Mod 1-Introduction To Civil Engg

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
MODULE I
CIVIL ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES & BUILDING SCIENCE

Civil engineering- Civil engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public
works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural
components of buildings, and railways. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline
after military engineering. Its relation to the fulfillment of human needs is direct, whereas the
other engineering branches are complementary to the function of civil engineering. It is called
the general engineering because it uses the principles and information provided by other
branches of engineering while erecting civil engineering structures. It is traditionally broken into
a number of sub-disciplines, which are discussed as follows:
SURVEYING
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative positions of different features on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and finally
representing them on a sheet of paper known as plan or map. Surveying can also be defined as
the science and art of making all essential measurements to determine the relative position of
points or physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface of the Earth, and to
depict them in a usable form, or to establish the position of points or details. It also includes the
technique of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements. From the
plans, sections, and maps prepared by surveying, the area and volume of a particular plot of land
can be calculated. A map represents the horizontal projection of the area surveyed and not the
actual area. But the vertical distance can be represented more correctly by drawing sections.
During a survey, surveyors use various tools to do their job successfully and accurately, such as
total stations, GPS receivers, prisms, 3D scanners, radio communicators, digital levels, dumpy
level and surveying software etc.
Importance of Surveying: The knowledge of surveying is advantageous in many phases of
engineering. Surveying is of vital importance in any engineering project. Some of the basic
importance of surveying is discussed below.
• The first necessity in surveying is to prepare a plan and a section of an area to be covered
by the project. From these prepared maps and sections, the best possible alignment,
amount of earthwork and other necessary details depending upon the nature of the project
can be calculated.
• The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as railways, highways,
tunneling, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks, sewerage works, airfields, ports,
massive buildings, etc. are based upon surveying measurements.
ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

• During execution of the project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and
points established by surveying.
• The measurement of land and the fixation of its boundaries cannot be done without
surveying.
• The economic feasibility of the engineering feasibility of a project cannot be properly
ascertained without undertaking a survey work.
• The execution of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping requires
surveying.
• Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map of a land surface of the earth.
Surveying is classified into two broad categories: Plane surveying & Geodetic surveying.
Plane surveying: In this type of surveying, the effect of curvature of the surface of earth is not
taken into account. The surface of earth is taken to be a plane surface. Therefore, plane
surveying is adopted for small areas. The degree of accuracy of plane survey is relatively low.
Geodetic surveying: In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth's surface is taken into
account. These are carried out for large distances and areas with a high degree of precision. In
India, Survey of India, a government department, undertakes the work of geodetic surveying.
General classification of surveying: Surveys are generally classified on the basis of purpose of
the survey and the instruments used for surveying.
Classification based on the purpose of surveying
Topographical surveys: These surveys are carried out to locate the natural and artificial features
on the surface of earth, such as rivers, hills, lakes, roads, railways, towns, villages, etc.
Cadastral surveys: These surveys are required for determining the boundaries of fields, houses
and other properties to a larger scale.
City surveys: These surveys are carried out for laying out the boundaries of plots for the
location of water supply and sewer lines.
Mine surveys: In this survey the underground mineral wealth such as iron ores, coal, gold, etc.
are explored.
Classification based on the instrument used for surveying
1. Chain survey
2. Compass survey
3. Chain and compass survey
4. Theodolite survey
5. Tachometric survey
6. Plane table survey
7. Electronic distance meter survey.
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Structural engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering in which structural engineers are
trained to design the framework of structures that create the form and shape of man-made
structures. Structural engineers also must understand and calculate the stability,

strength, rigidity and earthquake-susceptibility of built structures for buildings and nonbuilding
structures. The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such
as architects and building services engineer and often supervise the construction of projects
by contractors on site. They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical equipment,
and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety. Structural engineering
theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural
performance of different materials and geometries. The design uses a number of relatively simple
structural concepts to build complex structural systems. Structural engineers are responsible for
making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these
goals. A structural engineer's job includes:
• Analyzing blueprints, maps, reports, and topographical and geological data;
• Estimating the cost and quantities of materials, equipment and labor;
• Computing load and grade requirements, water flow rates and material stress factors to
determine design specifications;
• Inspecting project sites to monitor progress and ensure the project is being constructed
according to design specifications;
• Conducting studies of traffic patterns or environmental conditions to identify potential
problems and assess how they will affect the project.
Structural engineers rely increasingly on computer-aided design (CAD) systems, so proficiency
with computers is essential. In addition to speeding up the drafting process, CAD systems allow
for quick and easy modifications of designs and three-dimensional (3D) visualization of finished
parts and assemblies.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Geotechnical engineering is the specialist branch of civil engineering concerned with the
behaviour of earth materials and the application of soil and rock mechanics. This branch of civil
engineering is also called soil mechanics. It is a discipline of civil engineering in which the
study of soil, its behaviour on the application of load and its use as an engineering material in
the construction of earth dams, is done. The properties and strength characteristics of different
types of soil are studied in this subject. The knowledge of this subject is useful in the design of
earth dams, different pile foundations, buildings, foundations, etc. Geotechnical engineers
determine the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of soil and rock to design
foundations, retaining structures and earthworks. A geotechnical engineer will work to support
the design and construction of a project. They will carry out tests and analyses to assess risk to
humans and the environment. These tests will disclose the risk that can arise from natural
hazards such as avalanches, rock falls, sinkholes, and earthquakes. They deal with structures
such as roads, embankments, bridges, canals and many other construction projects. A
geotechnical site investigation determines the engineering parameters of soil and rock and how
they will interact with a proposed construction. The aim of ground investigation is to assess the
geotechnical, geological and hydrological risks to humans, property and the environment. The

ground substrate can be made out of many different natural materials such as soil, sand or rock.
It is the role of the geotechnical engineer to assess how it will interact with the project.
HYDRAULICS & WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Fluid mechanics is a branch of science in which the study of fluids, i.e., liquids and gases, at
rest and in motion is done. Usually, the liquid is water and the subject is titled hydraulics.
When the water is at rest, the forces exerted by the water on immersed areas are found out by
the laws of mechanics. Thus, the knowledge of these forces is useful in the design of the gates
used to control the flood water in case of dams. When water is drawn off from a reservoir and
conveyed through closed conduits or open channels, the knowledge of the behaviour of liquids
in motion is useful. Thus, in the design of water supply distribution systems, the study of fluid
mechanics helps to solve the problems encountered in the design. Certain machines which
work on the water are used for the generation of electricity and are termed hydraulic machines.
Knowledge of fluid mechanics is useful in designing these machines so that they give the best
possible output. Water Resource Engineering can be defined as the science which deals with
the subject of tapping water either from the surface or subsurface sources. It is such a vast
subject that it includes in itself hydrology, irrigation, hydraulics and water supply. Tremendous
volume of water is stored in the earth 's crust. The use of surface water for irrigation is likely to
create problems like waterlogging in certain areas. Groundwater is obtainable all the year
round and its use along with the surface water keeps the subsoil water level within reasonable
limits. The judicious use of water for purposes of irrigation has gained such importance in the
recent times that water management has become a science in itself. Engineers have learnt to
tame the water resources by construction of dams, bore wells and hydroelectric plants for the
benefit of mankind. Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic
cycle, the distribution and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans.
Applications include the management of the urban water supply, the design of urban storm-
sewer systems, and flood forecasting. It consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water
flowing in an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean).
Hydroelectric-power development, water supply, irrigation and navigation are some familiar
applications of water resources engineering involving the utilization of water for beneficial
purposes. More recently, concern for preserving our natural environment and meeting the
needs of developing countries has increased the importance of water resources engineering.
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering that involves the planning, design,
operation, and maintenance of transportation systems to help build smart, safe, and livable
communities. Any system that moves people and goods from one place to other falls under the
scope of transportation engineering, which includes:
• Highways and roadways
• Railways

