Module 1 - Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING (BESCK104A)
MODULE 1
CIVIL ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND BUILDING

SCIENCE
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING:
1.1.1. SURVEYING:
It is the art of determining the relative position of points on the earth’s surface by measuring
the horizontal distance between them. Leveling is the process of determining the position of points
in a vertical plane
Surveying are of two types
1) Geodetic survey: the survey in which the shape of the earth is taken into account is called
geodetic surveying
2) Plane survey: the survey in which the shape (or) curvature of the earth is not taken into
account is called plane surveying
The scope of surveying and leveling are:
a) To prepare plan and map which help in project implementation (setting out the alignment
for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the location for a dam or airport or harbor)
b) To determine the dimensions and contours of any part of the earth surface
c) To establish boundaries of land
d) To measure the areas and volume of land
e) To select a suitable site for an engineering project
f) To conduct engineering survey, topographical survey, military survey, mine survey,
geological survey, archaeological survey, hydrographic survey, environmental survey, etc.
The Knowledge of surveying is essential in many phases of every engineering project such
as buildings, roadways, railways, dams, bridges, tunnels, harbors, mines, water supply, and
sanitation, pipeline laying, airports, etc.
COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 1

1.1.2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:
A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like foundations, columns,

beams, slabs, etc. These components are always subjected to forces. Depending upon the materials
available the components of the building should be safely and economically designed. A structural
engineer is involved in such a designing activity
Scope of structural engineering:
a) The structural engineering plays a vital role in planning, designing, and building the
structure
b) The structural analysis and structural design are the components of structural engineering
c) The structural engineering should take the responsibility about the safety and serviceability
of the structure for its life time
d) The structural engineer should be prepared for to accept the natural calamities like
earthquake, wind, landslide, etc. and provide remedial measures.
1.1.3 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (Soil Mechanics):
The load from the structure is to be safely transferred to soil, for this safe bearing capacity
of soil is to be properly assessed. This branch of study in civil engineering is called geotechnical
engineering, which deals with the study of the properties, behavior, and use of earth materials (soil
and rocks) in engineering works
Geotechnical engineering has a much wider scope, they are
a) It is concerned with the properties of earth materials

b) To investigate the soil and bedrocks below the structure and study the soil-structure
interaction
c) To select the type of foundation earthworks for a particular structure.
d) To design the foundation of buildings, dams, retaining walls, bridges, road pavement,
railway lines, etc.
e) To design foundations for underground structures like tunnels, powerhouses, etc.

f) To design foundations for machines such as turbines, compressors, etc. to transmit

vibrations to foundation soil
g) To study the effect of soil as a medium for blasts during mining, earthquake, landslides and
nuclear explosions
h) They include various types of foundations like shallow foundation, deep foundations. Pile
foundation, well foundation, etc.
1.1.4. HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES
Water is an important need for all living beings, the study of the mechanics of water and
its flow characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and it's known as hydraulics.
Hydraulics mainly deals with the practical problems of the flow of water. The concept of fluid
pressure, fluid statics, and flow pattern help in engineering to design the structures like dams,
reservoirs, bridges, culverts, sewage systems, etc. this concept is also used for flow through pipes,
pumps, turbines, hydraulic machines, etc. Hydroelectric power generation facilities are also
included in this aspect.
Water is to be supplied to agricultural fields and for drinking purposes, hence suitable water
resources are to be identified and water is to be stored. Identifying, planning and building water
retaining structures like tanks and dams and carrying stored water to agricultural fields through
irrigation channels is known as water resources and irrigation engineering
Scope of water resources and irrigation engineering:
a) It facilitates to control, regulate and utilize water to serve wide variety of purposes
b) It gives scope for utilization of water in beneficial purpose by providing water supply,
irrigation, hydroelectric power development and navigational improvement
c) Water quality management
d) Scope for recreational use of water resources
e) To protect fish and wildlife
f) India being an agricultural country, irrigation will help in the overall development of our
country, citizen and improve the civilization.

1.1.5. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Transportation means the movement of men and goods from one point to another. It is as
old as civilization
The Transportation system includes roadways, railways, airways, and waterways, the
design, construction, and maintenance of railway lines, and signal systems are part of
transportation engineering.
Scope of water resources and transportation engineering:
a) It contributes to the economy. The social and cultural development of any country
b) To optimize the transportation cost, maintenance, and administrative overheads
c) Planning the transport process for survey and analysis of the existing condition and
forecasting the future condition
d) It involves accident study for safe and comfortable transport system
e) For traffic performance and control
1.1.6. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
People in every village, town & city need potable water. The water available (surface water
& groundwater) may not be fit for direct consumption. In such cases, the water should be purified
and then supplied to the public. For water purification, sedimentation tanks, filter beds, etc. should
be designed. If the treatment plants are far away from the town or city, suitable pipelines for
conveying water & distributing it should also be designed.
In a town or city, a part of the water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage should be
systematically collected and then disposed of in the natural environment after providing suitable
treatment. The solid waste that is generated in a town or locality should be systematically collected
and disposed of suitably. Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so that any
material can be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.
Scope of environmental engineering:

