Introduction: Tunnel is an artificially constructed underground passage to by- pass obstacles

safely without disturbing the over burden. Open Cut is an open to sky passage excavated through
huge soil mass of obstacle in required directions to connect two roads or railways. Bridge is an
over-ground construction to cross over obstacles without disturbing the natural way below it.

Tunnels are underground passages for Road or rail traffic, Pedestrians, Utilities, Fresh water or
sewer lines

Objectives:

Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation.

They could be used for carrying freights and passengers, water, sewage, etc
Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond certain depths.
Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life and traffic during construction. Tunnels
prove to be cheaper than bridges or open cuts to carry public utility services like water, sewer
and gas.
Feasibility of these constructions in natural materials, such as rock and soil, causes the geological
conditions to play a major role in their stability.
Aspects of major importance and that are decisive for the feasibility of a tunnel project is
geological conditions, construction time and costs.
1. Introduction: Constructing a tunnel, however, is one of the most complex challenges in the
field of civil engineering. Tunnels are attractive solutions for railways, roadways, public utilities
and telecommunications.
2. Basics of Tunnels: Tunnel is an artificially constructed underground passage to by- pass
obstacles safely without disturbing the over burden.
Tunnels are created by the process of excavation. Open Cut is an "open to sky" passage
excavated through huge soil mass of obstacle, in the required directions to connect two roads or
railways. Bridge is an over-ground construction to cross over obstacles without disturbing the
natural way below it.
Tunnels are underground passages for Road or rail traffic, Pedestrians, Utilities, Fresh water or
sewer lines. A tunnel must be completely enclosed on all sides along the length. Ratio of length
to width, in a tunnel, should always be at least in 2: 1.
Tunneling is desirable when rapid transport facilities are required which need to avoid
acquisition of land for roads.
Tunnels are also erected when shortest route connection is needed in cities.
Tunnels permit easy gradient & encourage high speed on strategic routes.
2 Some structures may require excavation similar to tunnel excavation, but are not actually
tunnels. Shafts, for example, are often hand-dug or dug with boring equipment. But unlike
tunnels, shafts are vertical and shorter.
Often, shafts are built either as part of a tunnel project to analyze the rock or soil, or in tunnel
construction to provide headings, or locations, from which a tunnel can be excavated.
The opening of the tunnel is a portal. The "roof" of the tunnel, or the top half of the tube, is the
crown. The bottom half is the invert. The basic geometry of the tunnel is a continuous arch.
Because tunnels must withstand tremendous pressure from all sides, the arch is an ideal shape. In
the case of a tunnel, the arch simply goes all the way around.
3. Physics of tunnelling: Tunnel engineers, like bridge engineers, must be concerned with an area
of physics known as statics. Statics describes how the following forces interact to produce
equilibrium on structures such as tunnels and bridges: Tension, which expands, or pulls on,
material∙ Compression, which shortens, or squeezes material∙ Shearing, which causes parts of a
material to slide past one another in opposite directions∙ Torsion, which twists a material.

TUNNEL SURVEYING

Surveying plays an important role in construction of tunnels, right from the planning stage to the
final completion. Surveying techniques are applied in tunnels for:

1. (i) Proper initial planning.

2. (ii) Integration of geo-technical and geographical data with topographical mapping (and
utility mapping, if located in urban area).
3. (iii) Actual alignment and guidance of tunnel, adit and shaft construction.

1. Type of Surveys: Following surveys are required in any typical tunnel project:

1.1 Preliminary Surveys: Topographic maps, maintained by Survey of India (some of them in
digital form), are generally sufficient for initial planning. However, in most cases, supplementary
data are required, either due to inaccuracies in the data available or due to changes in land use or
topography. Therefore, a horizontal and vertical control survey is required to obtain general site
data for route selection and for design. This survey should be expanded from existing records
and monuments, that are based on the same horizontal and vertical datum, that will be used for
final design of the structures. Additional temporary monuments and benchmarks are placed as
needed to support field investigations, mapping, environmental studies and route selection.