• Oil pipelines
• Public transport systems
• Traffic control systems
• Automated transport systems
• Space transport systems
In planning projects, transportation engineers gather relevant data on the population in the
surrounding area, travel patterns, socioeconomic characteristics, laws and ordinances, and
financial resources. They consolidate this information and use decision-support tools to develop,
design, and deliver various types of transportation projects in consideration of various
performance measures (e.g., operations, safety, environmental impacts). Some of the most
common responsibilities of a transportation engineer are:
• Draft design and construction plans for new transportation systems
• Investigate traffic problems and identify solutions
• Analyze engineering data and draw conclusions and recommendations
• Estimate project budgets for labor, materials, and equipment
• Discuss plans with contractors, local organizations, and the public
• Inspect completed projects to ensure safety and compliance to standards
• Model transportation systems to assess impact
• Oversee survey, staking, and layout of projects
• Present reports and proposals to stakeholders
Transportation engineers plan and manage the construction of transportation facilities. The
transportation facilities often include roadways, highways, airports, railways, bicycle/pedestrian
paths, waterways, and public transit facilities. These projects can range in size from small road-
widening projects to major freeway interchange projects, from pedestrian pathways to multi-lane
bridges on a highway. There can be some overlap between the types of projects structural and
transportation engineers work on, but transportation engineering focuses on the design and
implementation of transportation infrastructures that are safe, comfortable, economical,
convenient, and environmentally sound.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
The environmental engineering branch of civil engineering studies the effects of projects on the
environment. Environmental engineers study and evaluate impacts to cultural resources, noise
impacts, threatened and endangered species, water quality, air quality, wetlands, and socio-
economic impacts to name a few. Their aim is to identify the environmental impacts of a project
and to suggest ways to eliminate or mitigate those impacts. The goal of environmental
engineering is to help develop a project that has the least amount of impact on the natural
environment. Example projects where environmental engineers would be involved with include:
• Environmental evaluation, such as assessing project impacts to soil and groundwater
• Assessing wetlands and streams through delineation, determination, and categorization to
accurately identify impacts

• Designing mitigation plans that eliminate or off-set impacts to environmental resources

• Presenting project implementation options for avoiding impacts to species of concern,
including endangered species
• Helping to develop solutions to environmental issues like erosion control, water or air
pollution
• Working with districts, cities, or counties to solve stormwater runoff pollution issues
• Coordinating with agency oversight at the local, state, and federal level to most
reasonably protect environmental resources and achieve project goals
This division of civil engineering is crucial for long-term, sustainable projects that keep the
environment and public health as top priorities. This is a field of broad scope that draws on
such disciplines as chemistry, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, economics
, and mathematics. It was traditionally a specialized field within civil engineering and was called
sanitary engineering until the mid-1960s, when the more accurate name environmental
engineering was adopted. Projects in environmental engineering involve the treatment and
distribution of drinking water (water supply system); the collection, treatment, and disposal of
wastewater (wastewater treatment); the control of air pollution and noise pollution;
municipal solid-waste management and hazardous-waste management; the clean-up of
hazardous-waste sites; and the preparation of environmental assessments, audits, and impact
studies. Mathematical modeling and computer analysis are widely used to evaluate and design
the systems required for such tasks. Chemical and mechanical engineers may also be involved in
the process. Environmental engineers seek solutions to environmental challenges that impact the
health and well-being of society and the environment. The technical skills environmental
engineers learn are used to develop strategies and technologies to treat and protect the quality of
air, water and earth. They also address emerging global challenges such as the impact of climate
change on communities and ecosystems.
CONSTRUCTION PLANNING & PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Construction planning is an important step when building a structure because it outlines the
project and provides guidelines to ensure the project is a success. It is the process of identifying
the steps required to build a structure. It involves defining what actions need to be completed,
creating an ordered timeline of events, staffing the project and determining the necessary
materials and equipment. A well-crafted construction plan is important to keep the project on
schedule and within budget. It can also help ensure the overall quality of the project that meets
the client's standards. Finally, having a construction plan can increase the team's productivity and
efficiency by streamlining communication. Construction project management involves directing
and organizing each part of the project life cycle, from ideation to completion. It’s a holistic
practice with the goal of delivering projects on time and under budget. It is a complex discipline
that requires addressing many important concerns, including cost control, scheduling,
procurement, and risk assessment. Project managers interact with all team members involved in a
construction project, from architects to owners to contractors. Construction project management

involves team members from financial planners and C-suite executives to contractors, engineers,
on-the-ground crew members, and others. The role of project manager is critical & may be filled
by a contractor, an owner who handles projects in-house, or even a dedicated construction
manager. The project manager’s goal would be to ensure the entire construction process goes
smoothly and according to plan. They’re responsible for maintaining a tight schedule, staying
within budget, allocating resources, avoiding scope creep, and ensuring quality. They assess risks
in real time and keep stakeholders informed. By centralizing information and streamlining
communication, the project manager enables efficient processes that otherwise wouldn’t be
possible. The following five major stages of construction projects is a must for successfully
managing them.
1. Planning and Development
2. Design
3. Preconstruction
4. Procurement
5. Construction
A clear knowledge of the following points is necessary for reliable construction and its
management. The ten Ms of construction management are: Money, Materials, Machines,
Manpower, Methodologies, Maintenance, Modernization, Monitoring, Motivations,
Managements of all types.
BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
BRICKS:
Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying
and burning these blocks. As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged, are light
in weight and hence bricks replace stones.
Classification: Bricks can broadly be divided into two categories- i) Unburnt or sundried bricks
& ii) Burnt bricks.
i) Unburnt or sun-dried bricks- Unburnt or sun-dried bricks are those that are dried with the help
of heat received from sun after the process of moulding. These bricks can only be used in the
constructions of temporary and cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at places
exposed to heavy rains.
ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks used in construction works are burnt bricks and they are classified
into the following four categories.

a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table moulded and of standard shape. The surface and
edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They comply with all the qualities of
good bricks and are used for superior work of permanent nature.
b. Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and are burnt in kilns. The surface
of bricks is somewhat rough and shape is also slightly irregular. These bricks are commonly used
at places where brick work is to be provided with a coat of plaster.
c. Third class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and are burnt in clamps. These
bricks are not hard and they have rough surfaces with irregular and distorted edges. These bricks
give dull sound when struck together. They are used for unimportant and temporary structures
and at places where rainfall is not heavy.
d. Fourth class bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour.
These bricks are used as aggregate for concrete in foundation, floors, roads, etc. because of the
fact that the over burnt bricks have compacted structure and hence, they are sometimes found
stronger than even first-class bricks.
Qualities of Good Brick:

(i) Bricks should be table moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks
and with sharp and square edges.
(ii) They should be uniform shape and of standard size.
(iii) They should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.
(iv) When broken, they should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure free from
voids.
(v) They should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class and 22
percent by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24 hours.
(vi) They should be sufficiently hard with no impression left on brick surface, when it is
scratched with finger nail.
(vii) They should have low thermal conductivity and be sound proof.
(viii) They should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one
meter.
(ix) They, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts when
allowed to dry in shade.
(x) No brick should have crushing strength below 55kg/cm2.
Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

Alumina: A good brick earth should contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent
imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina is present in excess, raw bricks
shrink and warp during drying and burning.
Silica: A good brick earth should contain about 50 to 60 percent of silica. Silica exists in clay
either as free or combined form. As free sand, it is mechanically mixed with clay and in
combined form; it exists in chemical composition with alumina. Presence of silica prevents
shrinking and warping of raw bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks. Durability of

bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth. Excess of silica destroys the
cohesion between particles and bricks become brittle.
Lime: A small quantity of lime is desirable in finely powdered state to prevent shrinkage of raw
bricks. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence, its shape is lost due to the splitting of
bricks.
Oxide of iron: A small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of 5 to 6 % is desirable in good
brick to impart red colour to bricks. Excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or
blackish.
Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to bricks, and
decreases shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks. The ingredients like,
lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, pebbles, organic matter should not present in good brick earth.
Field tests of good quality bricks:
1. Uniformity in shape & size: A good brick should have rectangular plane surface and uniform
in size. This check is made in the field by observation.
2. Uniformity in colour: A good brick will have uniform colour. This can be done by inspection.
3. Structure: Few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section is observed. The
section should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes and lumps.
4. Sound test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should produce clear ringing sound.
The sound should not be dull.
5. Hardness test: Scratch the brick with nail. If no impression is marked on the surface, the brick
is sufficiently hard.
6. Water absorption: Brick specimen is weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for 24
hrs. It is weighed again and the difference indicates amount of water absorption. This should not
be more than 20%.
MORTAR:
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or Lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two
components of mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are sometimes referred to
as matrix. The durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depend on quantity and
quality of the matrix. The combined effect of the two components of mortar is that the mass is
able to bind the bricks or stones firmly.
Properties of good mortar:
1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones
etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
3. It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
4. It should be cheap, durable & easily workable.
7. It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.

