 0.3 percent, it proves to be injurious to the
magnetic properties of steel.
Market forms of steel: Following are the standard shapes in which the rolled steel sections are
available in the market:

• Angle sections
• Channel sections
• Corrugated sheets
• Expanded metal
• Flat bars
• I-sections
• Plates
• Ribbed-torsteel bars
• Round bars
• Square bars
• T-sections
Properties of Mild Steel: Also known as low carbon or soft steel, following are the properties
of mild steel:

• It can be magnetized permanently

• It can be readily forged and welded
• It cannot be easily hardened and tempered
• It has fibrous structure
• It is malleable and ductile
• It is not easily attacked by salt water
• It is tougher and more elastic than wrought-iron
• It is used for all types of structural work
• It rusts easily and rapidly
• Its melting point is about 1400℃
• Its specific gravity is 7.80
 • Its ultimate compressive strength is about 80 to 120 kN/cm2
• Its ultimate tensile and shear strengths are about 60 to 80 kN/cm2

RCC (REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE): The tensile strength of cement concrete is

just about 10% of its compressive strength . In other words, cement concrete is very strong in
compression. Steel is equally strong in tension as well as in compression. Steel is high strength
material as compared with concrete. The steel used in the form of bars to reinforce the concrete
is called reinforcement (reinforcement is a term from military or police organization). It means
to increase the existing strength of concrete as well as controls the effect of shrinkage and
temperature changes. The cement concrete reinforced with steel bars is known as Reinforced
Cement Concrete (R.C.C.). The weight Of R.C.C. Is 25000N/cum.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete: Reinforced concrete has been used in a variety of
applications, such as buildings, bridges, roads and pavements, dams, retaining walls, tunnels,
arches, domes, shells, tanks, pipes, chimneys, cooling towers, and poles, because of the
following advantages:
Moulded to any shape: It can be poured and moulded into any shape varying from simple slabs,
beams, and columns to complicated shells and domes, by using formwork. Thus, it allows the
designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. This also gives freedom to the
designer to select any size or shape, unlike steel sections where the designer is constrained by
the standard manufactured member sizes.
Availability of materials: The materials required for concrete (sand, gravel, and water) are often
locally available and are relatively inexpensive. Only small amounts of cement (about 14% by
weight) and reinforcing steel (about 2–4% by volume) are required for the production of RC,
which may have to be shipped from other parts of the country. Moreover, reinforcing steel can
be transported to most construction sites more easily than structural steel sections. Hence, RC
is the material of choice in remote areas.
Low maintenance: Concrete members require less maintenance compared to structural steel or
timber members.
Water and fire resistance: RCC offer great resistance to the actions of fire and water. A concrete
member having sufficient cover can have one to three hours of fire resistance rating without
any special fire proofing material. It has to be noted that steel and wood need to be fire-proofed
to obtain similar rating—steel members are often enclosed by concrete for fire resistance. If
constructed and cured properly, concrete surfaces could provide better resistance to water than
steel sections, which require expensive corrosion-resistant coatings.
Good rigidity: RCC members are very rigid. Due to the greater stiffness and mass, vibrations
are seldom a problem in concrete structures.
Compressive strength: Concrete has considerable compressive strength compared to most other
materials.
Economical: It is economical, especially for footings, basement walls, and slabs.
Low-skilled labour: Comparatively lower grade of skilled labour is required for the fabrication,
erection, and construction of concrete structures than for steel or wooden structures. In order
to use concrete efficiently, the designer should also know the weakness of the material.
The disadvantages of concrete include the following:
Low tensile strength: Concrete has a very low tensile strength, which is about one-tenth of its
compressive strength and, hence, cracks when subjected to tensile stresses. Reinforcements
are, therefore, often provided in the tension zones to carry tensile forces and to limit crack
widths. If proper care is not taken in the design and detailing and also during construction, wide
cracks may occur, which will subsequently lead to the corrosion of reinforcement bars (which
are also termed as rebars in the USA) and even failure of structures.
Requires forms and shoring: Cast in situ concrete construction involves the following three
stages of construction, which are not required in steel or wooden structures:
(a) Construction of formwork over which concrete will be poured—the formwork holds the
concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently
(b) removal of these forms, and
(c) propping or shoring of new concrete members until they gain sufficient strength to support
themselves. Each of these stages involves labour and material and will add to the total cost of
the structure. The formwork may be expensive and may be in the range of one-third the total
cost of an RC structure. Hence, it is important for the designer to make efforts to reduce the
formwork cost, by reusing or reducing formwork
Relatively low strength: Concrete has relatively low strength per unit weight or volume. (The
compressive strength of normal concrete is about 5–10% steel, and its unit density is about
31% steel) Hence, larger members may be required compared to structural steel. This aspect
may be important for tall buildings or long-span structures.
Time-dependent volume changes: Concrete undergoes drying shrinkage and, if restrained, will
result in cracking or deflection. Moreover, deflections will tend to increase with time due to
creep of the concrete under sustained loads (the deflection may possibly double, especially in
cantilevers). It has to be noted that both concrete and steel undergo approximately the same
amount of thermal expansion or contraction.
Variable properties: The properties of concrete may widely vary due to variation in its
proportioning, mixing, pacing, and curing. Since cast in situ concrete is site-controlled, its
quality may not be uniform when compared to materials such as structural steel and laminated
wood, which are produced in the factory.
CO2 emission: Cement, commonly composed of calcium silicates, is produced by heating
limestone and other ingredients to about 1480°C by burning fossil fuels, and it accounts for
about 5–7 per cent of CO2 emissions globally. Production of one ton of cement results in the
emission of approximately one ton of CO2. Hence, the designer should specify cements
containing cementitious and waste materials such as fly ash and slags, wherever possible. Use
of fly ash and other such materials not only reduces CO2 emissions but also results in economy
as well as improvement of properties such as reduction in heat of hydration, enhancement of
strength and/or workability, and durability of concrete.