a) The study of the importance of protection and conservation of our environment

b) The proper distribution of water supply with water treatment facility
c) Solution of problems of environmental sanitation with wastewater treatment
d) The proper disposal of / recycle of wastewater and solid waste
e) Adequate drainage of urban, rural and recreational areas
f) Control of air pollution and provide a healthy environment to public
1.1.7. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING AND PROECT MANAGEMENT:
As land costs are going up there is a demand for tall structures in urban areas, while in rural
areas there is a need for low-cost construction, one has to develop technology using locally
available materials. Construction technology comprises different techniques of construction for
different materials under site different conditions. The study of construction machinery comes
under its purview. The management or organization of men (labor), material, the method
concerning site, money, and time is the backbone of construction management. It involves almost
every branch of engineering, commerce, and economics, for; its ultimate aim is to ‘achieve the
desired construction most economically. A clear knowledge of the following points is necessary
for reliable construction and its management.
a) Money, Materials, Machines, Manpower, Methodologies,

b) Maintenance, Modernization, Monitoring, Motivations,
c) Management of all types.

1.2. BUILDING MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION:
The materials required for the construction of structures are called either civil engineering
Materials or building materials. The building materials chosen should have such properties that
are safe, economical, eco-friendly, and serviceable for the purpose for which they are used. It is
very essential for an engineer, builder, architect and contractor to be thoroughly conversant with
these building materials. The knowledge of different types of materials, their properties and uses
for different purposes is very essential for the builder in achieving overall economy.
Building materials account for about 70% of the total cost of construction. Thus, it is important
that the building materials are easily and cheaply available.
The building materials can be broadly divided into the following categories
a) Traditional materials: stones, timber, bricks, lime, cement, tar, bitumen, mortar, ferrous
and non-ferrous metals, etc.
b) Alternative building materials: mud blocks, concrete blocks, glass, Aluminum, paint, fly
ash, etc.
c) Composite materials: RCC, fiber reinforced concrete, Ferro-cement, composite laminated
doors, asbestos sheets, fiber-reinforced glass, etc.
Some of the building materials are:
• Bricks: A brick is a rectangular block of regular shape obtained by molding the mixture of
clay and sand, which is then generally burnt at a high temperature.
• Rubble or stone: A building stone or rubble is a natural material quarried from geological
rock formations of igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic type. When quarried, stones are
irregular in shape and have rough surface. Irregular stones are brought to the required size
and shape and the process is called the dressing of stone. These dressed stones or rubbles
are used in stone masonry.
• Aggregates: Aggregates are chemically inert materials, such as crushed stone, gravel, sand,
broken bricks, blast furnace slag, etc., obtained naturally or by crushing.
• Cement: Cement is a binding material used in preparing cement mortar or concrete.

• Alternative building materials: Traditional materials have a limited use for heavy
constructions and therefore there is a need to develop new materials. Hence to reduce the
cost of construction and to increase the strength, alternative building materials are used,
for example, mud blocks, concrete blocks (solid or hollow), ferro cement, etc.
• Composite materials: When two or more materials are combined to act as a single material,
it is called the composite material, for example, wood laminates, plastic laminates, asbestos
cement sheet, reinforced glass, etc.
• Smart materials: These are materials which exhibit a change in their non-mechanical
properties like thermal, optical, electrical or magnetic because of changes in the mechanical
stimulus.
1.2.1 STONE
Stone is a natural hard substance formed from minerals and earth material which are present
in rocks. The stone which is used for construction of engineering structures is known as building
stone.
Uses of Stones:
• It is a good & durable construction material.

• Used in thresholds & steps in manner houses.
• Used in war memorials in the 19th & 20th centuries.
• Limestone is used for burning lime and also for manufacture of cement.
• Limestone is also used as a flux in blast furnaces.
• Used as insulators in electrical appliances.
• Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors.
Stone is classified under 3 categories:
• Geological Classification
• Physical Classification
• Chemical classification