Uses:
1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
2. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry.
3. To form an even bedding layer for building units.
4. To form joints of pipes.
5. To improve the appearance of structure.
Types of Mortar: The mortars are classified on the basis of the following:
1. Bulk density: According to the bulk density of mortar in dry state, there are two types of
mortars: (i) Heavy mortars & (ii) Lightweight mortars.
(i) Heavy Mortars: The mortars having bulk density of 15 kN/m3 or more are known as the heavy
mortars and they are prepared from heavy quartzes or other sands.
(ii) Lightweight Mortars: The mortars having bulk density less than 15 kN/m 3 are known as the
lightweight mortars and they are prepared from light porous sands from pumice and other fine
aggregates.
2. Kind of binding material: The kind of binding material for a mortar is selected by keeping in
mind several factors such as expected working conditions, hardening temperature, moisture
conditions, etc. According to the kind of binding material, the mortars are classified into the
following five categories:
(i) Lime mortar
(ii) Surkhi mortar
(iii) Cement mortar
(iv) Gauged mortar
(v) Gypsum mortar.
(i) Lime Mortar: In this type of mortar, the lime is used as binding material. The lime may be fat
lime or hydraulic lime. The fat lime shrinks to a great extent and hence it requires about 2 to 3
times its volume of sand. The lime should be slaked before use. This mortar is unsuitable for
water-logged areas or in damp situations. For hydraulic lime, the proportion of lime to sand by
volume is about 1:2 or so. This mortar should be consumed within one hour after mixing. It
possesses more strength and can be used in damp situations. The lime mortar has a high
plasticity and it can be placed easily. It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces and

shrinks very little. It is sufficiently durable, but it hardens slowly. It is generally used for lightly
loaded above-ground parts of buildings.
(ii) Surkhi Mortar: This type of mortar is prepared by using fully surkhi instead of sand or by
replacing half of sand in case of fat lime mortar. The powder of surkhi should be fine enough to
pass BIS No. 9 sieve and the residue should not be more than 10% by weight. The surkhi mortar
is used for ordinary masonry work of all kinds in foundation and superstructure. But it cannot be
used for plastering or pointing since surkhi is likely to disintegrate after some time.
(iii) Cement Mortar: In this type of mortar, the cement is used as binding material. Depending
upon the strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand by volume
varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more. It should be noted that surkhi and cinder are not chemically inert
substances and hence they cannot be used as adulterants with matrix as cement. Thus, the sand
only can be used to form cement mortar. The proportion of cement with respect to sand should
be determined with due regard to the specified durability and working conditions. The cement
mortar is used where a mortar of high strength and water-resisting properties is required such as
underground constructions, water saturated soils, etc.
(iv) Gauged Mortar: To improve the quality of lime mortar and to achieve early strength, cement
is sometimes added to it. This process is known as the gauging. It makes lime mortar
economical, strong and dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to
1:8. It is also known as the composite mortar or lime-cement mortar and it can also be formed by
the combination of cement and clay. This mortar may be used for bedding and for thick brick
walls.
(v) Gypsum Mortar: These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as building
gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.
3. Nature of application: According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into
two categories: (i) Bricklaying mortars & (ii) Finishing mortars.
(i) Bricklaying Mortars: These mortars are intended to be used for brickwork and walls.
Depending upon the working conditions and type of construction, the composition of masonry
mortars with respect to the kind of binding material is decided.
(ii) Finishing Mortars: These mortars include common plastering work and mortars for
developing architectural or ornamental effects. Cement or lime is generally used as binding
material for ordinary plastering mortar. For decorative finishing, the mortars are composed of
suitable materials with due consideration of mobility, water retention, resistance to atmospheric
actions, etc.
4. Special mortars: Following are the various types of special mortars which are used for certain
conditions:
(i) Fire-resistant mortar
(ii) Lightweight mortar
(iii) Packing mortar
(iv) Sound-absorbing mortar
(v) X-ray shielding mortar.

(i) Fire-Resistant Mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding aluminous cement to the finely
crushed powder of fire-bricks. The usual proportion is 1 part of aluminous cement to 2 parts of
powder of fire-bricks. This mortar is fire-resistant and it is therefore used with fire-bricks for
lining furnaces, fire places, ovens, etc.
(ii) Lightweight Mortar: This mortar is prepared by adding materials such as saw dust, wood
powder, etc. to the lime mortar or cement mortar. Other materials which may be added are
asbestos fibres, jute fibres, coir, etc. This mortar is used in sound-proof and heat-proof
constructions.
(iii) Packing Mortar: To pack oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties of high
homogeneity, water resistance, predetermined setting time, ability to form solid water-proof
plugs in cracks and voids of rocks, resistance to subsoil water pressure, etc. have to be formed.
The varieties of packing mortars include cement-sand, cement-loam and cement-sand-loam. The
composition of packing mortar is decided by taking into consideration the hydrogeologic
conditions, packing methods and type of timbering.
(iv) Sound-Absorbing Mortar: To reduce the noise level, the sound-absorbing plaster is formed
with the help of sound-absorbing mortar. The bulk density of such a mortar varies from 6 to 12
kN/m3 and the binding materials employed in its composition may be Portland cement, lime,
gypsum, slag, etc. The aggregates are selected from lightweight porous materials such as pumice,
cinders, etc.
(v) X-Ray Shielding Mortar: This type of mortar is used for providing the plastering coat to walls
and ceiling of X-ray cabinets. It is a heavy type of mortar with bulk density over 22 kN/m 3. The
aggregates are obtained from heavy rock and suitable admixtures are added to enhance the
protective property of such a mortar.
Preparation of cement mortar: For preparing mortar, water is added to intimate mixtures of
binding material and sand. The water to be used for this purpose should be free from clay, earth
and other impurities. Water which is fit for drinking should only be used for preparing mortar.
Cement mortar may be prepared by manual mixing or by mechanical mixing. Mechanical mixing
is preferred when mortar is required in large quantities to be used in continuous order.
a. Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, cement and sand in desired proportion are fed in the
mixer and mixed dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet mixing a continued for at least
one minute to obtain the mortar of desired consistency. It is necessary to ensure that only the
quantity of mortar which can be used within half an hour of its mixing should be prepared at a
time. This is essential as after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.
b. Manual mixing: In this case, specified quantity of sand is spread and leveled on clean dry
masonry platform. Required quantity of cement bags are emptied over the sand layer. The
ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over the sand layer. The ingredients are
then mixed thoroughly by turning them over and over, backward and forward several times with
the help of spade. Dry mixing is continued till the mix attains a uniform colour. A batch of dry
mix is then put in the shallow masonry tank and just sufficient quantity of water is added to bring

the mortar to the consistency of a paste. The quantity of dry mix taken in each batch should be
such the mortar formed each time is consumed within half an hour.
CEMENT
Cement is an extremely fine material having adhesive and cohesive properties which provides a
binding medium for the discrete ingredients.
Chemical Composition of Cement: The materials used for the manufacturing consist mainly of
Lime, Silica, Alumina and Iron oxide. Oxides present in the raw materials when subjected to
high clinkering temperature combine with each other to form complex compounds. The
identification of the major complex compounds is based on R.H. Bogue’s work and hence these
are called Bogue’s compounds. In addition to the four major components, there are mainly minor
compounds form in the kiln. The influence of these minor compounds on the properties of
cement or hydrated compounds is not sufficient. Two of the minor oxides namely Pottassium
oxide (K2O) and Sodium oxide (Na2O) referred to as alkalies in cement are of some importance.
Constituents Percentage Average Percentage
Lime (Cao) 62 – 67 % 62
Silica (SiO2) 17 – 25 % 22
Alumina (Al2O3) 3–8% 5
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3–4% 4
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3–4% 3
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 – 3 % 2
Sulphur 1–3% 1
Soda and Potash (Na2O + K2O) 0.5 – 1.3 % 1
Bogue’s compounds:
Name Chemical Formula Percentage
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) 3CaOSIO2 30 – 50 %
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) 2CaOSiO2 20 – 45 %
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) 3CaOAl2O3 8 – 12 %
Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite (C4AF) 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3 6 – 10 %
Types of Cement: There are different types of cement classified as follows-
1. Ordinary Portland Cements: a. 33 Grade, b. 43 Grade, c. 53 Grade
2. Rapid Hardening Cements
3. Extra Rapid Hardening Cements