PSC (PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE): Prestressed concrete is structural concrete in which

internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete
resulting from loads. This introduction of internal stresses is called “prestressing” and is usually
accomplished through the use of tendons that are tensioned or pulled tight prior to being
anchored to the concrete. Common pretensioned members in buildings and parking garages
include hollow core sections and double-tee sections. Concrete is basically a compressive
material, with its strength in tension being relatively low. Prestressing applies a precompression
force to the member that reduces or eliminates undesirable tensile stresses that would otherwise
be present. Prestressing can control or even eliminate concrete tensile stress for specified loads.
Eccentric prestress is usually much more efficient than concentric prestress. Variable
eccentricity is usually preferable to constant eccentricity, from the viewpoints of both stress
control and deflection control. Advantages of prestressing are that it results in the overall
improvement in performance of structural concrete used for ordinary loads and spans.
Prestressing extends the range of application far beyond the limits for ordinary reinforced
concrete, leading not only to much longer spans with economical member cross sections than
previously thought possible, but permitting innovative new structural forms to be employed.
Objectionable deflection and cracking, which would otherwise be associated with the use of
non-prestressed reinforced concrete members at high stress, are easily controlled by
prestressing. Methods of Prestressing-Although many methods have been used to produce the
desired state of precompression in concrete members, all pre-stressed concrete members can
be placed in one of two categories: Pre-tensioned, Post-tensioned.

SMART MATERIALS: Smart materials, also called intelligent or responsive materials, are
designed materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly changed in a
controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, moisture, electric or magnetic fields, light,
temperature, pH, or chemical compounds. Smart materials are the basis of many applications,
including sensors and actuators, or artificial muscles, particularly as electroactive polymers
(EAPs). Smart materials (SMs) are defined as the materials that change their behavior in
systematic manner as a response to specific stimulus, which could alter in magnetic or/and
electric fields, stress, acoustic, temperature, nuclear radiation, or/and chemical properties. The
research on different smart structures show that it can be used for various construction and
building, electronic and medical applications. Smart materials technology enables us to adapt
to environmental changes by activating its functions. Multifunctional materials, sort of smart
materials, can be activated by electrical stimuli so as to produce its geometry change or property
change. There are many multifunctional materials available by the advent of nanotechnology,
ranging from carbon nanotubes, graphene, inorganic nanoparticles, conducting polymers, and
so on. However, future multifunctional smart materials should be harmonized with our living
environment. Thus, it is natural to develop smart materials that can be renewable in the nature.
Biopolymers are renewable materials that harmonize with environment. There are a number of
types of smart material, of which are already common, Some examples are - Piezoelectric
materials- they are the materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied. Since this effect
also applies in a reverse manner, a voltage across the sample will produce stress within sample.
Suitably designed structures made from these materials can, therefore, be made that bend,
expand or contract when a voltage is applied.