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BUILDING STONE
Appearance: The stones to be used for face work must have a uniform and pleasing &
homogeneous color. It must be free from cavities, cracks, floors & patches of loose & soft material.
Ex: marble & granite.
Strength: A good building stone should have sufficient crushing strength to withstand the load of
superstructure. In general, compressive strength should not be less than 100N/mm 2. It should be
strong enough.
Durability: A good building stone must be durable enough to resist the effect of weathering
agencies Ex: rain, wind, temperature etc., in its surroundings. It should have fine grained, compact
& crystalline structure.
Hardness: The stone used in floors, pavements and aprons of bridges, should be able to resist the
abrasive forces caused due to wear & friction. For good stone wear should be equal or less than
3%. Co-efficient of Hardness should be from 14 to 17. For road work it should be greater than 17.
Workability: The stone to be used should be easy to cut & dress into different sizes & shapes.
Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to withstand stresses developed due to
vibrations of machinery & moving loads over them. The stones used in the constructio n of roads
should be hard as well as tough. The toughness index should be from 13 to 19 & if it is less than
13 then it is called as poor stones.
Seasoning: The stone to be used for an important interior work should be well seasoned. Presence
of moisture makes the stone soft & it is liable to an early decay when used in structural work. A
minimum of 6 to 12 months of seasoning is required.
Resistance to fire: A good building stone should be able to resist high temperatures. Its mineral
constituents should have equal co-efficient of expansion.

Porosity: A good building stone should be less porous. It should not absorb more than 3% of water
by weight when observed after immersing for 24hrs. Any stone absorbing more than 5% of water
should be rejected.
Specific gravity: It varies from 2.4 to 2.8. For a good building stone, it should be more than
2.7 to be used on heavy engineering works docks, harbor, gravity dams etc., for roof coverings and
domes a lighter variety of stones are preferred.
Texture: A good building stone should have a close grained & compact texture & should be free
from cavities & cracks.
Fracture: A good building stones fracture should be sharp, even, bright & grains packed together.
A dull, chalky & earthly fracture will indicate an early future decay of stone.
Availability: It should be easily available & cheap.
1.2.2 BRICKS
Brick may be defined as artificial material obtained by molding clay in rectangular blocks
of uniform size, which are finally dried and burnt at high temperature to form a dense and compact
product.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Clay bricks are classified as first class, second class, third class and fourth class based on their
physical and mechanical properties.
First class bricks:
• These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry or copper color.
• The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp and straight edges and
square corners.
• These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.

• These should have uniform texture.
• No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
• The fractured surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime.
• A metallic or ringing sound should come when two bricks are struck against each other.
• Water absorption should be 12–15% of its dry weight when immersed in cold water for 24
hours.
• The crushing strength of the brick should not be less than 10 N/mm2. This limit varies with
different Government organizations around the country.
Uses: First class bricks are recommended for pointing, exposed face work in masonry structures,
flooring and reinforced brick work.
Second class bricks: are supposed to have the same requirements as the first-class ones except
that small cracks and distortions are permitted.
• A little higher water absorption of about 16–20% of its dry weight is allowed.
• The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.
• Uses: Second class bricks are recommended for all important or unimportant hidden
masonry works and centering of reinforced brick and reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
structures.
Third class bricks: are under burnt. They are soft and light-colored producing a dull sound when
struck against each other. Water absorption is about 25% of dry weight.
Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.
Fourth class bricks: are over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature.
Uses: The ballast of such bricks is used for foundation and floors in lime concrete and road metal.

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BRICKS
• Colour: should be uniform deep red, cherry or copper colour, indicating uniformity of
chemical composition.
• Shape: Bricks should be uniform in shape with sharp straight right angled edges, parallel
sides.
• Size: should be standard as per IS codes (i.e., 190 x 190 x 90 mm).
• Soundness: when 2 bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.
• Hardness: when scratched by finger nail no impression should be made.
• Crushing strength: Not less than 3.5N/mm2.
• Water absorption: 1st class bricks should not exceed 20% of its dry weight when kept
immersed in water for 24hrs.
• Structure: it should have fine, compact and uniform structure in broken form.
• Thermal conductivity & fire resistance: should have good thermal conductivity, adequate
fire resistance. Ordinary brick can resist temp upto 12000C.
• Strength: Bricks should not break when dripped on hard ground from a height of about
1m.
1.2.3 CEMENT
Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement is obtained
by burning a mixture of calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high
temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder. It was first produced by a
mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924. He patented it as Portland cement.

Types of Cement
In addition to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) there are many varieties of cement.
Important varieties are briefly explained below:
(i) White Cement: The cement when made free from colouring oxides of iron, maganese and
chlorium results into white cement. In the manufacture of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead
of coal for burning. White cement is used for the floor finishes, plastering, ornamental works etc.
In swimming pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing marbles and
glazed tiles.
(ii) Coloured Cement: The cements of desired colours are produced by intimately mixing
pigments with ordinary cement. The chlorium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt produce blue
colour. Iron oxide with different proportion produce brown, red or yellow colour. Addition of
manganese dioxide gives black or brown coloured cement. These cements are used for giving
finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills, roofs etc.
(iii) Quick Setting Cement: Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the percentage of
gypsum and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate during the manufacture of cement.
Finer grinding also adds to quick setting property. This cement starts setting within 5 minutes after
adding water and becomes hard mass within 30 minutes. This cement is used to lay concrete under
static or slowly running water.
(iv) Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime content and
burning at high temperature while manufacturing cement. Grinding to very fine is also necessary.
Though the initial and final setting time of this cement is the same as that of portland cement, it
gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier removal of form works and speed in
construction activity.
(v) Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced due to
hydration of cement will not get dispersed easily. This may give rise to cracks. Hence in such
constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement. This cement contains low percentage (5%)
of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher percentage (46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S).