4. Low Heat Portland Cements

5. Portland Slag Cements
6. Portland Pozzolana cements
7. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cements
8. White Portland Cements
9. Coloured Portland Cements
10. Hydrophobic Cements
11. High Alumina Cements
12. Super Sulphated Cements
13. Special Cements: a. Masonry Cements, b. Air Entraining Cement, c. Expansive Cements
Field Tests for Cements:
▪ Colour: Grey color with a light greenish shade. It is done by inspection.
▪ Physical properties: Cement should feel smooth when rubbed between the fingers.
▪ If hand is inserted in a bag, it should feel cool.
▪ If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink and should not
float on the surface.
▪ Presence of lumps: Cement should free from lumps.
Laboratory Tests for Cements:
1. Chemical composition test: This is the test in which the ratio of percentage of lime to
percentage of silica, alumina and iron oxide, when calculated by the formula (CaO – 0.7SO3) /
(2.8SiO2 + 1.2Al2O3 + 0.65Fe2O3) shall not be greater than 1.02 and not less than 0.66.
2. Normal (standard) consistency test: This test is to determine the normal consistency of a
cement paste which is defined as that consistency which will permit a Vicat plunger
having 10mm diameter and 50mm length to penetrate a depth of 33 to 35mm from the top of the
mould.
3. Initial and final setting time test: This test is to determine the initial & final setting time of
cement using suitable apparatus. Initial setting time is the time that elapses between the moment
the water is added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity. Final setting
time is the time that elapses between the moment the water is added to the cement and the time
when the paste has completely lost its plasticity and has attained sufficient firmness to resist
certain pressure.
4. Soundness test: This test is to determine soundness of cement which indicates that the cement
paste, once it has set, does not undergo change in volume causing concrete to crack.
5. Strength test: This test is to determine the compressive strength and tensile strength of cement.
6. Fineness test: Fineness test of cement is done to determine the particle size of cement.
7. Heat of hydration test: Heat evolves during hydration of cement, the amount being dependent
on the relative quantity of clinker compounds. This test is used to determine the heat of hydration
of cement with an apparatus known as Calorimeter.
8. Specific gravity test: This test is to determine the specific gravity of cement which is an
important property. It is determined using an apparatus called Le Chatelier’s flask,

Specific gravity = Weight of Cement / Weight of Displaced volume of Liquid.
PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)

Plain cement concrete (PCC) is a hardened mass obtained from a mixture of cement, sand, gravel,
and water in definite proportions. It does not contain a steel rod. These ingredients are mixed
together in a definite proportion to form a plastic mass which is poured into desired shape moulds
called as forms. This plastic mass hardens on setting and we get PCC. The hardening of this mixture
is caused by a chemical reaction between the cement and water. Plain cement concrete (PCC) has
good compressive strength and very little tensile strength, thus limiting its use in construction.
Plain concrete is used where good compressive strength and weight are the main requirements
and tensile stresses are very low.
Materials used in plain cement concrete

1. Cement: It is the chemically active ingredient of concrete. It shows binding properties after
reacting with water. It consists of silicates and aluminates of calcium which form a hardened mass
after mixing with water. Portland pozzolana cement is generally used for plain cement concrete.
2. Sand: Sand used for concrete work should be hard, durable, strong, well-graded, clean & should
meet the requirements specified for its use.
3. Aggregates: The bulk concrete is made up of aggregates. Aggregates are inert materials or
chemically inactive materials like crushed rock, sand, broken bricks, gravel, etc. Aggregates of size
less than 4.75 mm are known as fine aggregates and aggregates of size more than 4.75 mm size are
called coarse aggregates. Fine aggregate acts as a filler between the coarse aggregate and coarse
aggregates give the strength to concrete and provide workability to the concrete mix. The aggregates
should be hard, strong, durable, and well graded.
4. Water: Water is required for providing workability to concrete and also for the chemical reaction
of cement. The water used for mixing and curing of concrete should be clean and free from injurious
amounts of acids, alkalis, salts, or other chemical substances, which can harm concrete or steel.
Properties of plain cement concrete:
1. Compressive strength: The compressive strength of PCC lies between 200 to 500 kg/cm2.
2. Tensile strength: The tensile strength of plain cement concrete lies between 50 to 100 kg/cm2.
3. Density: The density of concrete ranges from 2200 kg/m3 to 2400 kg/m3.
4. Durability: It is more durable.

Uses of PCC: The following are uses of PCC:

1. It is used as a base below all types of foundations to provide a hard and level surface for
laying the foundation.
2. It is used at the plinth level to provide a hard and level surface for laying floor tiles & to act
as a damp proof course (DPC).
3. It is used as coping over top of parapet walls to protect the wall from rain.
4. It is used for pavements and roads.
5. It is used for mass concrete structures such as retaining walls.
REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)

Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in
resisting forces is called Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). The reinforcing steel—rods, bars,
or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete
structure. Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind,
earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore unsuitable in most structural
applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the compressive strength of
concrete work together to allow the member to sustain these stresses over considerable spans.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:

1. Strength: Reinforced concrete has very good strength in tension as well as compression. This
makes concrete a desired construction material.
2. Economy: Concrete constituents are widely available worldwide and inexpensive. Similarly,
the production cost of concrete is very low. There is an overall economy by using reinforced
concrete because its maintenance cost is low due to the long-lasting nature of reinforced
concrete. Reinforced concrete offers durability, resilience, low maintenance requirements and
energy efficiency in concrete structures thereby reducing operating costs related to operational
energy consumption, maintenance, and rebuilding following disasters.
3. Versatility: Concrete can be placed into various shapes of shuttering or formwork
configurations to form desired shapes, form, surface, texture and sizes at construction site. This
is because fresh concrete is flowable and is in liquid state. Therefore, it is more suitable for
architectural requirements.

4. Durability: Reinforced Concrete structures are durable if designed and laid properly. The
material is not affected by weather such as rainfall and snow, and they can last up to 100 years.
Due to low permeability, concrete can resist chemicals dissolved in water such as
sulfates, chloride and carbon dioxide, which may cause corrosion in concrete, without serious
deterioration. That is why reinforced concrete is ideal for underwater and submerged
applications like for building structures, pipelines, dams, canals, linings and waterfront
structures.
5. Fire Resistance: The nature of concrete does not allow it to catch fire or burn. It can withstand
heat for 2–6 hours enabling sufficient time for rescue operations in case of fire. Reinforced
concrete buildings are more fire resistant than other commonly used construction materials like
steel and wood. It is suitable to fireproof steel and used in high temperature and blast
applications.
6. Ductility: The steel reinforcement imparts ductility to the reinforced concrete structures.
Ductility enables concrete to show sign of distress such as cracking and deflection if reinforced
concrete members experience overloading. This enables engineers to consider suitable measures
to prevent further concrete damages.
7. Seismic Resistance: Properly designed reinforced concrete structures are extremely resistant to
earthquakes.
8. Ease of Construction: Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires
less skilled labor for the erection of the structure.
9. Multi-Mode Application: One of the major advantages of concrete is its ability to be used in
different application methodologies. Concrete is hand applied, poured, pumped, sprayed, grouted
and also used for advanced applications such as shotcrete and tunnels.
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete:
• Reinforced concrete structures are heavier than others like steel, wood and glass
structures.
• Concrete Buildings need massive formwork, centering, shuttering to be fixed. As a result,
it requires lots of site space and labor work.
• Concrete takes time to attain its full strength. So, it cannot be used immediately after
construction in contrast to steel structures.
• The main steps in using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All of this
affects the final strength.
• The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.
• Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.
Applications of Reinforced Concrete:
1. Buildings
2. Bridges
3. Flyovers
4. Water Tanks
5. Roads

6. Floating Structures
7. Foundations
8. Marine Structures
9. Pipes and Conduits
10. Precast Works
11. Chimneys and Towers
12. Retaining Walls
13. Bunkers and Silos
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

Concrete reinforced by either pre tensioning or post tensioning, allowing it to carry a greater load
or span a greater distance than ordinary reinforced concrete is called Prestressed Concrete (PSC). In
pre tensioning, lengths of steel wire or cables are laid in the empty mold and stretched. The
concrete is placed and allowed to set, and the cables are released, placing the concrete into
compression as the steel shrinks back to its original length. In post tensioning, the steel in the
concrete is stretched after the curing process. Prestressing places a concrete member in
compression; these compressive stresses counteract the tensile bending stresses of an applied
load. The process was developed by the French engineer Eugène Freyssinet in the early 20th
century.
Properties of prestressed concrete:
1. It has lighter members which creates saving in the materials.
2. These members are economical than R.C.C. members.
3. It possesses improved resistance to shearing forces.
4. The PSC members are stiffer than R.C.C. members.
Uses of Prestressed Concrete:
• Long span bridges
• High buildings
• Hollow slabs
• Simple span box girders
• Cable bridges
• Flat slab floor
Advantages of Prestressed concrete:
• Precast prestressed concrete is used in the construction of dynamically loaded structures
such as railway bridges and machine foundations and in the construction of long-span floors and
roofs.
• These members have more resistance to shear forces.
• These offer great technical advantages in comparison with other forms of construction.
• When fully pre-stressed, members are free from tensile stresses under working loads,
thereby having more efficiency when compared with RCC and other composite materials.

STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural Steel is a special kind of steel used for construction purposes. Due to its rigidity and
high strength-to-weight ratio, structural steel is mainly employed in buildings. It is used in
houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities, bridges, stadiums, etc.
Properties of Structural Steel:
• Density: The density is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.
• Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values range from 190-210 GPa
• Poisson's ratio: The acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.
• Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other
construction materials.
• Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which an
object permanently deforms. When stress is removed, it does not revert to its former shape.
Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The values of
structural steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.
• Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under shear
stress, and it is about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural steel.
• Hardness: The resistance of an object to change in shape when force is applied is referred
to as hardness. There are three different types of hardness tests. Scratch, indentation, and
rebound are all terms used to describe the process of scratching and indenting, and the hardness
of structural steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon structural steels
have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.
• Melting point: Because there are so many different types of structural steel, there is no
standard melting point.
• Specific heat: The amount required to raise an object's temperature by a particular
quantity is known as specific heat or heat capacity. A higher specific heat value indicates that the
object has higher insulation capacity. The units of measurement are Joules per Kilogram Kelvin.
Specific heat for carbon structural steel ranges from 450 to 2081 J/kg-K, while for structural
alloy steel, it ranges from 452 to 1499 J/kg-K.
Types of Structural Steel: Carbon is the most often used commercial steel alloy. Increased
carbon content improves ability to harden and boosts hardness and strength. Conversely, carbon
increases brittleness and lowers weldability because of its propensity for forming martensite. As
a result, the carbon content in commercial steel can be both a blessing and a burden. Based on
the carbon content, the mechanical properties of different types of structural steel and their uses
are given below:
• Carbon steel: Steel in which the carbon content is up to 2% is known as carbon steel. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 410 to 440 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 to 400 MPa.
• High-strength carbon steel: These steels are used in structures such as transmission lines
and microwave towers. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 to 550 MPa, and the yield
strength is 350 to 400 MPa.

• Medium and high strength micro-alloyed steel: Alloys such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, etc., are used to increase the strength while retaining the desired ductility. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa, and the yield strength is 300 to 450 MPa.
• High strength quenched and tempered steel: Heat treatment increases strength in this type
of steel. The specified ultimate tensile strength is 440 to 590 MPa; the yield strength is 300 to
450 MPa.
• Weathering steel: These are corrosion-resistant steel and are often not painted. The
specified ultimate tensile strength is 480 MPa, and the yield strength is 350 MPa.
• Fire-resistant steel: These steels are also known as thermo-mechanically treated (TMT)
steel and are used where the structures are more prone to fire.
CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS
Modern construction industry uses chemicals in a number of ways & in different applications to
enhance properties of existing construction materials, repair & retrofitting works & for
waterproofing works. The chemicals that are used to improve the properties of concrete are
broadly termed as admixtures & others are termed as construction chemicals.
Admixtures: Admixtures are a type of construction chemicals added to concrete, mortar or grout
at the time of mixing, to modify the properties, either in the wet state immediately after mixing
or after the mix has hardened. They can be a single chemical or a blend of several chemicals and
may be supplied as powders but most are aqueous solutions because in this form, they are easier
to accurately dispense into, and then disperse through the concrete.
Admixtures can be divided into three categories: -
• Active materials are those which react chemically with a component within the cementitious
materials.
• Surface active admixtures (surfactants) are generally split into two components (one
positively charged and the other negatively charged) and react with the air - water - solid
material interface within the mortar thereby resulting in orientation and adsorption.
• Passive or inert admixtures do not change their form but have a physical effect such as
light absorption and reflection as in the case of pigments.
Functions:
Increase slump and workability
Retard or accelerate initial setting
Reduce or prevent shrinkage
Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding
Reduce segregation
Decrease weight of concrete
Improve durability
Decrease the rate of heat of hydration
Reduce permeability
To make porous concrete

To make colored concrete

To protect from chemical attack, increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement & increase
strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural)
Increase bond between existing and new concrete
Types of admixtures:
Plasticizers- Used to fluidify mix & improve the workability of concrete, mortar or grout.
Anionic surfactants & Nonionic surfactants are used as plasticizers.
Superplasticizers- Used to produce flowing, self levelling, self-compacting concrete.
Sulphonated malanie formaldehyde condensates, sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde
condensates are used as super plasticizers.
Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers- Used to slow down the chemical process of hydration so
that concrete remains fluid & workable for a longer time, specially when hot weather concreting
is done. Calcium sulphate is most common retarder.
Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers- Used to increase the rate of early strength
development in concrete. Some soluble carbonates, silicates & fluosilicates are used as
accelerators.
Air-entraining Admixtures- Used to incorporate air bubbles in concrete so that the properties of
concrete in terms of its permeability, segregation, bleeding etc. are modified. Natural wood
resins, animal & vegetable oils, alkali salts etc. are used as air entrainers.
Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures- Used to modify certain properties of fresh & hardened
concretes & mortars. Fly ash, silica fume, surkhi, rice husk ash are some artificial pozzolans
used.
Damp-proofing and Waterproofing Admixtures- Used to make concrete water proof & dense.
Soda, potash soaps, calcium soaps etc. are some damp-proof admixtures used.
Gas forming Admixtures- Used to introduce gas in concrete so that there is reduced settlement &
improved bond with reinforcing bars. Most common agent is aluminium powder.
Air-detraining Admixtures- Used to reduce excessive air entrainment in concrete. Tributyl
phosphate is most commonly used.
Alkali-aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures- Used to reduce the effect of alkali aggregate
reaction in concrete. Aluminium powder & lithium salts are used as inhibitors.
Workability Admixtures- Used to improve or enhance workability of concrete. Bentonite clay,
fly ash, hydrated lime etc. are used as admixtures.
Grouting Admixtures- Used in grouting operations depending on the site requirements.
Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures- Used to decrease the rate of corrosion of steel in concrete.
Calcium lignosulphate, sodium nitrate & calcium nitrate are good corrosion inhibitors.
Bonding Admixtures- Used to increase bond strength between old & new concrete. Rubbers,
polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate etc. are used as bonding admixtures.
Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures- Used in concrete to protect it from fungus,
germs & insect attacks. Polyhalogenated phenols, copper compounds are used as admixtures.

Colouring Admixtures- Used to impart colour to concrete. Metallic oxides & mineral pigments
are used.
Construction chemicals: These are chemicals not used as admixtures but used in concrete related
activities in construction. Some common chemicals used are:
Concrete Curing Compounds- These are used to cure concrete not just in fresh state but also after
removal of formwork. Some compounds are synthetic resin, wax, acrylic & chlorinated rubber.
Polymer Bonding Agents- Used to improve the adhesion of new concrete or mortar to old
surface.
Polymer Modified Mortar for Repair and Maintenance- Polymer modified mortar is used for
effective repair of concrete structures.
Mould Releasing Agents- These are used to reduce the bond between formwork & concrete so
that demoulding becomes easy.
Installation Aids- These are used to plug holes in a concrete structure that are made for
installation or fixing of certain objects like wash basin, lamps etc.
Floor Hardners and Dustproofers- These are used over floors to make them wear resistant, dust
free & non slip.
Non-Shrink High Strength Grout- These are used in different grouting operations to improve the
permeability of the grout used on a structure.
Surface Retarders- These are used to achieve exposed aggregate finish on architectural concrete.
Bond-aid for plastering- These chemicals are used over a structure to form a key with plaster.
Ready to use Plaster- It is a pre-mixed material in dry form with good sand & cement in different
proportions for different plastering uses.
Guniting Aid- These help in accelerating the setting, hardening, sealing & bonding of materials
in guniting & shotcreting processes.
Construction Chemicals for Waterproofing- These are chemicals used for different kinds or
situations of water-proofing.
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING
FOUNDATION
A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted. Super- structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level.