(vi) Pozzolana Cement: Pozzolana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be processed from
shales and certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzolana material is 10 to 30 per cent. It can
resist action of sulphate. It releases less heat during setting. It imparts higher degree of water
tightness. Its tensile strength is high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass concrete
works. It is also used in sewage line works.
(vii) Expanding Cement: This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by adding
expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. This is used
for filling the cracks in concrete structures.
(viii) High Alumina Cement: It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and bauxite. It is
more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of
adding water. It is used for under water works.
(ix) Blast Furnace Cement: In the manufacture of pig iron, slag comes out as a waste product.
By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag, this cement is produced. The
properties of this cement are more or less same as ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since it utilise
waste product. This cement is durable but it gains the strength slowly and hence needs longer
period of curing.
(x) Acid Resistant Cement: This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregated such as
quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has good resistance to action of acid
and water. It is commonly used in the construction of chemical factories.
(xi) Sulphate Resistant Cement: By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A below
five per cent in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used in the construction of structures
which are likely to be damaged by alkaline conditions. Examples of such structures are canals,
culverts etc.
(xii) Fly Ash Blended Cement: Fly ash is a by-product in thermal stations. The particles of fly
ash are very minute and they fly in the air, creating air pollution problems. Thermal power stations
have to spend lot of money to arrest fly ash and dispose safely. It is found that one of the best way
to dispose fly ash is to mix it with cement in controlled condition and derive some of the

beneficiary effects on cement. Now-a-days cement factories produce the fly ash in their own
thermal stations or borrow it from other thermal stations and further process it to make it suitable
to blend with cement. 20 to 30% fly ash is used for blending. Fly ash blended cements have
superior quality of resistance to weathering action. The ultimate strength gained is the same as that
with ordinary portland cement. However, strength gained in the initial stage is slow.
1.2.4 CEMENT MORTAR
Mortar is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate and water. When water is
added to the dry mixture of binding material and the inert material, binding material develops the
property that binds not only the inert material but also the surrounding stones and bricks. If the
cement is the binding material, then the mortar is known as cement mortar.
For preparing mortar, first a mixture of cement and sand is made thoroughly mixing them
in dry condition. Water is gradually added and mixed with shovels. The cement to sand proportion
recommended for various works is as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Cement to sand proportions for various works
Sl. No. Works Cement: Sand

1 Masonry works 1:6 to 1:8
2 Plastering masonry 1:3 to 1:4
3 Plastering concrete 1:3
4 Pointing 1:2 to 1:3
Properties of Cement Mortar: The following are the important properties of cement mortar:
1. When water is added to the dry mixture of cement and sand, hydration of cement starts and it
binds sand particles and also the surrounding surfaces of masonry and concrete.
2. A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
3. Well-proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
4. Leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand and hence the plastered surface is porous.

5. The strength of mortar depends upon the proportion of cement and sand. Strengths obtained
with various proportion of cement and sand is shown in Table 2
Table 2. Compressive Strengths obtained with various proportion of cement and sand
Sl No. Cement:Sand Compressive Strength in N/mm2

1 1:3 10
2 1:4 7.5
3 1:5 5.0
4 1:6 3.0
5 1:7 0.7
1.2.5 PLAIN CONCRETE
Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material,

fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. This can be easily moulded to desired shape and size
before it loses plasticity and hardens. Plain concrete is strong in compression but very weak in
tension. The tensile property is introduced in concrete by inducting different materials and this
attempt has given rise to RCC, RBC, PSC, FRC, cellular concrete and Ferro cement.
Table 3. Proportion of cement, sand and coarse aggregates in concrete.
Sl. No. Proportion Nature of Work

1 1:1:2 • For machine foundation, footings for steel columns and concreting under
water.
2 1:1.5:3 • Water tanks, shells and folded plates, for other water retaining structures.
3 1:2:4 • Commonly used for reinforced concrete works like beams, slabs, tunnel
lining, bridges
4 1:3:6 • Piers, abutments, concrete walls, sill of windows, floors.
5 1:4:8 • Mass concretes like dam, foundation course for walls, for making
concrete blocks.