Functions of Foundation:
1) Reduction of load intensity: Foundations distribute the loads of the super-structure to a larger
area so that the intensity of the load at its base does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the
sub-soil.
2) Even distribution of load: Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super-structure
evenly to sub-soil.
3) Provision of level surface: It provides leveled and hard surface over which the super-structure
can be built.
4) Lateral stability: It anchors the super-structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to
the super-structure.
5) Safety against undermining: It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring
due to burrowing animals and flood water.
6) Protection against soil movements: Special foundation measures prevent or minimize the
distress (or cracks) in the super-structure due to expansion or contraction of the sub-soil because
of movement in some soil like black cotton soil.
Requirements of good foundation:
1) The foundation needs to be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit
these to the sub-soil.
2) Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized.
3) Foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage caused by
swelling or shrinking of sub-soil.
4) Foundation should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
Types of foundations: Foundations may be broadly classified under two headings:
I) Shallow foundation or Open foundation: Depth is equal to or less than its width

II) Deep foundations: Depth is equal to or greater than its width.
Shallow/Open Foundations: This is the most common type of foundation and can be laid using
open excavation by allowing natural slopes on both sides. This type of foundation is practicable
for a depth up to 5m and is normally convenient above the water table. The base of the structure
is enlarged or spread to provide individual support. Since spread foundations are constructed in
open excavations, they are termed as open foundations.
Deep Foundations: These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak incompressible
soils or fills on to the stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth. These are generally
used as basements, buoyancy rafts, caissons, cylinders, shaft and piles.
Types of Loads on Footings: Dead load, Self-Weight of the elements, Superimposed loads such
as finishes, partitions, block work, services, Live load, Impact load, Snow load, Wind load,
Earthquake force, Soil pressure, Rain loads, Fluid loads
Load Transfer Mechanism in Footing- Soil is the root support of the footing. All the forces that
come in contact with the footings will be transferred to the soil. The soil shall bear these loads by
the aspect known as bearing capacity. The bearing capacity changes from one type of soil to
another and it is the key factor in estimating the size of footings.
PLINTH
Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its foundation. It is
provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into the wall
above when the foundation suffers from settlement. Plinth beams distribute the load of the wall
over the foundation evenly. These are constructed as reinforced concrete beams, to prevent the
extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into the wall when the foundation suffers
from settlement. The superstructure lies above ground level & includes beams, columns,
masonry walls and slabs, etc. The plinth beam separates the superstructure and the substructure
& acts like a tie beam that keeps walls and columns connected. A minimum depth of plinth beam
is 20cm whereas its width should match the width of final course of the foundation. Formwork

used for plinth beam construction should be properly installed and adequately secured prior to
concrete placement. The concrete needs to be compacted sufficiently to prevent steel bars from
aggressive elements. It is recommended to provide two bars with minimum diameter of 12mm at
the bottom of the beam. Similarly, two bars with minimum diameter of 10mm shall be provided
at the top of the plinth beam. Reinforcement bars should be protected by 25mm concrete cover.
As far as stirrups are concerned, stirrup diameter should be at least 6mm and a spacing of 15cm
should be sufficient. It is mandatory to provide plinth beam in areas that are prone to earthquake.
Purposes of plinth beam:
1. Plinth beam prevents differential settlement and because of its provision above the
foundation all the load is uniformly transferred to the foundation.
2. It prevents dampness from entering the building through the foundation.
3. It ties all the columns.
4. It prevents cracks from foundation to the walls.
5. It prevents collapse of a building during an earthquake.
6. It distributes load uniformly.
LINTEL
A lintel is a horizontal member, which is fixed over openings, viz., doors, window recesses,
etc. to support the structure over the opening. Lintels are thus a sort of rectangular beam which
afford facilities for fixing the door and window frames, wherever they are used. These may be
made of several materials such as wood, stone, brick, reinforced brickwork, reinforced concrete
or rolled steel sections embedded in cement concrete. The width of lintel should be equal to the
width of the wall. A proper bearing of lintel ends on supports is very essential. As a general rule,
the bearing of the lintel at its ends should be either 10 cm or 4.0 cm for every 30 cm of span,
whichever is greater. For very long spans, the bearing to the lintel ends should at least be equal to
the depth of the lintel. Further, as a rule, the depth of the lintel can be adopted as 1/12 th of the
span or 15 cm whichever is greater. The depth can be adjusted to course heights of brick or
stone. The lintels should be strong enough to resist failure due to the forces of compression,
tension and shear.
Types of lintels: Lintels are classified into the following types, according to the materials of their
construction:
(a) Wooden lintels: Wooden lintels are the oldest type of lintels. These lintels are not very
common except in hilly areas. Wooden lintels are relatively costlier, structurally weak and
vulnerable to fire. They are also liable to decay if not properly ventilated. Sometimes, wooden
lintels are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, such lintels
are called flitched lintels.
(b) Stone lintels: A stone lintel consists of a simple stone slab of greater thickness. These can
also be provided over openings in brick walls. These are mostly used at places where stones are
abundantly available. Dressed stone lintels give good architectural appearance. These are
constructed of slabs of stones of sufficient length without flaws either in single piece or

combination of more pieces. The thickness of the stone lintel should be 80 cm, or 4 cm for every
30 cm span, whichever is more. Stone is very weak in tension. Also, it cracks if subjected to
vibratory loads, hence stone lintels should be used with caution where shock waves are quite
common.
(c) Brick lintels: For openings lesser than 1 m and for lighter loads, lintels made from bricks are
used. These are not very strong from structural point of view. A brick lintel consists of bricks
placed on end or edge. The depth of brick lintel varies from 10 to 20 cm, depending upon the
span. It is constructed over temporary wooden centering. The bricks with frogs are more suitable
for the construction of lintel, since the frogs form joggles when filled with mortar, which
increase the shear resistance of end joints. Such lintel is known as joggled brick lintel.
(d) Reinforced brick lintels: Heavy loadings and larger span length are the problems for brick
lintels. These can be overcome by using the reinforcement bars. Reinforced brick lintels thus
provide more support than the brick lintels. The depth of the reinforced brick lintels is equal to
10 cm or multiples of 10 cm (or one brick thickness). The arrangement of the bricks should be
such as that there is enough space lengthwise between the adjacent bricks for the insertion of
mild steel bars as reinforcement. After insertion of bars, the remaining gap is filled with 1:3
cement mortar. 6 mm bars are used as vertical stirrups at every 3rd vertical joint. 8 to 10 mm
bars placed at the bottom are used as main reinforcement.
(e) Steel lintels: Where the opening is large and the super-imposed loads are heavy, lintels made
from steel are used. This type of lintel consists of rolled steel joists or channel sections either
used singly or in combination of two or three units. When a single joist is used, it is either
embedded in concrete, or cladded with stone facing, so as to increase its width to match with the
width of the wall. When more than one unit is placed side by side, they are kept in position by
pipe separators.
f) Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels: Reinforced cement concrete lintels are most commonly
used these days. They have replaced all other types of lintels because of their strength, rigidity,
fire resistance, economy and ease in construction. These can be used on any span. Its width is
kept equal to the width of the wall. The depth of RCC lintel and the reinforcement depends upon
the span and the magnitude of loading. Longitudinal reinforcement, consisting of mild steel bars
are provided near the bottom of lintel to take up tensile stresses. Half these bars, are however
cranked up near the ends. Shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse shear.
CHAJJA
Chajja means a sloping or horizontal structure overhung usually provided for protection from sun
and rain or for architectural considerations. It is mostly provided in conjunction with the lintel.
The main purpose of a chajja is to prevent direct entry of sun light into the room to a certain
extent. It acts as a barrier to direct entry of rain water into the room through the opening. It also
adds on to the aesthetic appeal of a building. Usually, it is provided at a height of around 7 ft
from floor level. If it is made of concrete, it is cast along with lintel monolithically. An equal

bearing of 9 inch-1ft has to be provided on both the sides of opening. It can be either cast-in-situ
or precast.
MASONRY WALL
Masonry walls are the most durable part of any building or structure. A masonry wall is a wall
made from materials which have traditionally been cemented together with the use of mortar.
Masonry walls can be used as structural walls in buildings, and they can also be utilized to create
barriers between property lines or different areas on a property. Properly maintained, masonry
can also last a very long time; masonry walls from the medieval era, for example, are still in use
in parts of Europe, and the Great Wall of China is a particularly notable example of a masonry
wall. Brick, stone, tile, ceramic blocks, adobe, and glass blocks can all be used in the
construction of a masonry wall. In dry set masonry, no mortar at all is used, with the pieces of
the wall being carefully fitted together to create a stable wall with excellent drainage. Dry setting
is often used for the creation of livestock walls. Solid masonry, made with mortar, can also be
reinforced with a backbone of steel or a similarly strong material. Masonry walls can have a
wide variety of shapes, looks, and feels. Some are low and broad, while others are thin and tall,
and they can include varying sizes of material for more visual interest, or uniformly shaped and
sized material for a more regular look. There are a number of advantages to building with
masonry. In areas with ample rock deposits or deposits of materials which can be used to make
substances like glass and brick, masonry can be a cheap construction method. It also creates
increased thermal mass, contributing to efficiency, and it can bear a great deal of weight when it
is well designed. A masonry wall also confers fire protection, as it will take some time for a fire
to break through such a wall. One of the main disadvantages to working with masonry is that it is
very heavy, and it can add to production costs for a building in addition to being dangerous in an
earthquake if it is not properly supported.

Types of Masonry Wall: Masonry walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure, and help to
maintain indoor and outdoor temperature as well as keeps protect the buildings from the outside
world. Depending on the mortar mix materials, there are various types of masonry walls used in
building constructions.
1. Load-bearing masonry wall
2. Reinforced masonry wall
3. Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
4. Composite masonry wall
5. Post-tensioned masonry wall
1. Load-bearing Masonry Wall: Based on load-bearing, walls could be Load Bearing and Non-
load Bearing walls. A load-bearing wall is a wall that bears a load reposing upon it, which
depends on weight construction and the work of foundation structure. Usually, this type of wall
is used for large buildings. e.g. housing or tall buildings construction work. It is mainly made
with brick, concrete blocks, or stone. This wall helps to transfer weight from the root to the
foundation & can be either reinforced or unreinforced masonry walls. Non-load bearing
walls are those that are only intended to support themselves and the weight of the cladding or
sheathings attached. This kind of walls provides no structural support and maybe interior or
exterior walls.
2. Reinforced Masonry Wall: A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick,
concrete, or other types of masonry materials & could be non-load-bearing or load-bearing. One
of the common examples of masonry involves exterior walls that are created using concrete
blocks or clay bricks. Along with these materials, steel rods are work ed into the structure, often
using some type of vertical framework that allows bearing the weight of connecting walls and
floors within the building. The use of this type of wall helps it to resist pressure forces and heavy
compression loads. During an earthquake or failure under heavy compression loads, the
unreinforced walls could be crack horizontally. The purpose of this type of wall protects the
walls from cracks and makes it stronger to fight against unexpected earthquakes or other kinds
of natural disasters. Reinforcement can be used both in horizontal and vertical order.
Depending on which materials are used, and how they are located, reinforced masonry (RM)
walls can be divided into the following categories:
• Confined Masonry
• Reinforced Cavity Masonry
• Reinforced Solid Masonry
• Reinforced Hollow Unit Masonry
• Reinforced Grouted Masonry
• Reinforced Pocket Type Walls
3. Hollow/Cavity Masonry Wall: Hollow masonry walls are made with hollow cement blocks.
This type of masonry wall is used to stop dampness from getting inside the building. It creates a
hollow area between the outside and inside of masonry walls. Cavity walls will also assist with

climate control. Modern masonry walls are constructed from hollow masonry units or combined
hollow and solid masonry units.
4. Composite Masonry Walls: Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two
or more building materials; stones and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks. The purpose of this
type of wall construction is to reduce the overall cost of construction and make the structure
durable by providing materials of better quality and good workmanship in the faces. Composite
masonry walls work to improve the appearance of a structure by covering up the inferior works
by the use of superior quality material in the desired positions. This type of wall is better because
it is cost-effective and aesthetic. The types of Composite Masonry walls are: Brick Backed
Ashlar, Brick facing with Rubble or Concrete Backing, Stone facing with Brick, Rubble, or
Concrete Backing.
5. Post-tensioned Masonry Wall: Post-tensioning provides an additional axial load to masonry
structures and thus increases resistance to lateral force. This type of wall has increased in-plane
strength and the absence of residual post-earthquake wall displacements. Post-tensioning is now
used extensively in bridges, elevated slabs (parking structures and residential or commercial
buildings), residential foundations, walls, and columns. Designers commonly take advantage of
this method to produce buildings and structures with clear open spaces allowing more
architectural freedom.
Failure of Masonry: There are three ways in which a masonry building wall may collapse: 1. The
wall may fall straight out in a monolithic piece at a 90-degree angle, 2. The wall may crumble
straight down in a so-called curtain fall collapse & 3. The wall may collapse in an
inward/outward fashion.
Advantages of masonry wall: The advantages of a masonry wall are as follows:
• It increases the thermal mass of a building.
• It provides a structure with reduced life-cycle costs.
• It is very heat resistant & thus provides good fire protection.
• It is resistant to projectiles.
COLUMN
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure from beam & slab above to other
structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The
term column applies especially to a large round support (the shaft of the column) with
a capital and a base or pedestal, which is made of stone. For the purpose of wind or earthquake
engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are
often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to
support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture,
"column" refers to such a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative
features. A column might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes. It is a
vertical structural member that carries loads mainly in compression. It is assumed to be the most

crucial structural member of a building because the safety of a building rests on the column
strength. This is because failure of column would cause progressive collapse in buildings
whereas such event would not occur when other members fail. Columns transfer vertical loads
from a ceiling, floor or roof slab or from a beam, to a floor or foundation. They also carry
bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes. Since the columns are supported
by foundation; the loads are relocated from all the components to the columns. Then, it will be
transferred from the column through the column necks adjacent to the footing in the form of
axial force. It transfers moments and shears also to the footing.
A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive

load. It transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its own weight to the
foundation. Hence it should be realized that the failure of a column results in the collapse of the
entire structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance. Columns are
usually considered as vertical structural elements, but they can be positioned in any orientation
(e.g. diagonal and horizontal compression elements in a truss). They are used as major elements
in trusses, building frames, and sub-structure supports for bridges (e.g. piers). The work of a
column is simpler than the work of a beam. The loads applied to a column are only axial loads.
Loads on columns are typically applied at the ends of the member, producing axial compressive
stresses. However, sometimes the loads acting on a column can include axial forces, transverse
forces, and bending moments (e.g. beam-columns). Columns are defined by the length between
support ends as Short columns (e.g. footing piers) or Long columns (e.g. bridge and freeway
piers). In the modern construction industry, columns are mostly constructed by concrete; apart
from materials such as Wood, Steel, Fibre-reinforced polymer, Cellular PVC, and Aluminium.
The selection of a particular material may be made based on: Strength of the material & its
properties (e.g. steel vs. wood), Appearance (circular, square, or I-beam), Accommodate the
connection of other members & Local production capabilities (i.e. the shape of the cross section).
Columns are major structural components that significantly affect the building’s overall
performance and stability. They are designed with larger safety factors than other structural
components. Failure of a joist or beam may be localized and may not severely affect the
building’s integrity but failure of a strategic column may be catastrophic for a large area of the
structure. Failure may be due to overstress, loss of section (deterioration), accident/sabotage
(terrorism). Column slenderness and length greatly influence a column’s ability to carry load.

Very short, stout columns fail by crushing due to material failure & long, slender columns fail by
buckling.
Types of columns: Columns can be classified based on its Shape, Slenderness ratio, Type of
loading. Material of construction and Pattern of lateral reinforcement.
Based on shape they are classified as Rectangle, Square, Circular, Polygon, Square, L-column,
T-Column, and Circular.
Based on slenderness ratio they are classified as Long Column or Slender, Short Column &
Intermediate Column.
Based on type of loading they are classified as Axially loaded column, Axial load and uniaxial
bending column, Axial load and biaxial bending column.
Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement they are classified as Tied columns, Spiral columns.
Based on material of construction they can be classified as Timber Columns, Masonary
Columns, R.C.C. Columns, Steel Columns &Composite Columns.
Types of Loads on Columns: Self-weight of the column multiplies by number of floors, Self-
weight of beams per running meter, Load of walls per running meter, Total Load of slab (Dead
load + Live load + Self weight).
Load Transfer Mechanism in column: Since the columns are supported by foundation; the load is
relocated from the all components to the columns. Then, it will be transferred from the column
through the column necks adjacent to the footing in the form of axial force. Columns transfer
lateral loads to foundations as well when such loads are imposed& it also transfers moment and
shear to the footing.
BEAMS
Beams are structural elements that run horizontally to withstand vertical load coming off the
building frame. They are the structural elements that carry loads perpendicular to their
longitudinal direction. They are small in cross-section compared with their span. The width and
depth of a typical beam are small compared with its span. Typically, the width and depth are less
than span/10.The beams take the load & distribute it to ends and transfer it to columns, walls,
and posts on both sides of the beam. They only withstand laterally applied loads on the axis of
the beam. Their mode of deflection is primarily bending. The loads applied to the beam result in
reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam
is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beams that in turn induce internal
stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Generally, a beam is subjected to two sets of
external forces and two types of internal forces. The external loads are the loads applied to the
beam and reactions to the loads from the supports. The two types of internal forces are bending
moments and shear forces. The internal shear force and the internal bending moment can be
represented as pairs of forces. Understanding beam structure is essential in construction and
structural engineering because the beams are a primary way in which the building bears its
weight. They ensure that there is a stable load path at the foundation of the building so that the
weight of the building's roofs, ceilings and floors are properly supported. Construction and

engineer professionals must understand the type of beam that is most appropriate for a structure
and how to effectively install beams to ensure the structure being built is able to withstand its
own force. Beams are characterized by their type of support, profile (shape of cross-section),
equilibrium conditions, length, and their material.
Types of Beams: Beams are classified based on a number of factors-