Functions of Various Ingredients
Cement is the binding material. After addition of water, it hydrates and binds aggregates
and the surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives
more strength. Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence concrete should
be laid in its mould before 30 minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any
external forces till final setting takes place.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded and the stones
should be of igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard. They give mass to the
concrete and prevent shrinkage of cement.
Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It prevents shrinkage of cement. When surrounded
by cement it gains mobility enters the voids in coarse aggregates and binding of ingredients takes
place. It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids. Denser the concrete higher is its strength.
Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and
forms plastic mass. As it sets completely concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives workability to
concrete which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease and place it in final
position. More the water better is the workability. However excess water reduces the strength of
concrete.
1.2.6 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.)
Concrete is good in resisting compression but is very weak in resisting tension. Hence
reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The best
reinforcement is steel, since tensile strength of steel is quite high and the bond between steel and
concrete is good. As the elastic modulus of steel is high, for the same extension the force resisted
by steel is high compared to concrete. However, in tensile zone the hair cracks in concrete are
unavoidable. Reinforcements are usually in the form of mild steel or ribbed steel bars of 6 mm to
32 mm diameter. A cage of reinforcements is prepared as per the design requirements, kept in a
form work and then green concrete is poured. After the concrete hardens, the form work is

removed. The composite material of steel and concrete now called R.C.C. acts as a structural
member and can resist tensile as well as compressive stresses very well.
Properties of R.C.C./Requirement of Good R.C.C.
1. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear forces.
2. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
3. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrossion is prevented.
4. The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
5. It is a good fire-resistant material.
6. When it is fresh, it can be moulded to any desired shape and size.
7. Durability is very good.
8. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load.
Uses of R.C.C.
It is a widely used building material. Some of its important uses are listed below:
1. R.C.C. is used as a structural element, the common structural elements in a building where
R.C.C. is used are:
(a) Footings (b) Columns (c) Beams and lintels (d) Chejjas, roofs and slabs (e) Stairs.
2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like
(a) Water tanks (b) Dams (c) Bins (d) Silos and bunkers.
3. It is used for the construction of big structures like,
(a) Bridges (b) Retaining walls (c) Docks and harbours (d) Under water structures.
4. It is used for pre-casting like,
(a) Railway sleepers (b) Electric poles
5. R.C.C. is used for constructing tall structures like,
(a) Multistorey buildings (b) Chimneys (c) Towers.
6. It is used for paving like, (a) Roads (b) Airports.
7. R.C.C. is used in building atomic plants to prevent danger of radiation. For this purpose R.C.C.
walls built are 1.5 m to 2.0 m thick.

1.2.7 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

Strength of concrete in tension is very low and hence it is ignored in R.C.C. design.
Concrete in tension is acting as a cover to steel and helping to keep steel at desired distance. Thus
in R.C.C. lot of concrete is not properly utilized. Prestressing the concrete is one of the methods
of utilizing entire concrete. The principle of prestressed concrete is to introduce calculated
compressive stresses in the zones wherever tensile stresses are expected in the concrete structural
elements. When such structural element is used stresses developed due to loading has to first
nullify these compressive stresses before introducing tensile stress in concrete. Thus, in prestressed
concrete entire concrete is utilized to resist the load. Another important advantage of PSC is hair
cracks are avoided in the concrete and hence durability is high. The fatigue strength of PSC is also
more. The deflections of PSC beam is much less and hence can be used for longer spans also.
PSC is commonly used in the construction of bridges, large column free slabs and roofs. PSC
sleepers and electric piles are commonly used.
The material used in PSC is high tensile steel and high strength steel. The tensioning of wires may
be by pretensioning or by post tensioning. Pretensioning consists in stretching the wires before
concreting and then releasing the wires. In case of post tensioning, the ducts are made in concrete
elements. After concrete of hardens, prestressing wires are passed through ducts. After stretching
wires, they are anchored to concrete elements by special anchors.
1.2.8 STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structure is an assemblage of various structural components which resists deformation

caused due to external loads. Structures are the means of transferring forces and moments. Steel
structures are nothing but the assemblage of various structural steel components that are effectively
joined or fastened to act as a single unit. When structural steel is used as a material for structures,
structural design is known as “Design of Steel Structures”.

Types of structural sections

• I section: These are used as columns and beams.
This section resists Bending moment (BM) and Shear Force (SF); where 80% of BM will be
resisted by flange and 20% will be resisted by columns. 95% of SF will be resisted by web and
remaining will be resisted by flange.
Fig 1. Typical I-Section

I sections are classified as
1) Indian Standard Joist/Junior Beams (ISJB)
2) Indian Standard Light Beams (ISLB)
3) Indian Standard Medium Beams (ISMB)
4) Indian Standard Wide Flange Beams (ISWB)
5) Indian Standard Heavy Beams (ISHB)
• Channel section: - These are used as beams and columns.
Standard channel sections are classified as,
1) Indian Standard Junior Channels (ISJC)
2) Indian Standard Light Channels (ISLC)
3) Indian Standard Medium weight with sloping flange (ISMC)
4) Indian Standard Medium weight with Parallel flange (IMCP)

Fig 2. Typical Channel Section.

• Angle sections: - Abbreviated as ISA followed by widths and thickness.
Available in equal and unequal sizes. Angles are used as connecting members for connecting
structural elements.
Indian standard Angle sections are classified as
1) Indian Standard Equal Angles
2) Indian Standard Unequal Angles
Fig 3. Typical Angle Section
• T section: - Greater applications in furniture fabrication. This type of section resists Bi-
axial loadings.

Fig 4. Typical T-Section

Indian standard T sections are classified as
1) Indian Standard Normal T bars (ISNT)
2) Indian Standard Long Legged T bars (ISST)
3) Indian standard Deep Legged T bars (ISDT)
4) Indian Standard Junior T bars (ISJT)
5) Indian Standard Light T bars (ISLT)
6) Indian Standard Wide T bars (ISWT)
• Steel tubes:- These are used as scaffoldings, trusses, domes and columns.
Fig 5. Typical Steel Tubes

• Rolled steel flats: - Used for lacings in columns. Used as ties. Abbreviated with width
followed by a letter F and thickness for example; 50F8 where width ≤ 250mm.
• Plates: - Designated using symbol PL followed by length, width and thickness. For
example; PL200X1000X6mm where T ≥ 5mm.

• Steel sheets and strips: - Sheets are designated using symbol SH followed by length,
width and thickness, T > 5mm. Strips are designated using symbol ST followed by width
and thickness, T < 5mm.
• Square bars: - Steel bars of square section are made in various sizes from 5mm to 20mm
and designated as ISSQ.
• Round bars: - Round bars are used as reinforcements in RCC. Solid circular bars are
available in various from 5mm to 200mm. Designated as ISRO.
• Built-up sections: - Rolled steel sections can be strengthened by welding cover plates on
it. Two rolled steel sections can be combined to resist loads in different directions Two
steel sections can be combined with lacing plates to act as single unit.
Types of steel structures
• Buildings: - These may include rigid, semi-rigid or simple connected frames, load-bearing
walls, cable-stayed and cantilevered structures. Buildings may be single or multi-storeyed,
single bay or multiple bays. Buildings are also classified according to use, such as
residential, commercial, office, industrial etc. these buildings may include a steel frame or
a steel roof supported by load-bearing walls.
• Bridges: - Bridges may be classified as truss, plate-girder, arch, cantilever, cable-stayed or
cable suspension. The truss and plate-girder bridges are commonly adopted for small to
moderate spans and cable-stayed and suspension bridges for long spans. Bridges may be
classified as railway, road, road-rail and pedestrian bridges depending upon use.
• Towers: - Towers may be of different types, such as lighting towers, power transmission
towers, observation towers, towers for radar and TV installation, telephone rely towers and
windmill towers. Towers may be self-supporting or cable-stayed. Most towers are made of
steel angles or tubes, which are bolted at site.
• Storage tanks: - These may be rectangular, circular, or spherical. They can be used to store
water or oil. They may rest on ground or be elevated on a staging.
• Other structures: - Silos, bunkers, domes, folded plates, offshore platforms, chimneys,
cooling towers.

Advantages of steel structures

• Steel members have high strength per unit weight. Therefore, steel members of small
section having less self-weight can able to carry heavy loads.
• It has assured quality and durability.
• Being light, steel members can be conveniently handled and transported. For this
reason pre-fabricated products are frequently provided.
• Properly maintained steel structures give longer life. The properties of steel do not
change with time. This makes the steel as most suitable material for a structure.
• Steel is a ductile material which does not fail suddenly, but gives visible signs of
impending failure by large deflections.
• Speed of construction is the other advantage of steel structure. When pre-fabricated
products are ready at the site can be erected easily. This saves the construction time.
• Additions and alterations can be done easily to steel structures.
• Steel has highest scrap value amongst all building material.
• If joints are taken care, it is the best water and gas resistant which can be used to store
water.
• Material is reusable.
Disadvantages of steel structures
• They are costly.
• It is susceptible to corrosion.
• They require regular maintenance. So, maintenance cost is high.
• They become more elastic when exposed to fire.
• Needs high degree of control to ensure proper fitting of various structural elements.
Applications of steel structures
1) Construction: - Because high strength to weight ratio, slender sections can carry heavy
load and can be obtained at affordable price. So long span structures can be constructed
at low cost.
Ex: - Many historical buildings like Empire State building primarily consists of steel as
construction material. Steel also used in