Based on Construction Material- Timber, Steel, Reinforced Concrete & Composite Beams.
Based on Loads & Supports- Simply Supported Beam, Fixed Beam, Overhanging Beam, Double
Overhanging Beam, Continuous Beam, Cantilever Beam & Trussed Beam.
Based on Shape Of Cross Section- Rectangular Beam, I – Beam, T – Beam, C – Beam & L –
Beam.
Based on Equilibrium Conditions- Statically Determinate Beam & Statically Indeterminate
Beam.
Based on Geometry- Straight Beam, Curved Beam &Tapered Beam.
Based on Construction Methods- Cast In-situ Concrete Beam, Precast Concrete Beam, Pre-
stressed Concrete Beam & Lintel Beam.
Types of Loads on Beams: Self-weight of the beam. Dead load includes point load for instance
column constructed on beam, distributed load for example setting slabs on a beam, Live load,
Torsional load
Load Transfer Mechanism in Beams: They transfer loads imposed along their length to their end
points where the loads are transferred to columns or any other supporting structural elements.
SLABS
Slab is an important structural element which is constructed to create flat and useful surfaces
such as floors, roofs, and ceilings. It is a horizontal structural component, with top and bottom
surfaces parallel. It is a flat, two-dimensional planar structural component of building having a
very small thickness compared to its other two dimensions. Commonly, slabs are supported by
beams, columns (concrete or steel), walls, or the ground. The slab may be supported by walls or
by reinforced concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab or by structural steel
beams or by columns, or by the ground. Reinforced concrete slabs are used in roofs, floors,
ceilings and as the decks of bridges. The main functions of slab are to provide a flat surface, to
act as sound, heat and fire insulator, to provide a covering shelter or working flat surface in
buildings, to transfer the load by bending in one or two directions. It helps the other components
of the building to withstand different loads. Reinforced Concrete floor slab construction process
includes the steps as 1. Assembly and erection of formwork, 2. Preparation and placement of

reinforcement, 3. Pouring, compacting and finishing concrete and 4. Removal of formwork and
curing of the slab.
Load transfer mechanism in slabs: The force transfer from slab to beams occurs either in one
way or in two ways. The total system completely counts on the geometrical dimensions of the
slab. Slabs may be supported by columns only, in this case two way action will prevail. If the
ratio of long side / short side is less than 2 it is considered as 2-way slab and if longer side to
shorter side is greater than 2 then it is considered as 1-way slab.
Types of loads acting on a slab include: Dead load of the slab, Live load, Floor finish load, Snow
load in the case of roof slab, Earthquake loads
Types of concrete slab used in construction: Flat slab, Conventional slab, Hollow core ribbed
slab or hollow core slab, Hardy slab, Waffle slab, Sunken slab, Composite slab, Low roof slab,
Projected slab, Waist slab.
STAIR
The means of communication between various floors is offered by various structures such as
stairs, lifts, ramps, ladders, escalators. A stair is a series of steps arranged in a manner so as to
connect different floors of a building. They are designed to provide an easy and quick access to
different floors. Staircase is an enclosure which contains the complete stairway, in a residential
house stair may be provided near the entrance & in a public building, stairs must be from main
entrance and located centrally. It is the room of a building where stair is located. Stairway is the
space occupied by the stair. Stairs consists of a number of steps arranged in a single flight or a
greater number of flights. The requirement of good stairs is:
a) It should be so located as to provide easy access to the occupants of the building &
should be well lighted and ventilated directly from exterior.
b) The stair should preferably be constructed of materials which possess fire-resisting
qualities.
c) Width: 0.9 m in residential buildings and 1.5 m to 2.5 m in public buildings.
d) Number of steps in a flight: Maximum number of steps in a flight should be limited to 12
to 14, while minimum is 3.
e) Rise: Rise is the vertical projection of a step in a staircase. This should be provided
uniformly. It is normally 150 mm to 175 mm in residential buildings while it is kept
between 120 mm to 150 mm in public buildings.

f) Tread: Horizontal projection of a step in a stair case is called tread. It is also known as
going. In residential buildings tread provided is 250 mm while in public buildings it is
270 mm to 300 mm.
g) Head Room: Head room available in the stair case should not be less than 2.1 m.
a) Hand Rails: Hand rails should be provided at a convenient height of a normal person
which is from 850 mm to 900 mm.
Types of Stairs: The stairs may be built with wood, concrete masonry or with cast iron. Wooden
stairs are not safe, because of the danger of fire. However they are used in unimportant buildings
to access to small areas in the upper floors. Cast iron or steel stairs in the spiral forms were used
commonly to reduce stair case area. In many residential buildings masonry stairs are also used.
Reinforced concrete stairs are very commonly used in all types of buildings. Based on the shape
stairs may be classified as: (a) Straight stairs, (b) Dog legged stairs (c) Well or open-newel stairs,
(d) Geometrical stairs, (e) Spiral stairs, (f) Turning stairs. The following points should be
considered in locating stairs in a building:
(a) They should be located near the main entrance to the building.
(b) There should be easy access from all the rooms without disturbing the privacy of the rooms.
(c) There should be spacious approach.
(d) Good light and ventilation should be available.
Some technical terms used with respect to a staircase:

1. Baluster: vertical member which is fixed between stairway and horizontal to provide support
to hand rail.
2. String: inclined member of a stair which supports ends of steps. They are of two types,
(i) cut/open string, (ii) closed/housed string.
3. Flight: unbroken series of steps between the landings.
4. Going: horizontal distance between faces of two consecutive risers.
5. Handrail: inclined rail over the string. Generally, it is moulded. It serves as a guard rail. It is
provided at a convenient height so as to give grasp to hand during ascent and descent.
6. Head room: vertical distance between nosings of one flight and the bottom of flight
7. Landing: horizontal platform between two flights of a stair. A landing facilitates change of

direction and provides an opportunity to take rest.

8. Newel post: vertical member placed at ends of flights to connect ends of string and hand rail.
9. Nosing: projection part of tread beyond face of riser.
10. Pitch: angle of inclination of stair with floor. Angle of inclination of line of nosing with
horizontal.
11. Riser: vertical member of the step, which is connected to treads.
12. Run: length of a stair in a horizontal plane which includes length of landing.
13. Scotia: an additional finish provided to nosing to improve the elevation of the step which also
provides strength to nosing.
14. Soffit: under surface of a stair. Generally, it is covered with ceiling or finished with plaster.
15. Step: combination of trade and riser.

Mod 1-Introduction To Civil Engg

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Mod 1-Introduction To Civil Engg

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INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

HYDRAULICS & WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

• Designing mitigation plans that eliminate or off-set impacts to environmental resources

CONSTRUCTION PLANNING & PROJECT MANAGEMENT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

Qualities of Good Brick:

Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

4. Low Heat Portland Cements

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

Specific gravity = Weight of Cement / Weight of Displaced volume of Liquid.

PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)

Materials used in plain cement concrete

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

Uses of PCC: The following are uses of PCC:

REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (PSC)

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

To make colored concrete

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

II) Deep foundations: Depth is equal to or greater than its width.

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

Types of Beams: Beams are classified based on a number of factors-

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

Some technical terms used with respect to a staircase:

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

direction and provides an opportunity to take rest.

ASHWINI.G (Assoc. Prof)/Dept of Civil engg, EWIT

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