• RCC
• Auditoriums
• Low- and high-rise buildings
• Piers and suspension cables
• Educational institutes and hospitals.
2) Transportation: - Used in Engineering and manufacturing sectors but bulk goes to
transport vehicles. Different types of steel are used in car body, doors, engines, gear
box, steering, wheel axels etc. Other than automotive market, steel is used to transport
materials by trains, rails, ships, tracks and transmission lines.
3) Energy: - Many sectors of power include nuclear, natural gas, wind, electric needs
steel for infrastructure. Many energy projects rely on steel for
• Oil and gas wells and platforms
• Electric transmission lines
• Pipe lines
• Transmission towers
• Wind turbines
4) Packages: - Used to protect from water, light and air exposure and fully recyclable.
Used for packing food, beverages followed by general lines and closures. (Ex: - bottle
caps)
5) Appliances: - 75% of total weight of home appliances is from steel. Used in mixers,
ovens, fridge, washing machine farm vehicles and machine tools etc.
1.2.9 CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS
• Concrete Curing Compounds
• Polymer Bonding Agents
• Polymer Modified Mortar for Repair and Maintenance
• Mould Releasing Agents
• Protective and Decorative Coatings
• Installation Aids
• Floor Hardeners and Dust-proofers

• Non-shrink High Strength Grout

• Surface Retarders
• Bond-aid for Plastering
• Ready to use Plaster
• Guniting Aid
• Construction Chemicals for Water-proofing
a. Integral Water-proofing Compounds
b. Membrane Forming Coatings
c. Polymer Modified Mineral Slurry Coatings
d. Protective and Decorative Coatings
e. Chemical DPC
f. Silicon Based Water-repellent Material
g. Waterproofing Adhesive for Tiles, Marble and Granite
h. Injection Grout for Cracks
i. Joint Sealants
Types of Admixtures used in concrete
• Plasticizers and Superplasticizers: they can help in obtaining higher workability of concrete
without using excess of water.
• Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers: Delays the setting time.
• Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers: Accelerates the setting time.
• Air-entraining Admixtures: Introduces air bubble in the concrete. It has application in
lightweight concrete.
• Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures
• Damp-proofing and Waterproofing Admixtures: used for waterproofing in water retaining
structures.
• Gas forming Admixtures

1.3 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING.
1. Foundation:
The foundation is one of the most critical structural elements of a building. It serves as the base
on which the entire structure rests and transfers the loads from the building to the ground.
Following are some important points to note about foundations:
• Purpose: The primary purpose of a foundation is to provide stability and support to
the building. It prevents the structure from settling or sinking into the ground,
thereby ensuring its durability and safety.
• Load Transfer: The foundation distributes the load of the building, including the
dead load (weight of the structure itself) and live loads (occupant loads, furniture,
and equipment), to the underlying soil or rock strata. It ensures that the loads are
dispersed over a sufficient area to prevent excessive settlement or stress on the soil.
• Types of Foundations: Foundations can be broadly classified into two types:
shallow foundations and deep foundations.
1. Shallow Foundations: These are used when the soil near the ground surface
has sufficient bearing capacity to support the building loads. Common types
of shallow foundations include spread footings, which are wider bases that

distribute the load over a larger area, and mat foundations (also known as
raft foundations), which cover the entire footprint of the building.
2. Deep Foundations: Deep foundations are used when the soil near the surface
is weak or unable to support the building loads. These foundations extend
deeper into the ground to reach stronger soil layers or bedrock. Examples
of deep foundations include piles (concrete, steel, or timber) driven or
drilled into the ground and caissons, which are large-diameter cylindrical
structures that are excavated and filled with concrete.
• Soil Investigation: Before designing the foundation, a thorough geotechnical
investigation is conducted to assess the properties of the soil or rock beneath the
building site. This investigation determines the soil bearing capacity, presence of
any weak or compressible layers, groundwater level, and other relevant factors that
influence the design of the foundation.
• Structural Design: The design of a foundation involves considering the building
loads, soil properties, and other factors such as seismic activity, groundwater
conditions, and local building codes. Structural engineers analyze the data from soil
investigations to determine the appropriate type, size, and depth of the foundation
to ensure its stability and prevent excessive settlement.
• Foundation Materials: Foundations are commonly constructed using reinforced
concrete due to its strength, durability, and ability to resist compressive and bending
forces. Steel may also be used in certain cases, particularly for deep foundation
elements such as piles. The choice of material depends on factors such as cost,
availability, site conditions, and structural requirements.
• Waterproofing and Drainage: Proper waterproofing measures are essential for
foundations, especially in areas with high groundwater levels or heavy rainfall.
Waterproofing membranes, drainage systems, and appropriate grading techniques
are employed to prevent water infiltration and potential damage to the foundation.
• Maintenance and Repair: Foundations require regular maintenance and periodic
inspections to ensure their structural integrity. Any signs of cracks, settlement, or
movement should be promptly addressed by qualified professionals. Foundation

repairs may involve underpinning techniques, stabilization methods, or

strengthening measures to restore the foundation's stability and functionality.
• It is important to note that foundation design and construction should comply with
local building codes, regulations, and engineering standards to ensure the safety
and structural integrity of the building.
2. Columns:
• Columns are vertical structural elements that support the weight of the building and
transfer it to the foundation.
• They are typically made of steel, reinforced concrete, or composite materials.
• Columns come in various shapes, such as rectangular, circular, or square,
depending on the structural requirements and architectural design.
3. Beams:
• Beams are horizontal or inclined structural members that carry loads from the
floors, walls, or roof to the columns or walls.
• They distribute the load evenly to prevent excessive deflection and ensure structural
stability.
• Beams can be made of reinforced concrete, steel, or wood and are often designed
as rectangular, I-shaped, or T-shaped sections.
4. Slabs:
• Slabs are horizontal structural elements that provide the floors, roofs, or ceilings of
a building.
• They transfer loads to the beams, walls, or columns and distribute them evenly.
• Common types of slabs include solid slabs, flat slabs, one-way slabs, two-way
slabs, and waffle slabs.
5. Walls:
• Walls are vertical structural elements that enclose and define the spaces within a
building.
• They provide stability, support vertical loads, and resist lateral forces (such as wind
or seismic loads).

• Walls can be load-bearing (supporting the weight of the structure) or non-load-

bearing (only serve as partitions).
6. Roofing Systems:
• Roofing systems protect the building from weather elements and provide a covering
for the top of the structure.
• Common roofing systems include pitched roofs (with slopes) and flat roofs.
• Roof structures can be made of various materials, such as concrete, steel, wood, or
a combination, depending on the design and climate conditions.
7. Trusses:
• Trusses are structural frameworks made of beams and designed to carry loads over
long spans.
• They consist of interconnected triangles that provide rigidity and strength.
• Trusses are often used in roofs and bridges to distribute the load efficiently and
minimize the use of materials.
8. Footings:
• Footings are structural elements that support the foundation and distribute the
building load to the soil.
• They are wider than the foundation walls to spread the load over a larger area and
prevent excessive settlement.
• Footings can be shallow (spread footings) or deep (such as pile footings) depending
on the soil conditions and building requirements.
9. Lateral Bracing:
• Lateral bracing elements, such as shear walls or braced frames, provide resistance
against horizontal forces (such as wind or seismic loads).
• Shear walls are vertical elements that resist lateral loads through their stiffness and
strength.
• Braced frames consist of diagonal braces that absorb and distribute lateral forces to
the foundation.
10. Staircases:

• Staircases provide vertical circulation within a building, connecting different floors

or levels.
• They consist of steps (treads and risers) and structural supports (stringers).
• Staircases can be made of various materials, such as concrete, steel, wood, or a
combination, depending on the design and requirements.

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INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING (BESCK104A)

CIVIL ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES AND BUILDING

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING:

Surveying are of two types

The scope of surveying and leveling are:

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 1

1.1.2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:

A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements like foundations, columns,

Scope of structural engineering:

1.1.3 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING (Soil Mechanics):

Geotechnical engineering has a much wider scope, they are

a) It is concerned with the properties of earth materials

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 2

f) To design foundations for machines such as turbines, compressors, etc. to transmit

1.1.4. HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCES

Scope of water resources and irrigation engineering:

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 3

1.1.5. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:

Scope of water resources and transportation engineering:

1.1.6. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:

Scope of environmental engineering:

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 4

a) The study of the importance of protection and conservation of our environment

1.1.7. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING AND PROECT MANAGEMENT:

a) Money, Materials, Machines, Manpower, Methodologies,

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 5

1.2. BUILDING MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION:

Some of the building materials are:

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 6

• It is a good & durable construction material.

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 7

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BUILDING STONE

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 8

Availability: It should be easily available & cheap.

First class bricks:

• These should be free from flaws, cracks and stones.

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 9

• These should have uniform texture.

• The crushing strength should not be less than 7.0 N/mm2.

Uses: It is used for building temporary structures.

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 10

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD BRICKS

• Size: should be standard as per IS codes (i.e., 190 x 190 x 90 mm).

• Hardness: when scratched by finger nail no impression should be made.

• Crushing strength: Not less than 3.5N/mm2.

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 11

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 12

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 13

1.2.4 CEMENT MORTAR

Table 1. Cement to sand proportions for various works

Sl. No. Works Cement: Sand

2. A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.

3. Well-proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 14

Sl No. Cement:Sand Compressive Strength in N/mm2

1.2.5 PLAIN CONCRETE

Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material,

Table 3. Proportion of cement, sand and coarse aggregates in concrete.

Sl. No. Proportion Nature of Work

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 15

Functions of Various Ingredients

1.2.6 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (R.C.C.)

COORG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PONNAMPET (2021-2022) 16