Typically, reasonably detailed mapping in corridors 100 to 1000m wide are required along all
contemplated alignments. This mapping should be sufficiently detailed to show natural and man-
made constraints to the project. In urban areas, mapping of major utilities, that may affect the
project, must also be done.

When the project corridor has been defined, new aerial photographs should be obtained and
photogrammetric maps should be prepared to facilitate/obtain data on portal design, access,
drainage, depth of cover, geology, seismic history etc.

1.1.1 Equipment and Techniques: Modern mapping equipment and techniques provide a wide
range of products and services to support planning and design, and ongoing construction
management, including:

(a) Digital Ortho Mapping, wherein the aerial photographic image is digitized in true plan
position and scale (Example: Fig. 5.01), and can be inserted into the project Geographic
Information System (GIS) or database.

Fig. 5.01: Digital Ortho Mapping

(b) Digital topographic mapping, wherein contours and planimetric features are directly
digitized during the map compilation process (Example: Fig. 5.02) and can be CAD-plotted and/
or inserted into the project GIS.

TUNNEL SURVEYING

Fig. 5.02: Digital Topographic Mapping

(c) Software enabling manipulation of digital map and survey data to extract profiles, cross
sections, spot elevations, etc., and to superimpose this data selectively with design, right of way,
geologic, and other data sets that have been digitized into the GIS/database.

1.2 Utility Surveys: Utility surveys are mainly required for urban tunnels for information on
preliminary and final route selection and to determine the type and extent of utility protection,
relocation, reconstruction or monitoring needed. Deep tunnel construction may not pass through
any utility systems, but vibration, blasting shock, and settlement may affect surface and
underground utilities in the project corridor. Cut- and-cover construction, particularly in urban
areas, extensively affects overlying and adjacent utilities. The information from utility surveys
supplements existing utility maps and records.

Utility surveys, like all other surveys on the project, must be based on the primary horizontal and
vertical control network, and must be sufficiently accurate to ensure that all utility features are
located within required tolerances.

1.2.1 Equipment and Techniques: Instruments and systems available for locating utilities
include:
 (a) Photogrammetric mapping: Routinely used to document the location of pre-painted
surface features such as manholes, valves, inlets, hydrants, etc. This is normally done during the
photogrammetric mapping phase of the survey work.

(b) Magnetic surveys: Ferrous bodies such as iron and steel pipes, barrels, piles, etc., induce
anomalies in the earth's magnetic field. Magnetometers detect the anomalies, whose amplitude is
a function of the ferrous mass and the distance from the surface.

(c) Electromagnetic toning: A low-frequency AC current is conducted into linear metal features
such as pipelines, cables, cable jackets etc., by connecting an AC tone generator to an exposed
section of the feature. A handheld receiver detects the feature by electromagnetic signals whose
magnitudes are a function of the strength of induced AC current, distance between tone generator
and mobile receiver, depth of cover over the feature, electrical conductivity of the feature, and
electrical insulation between the feature and its burial medium (earth, water). Operating AC
electrical cables may also be detected by electromagnetic toning.

(d) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR):A portable instrument that emits radar frequency signals
vertically downward and plots energy pulses reflected by buried objects.

1.3 Primary Survey Network: Primary surveys are the basic positional reference for the
project. These surveys must be founded on stable and accessible monuments, and they must be
conducted to a high degree of accuracy to meet project needs. The survey work, computations,
adjustment, and data recording must be accurate and reliable so that design and construction can
proceed with absolute confidence in the credibility of the survey data.

1.3.1 Survey Control: Primary horizontal surveys are conducted using Triangulation, Electronic
Distance Meter (EDM) traverse, Global Positioning System (GPS) surveys or a combination of
these methods. The GPS is helpful in providing precise references at low cost over long
distances. When used in differential mode in establishing control networks, GPS gives relative
positioning accuracies as good as two ppm. GPS is also flexible, because line-of-sight is not
required between points.

After completion of route selection, a horizontal and vertical survey of high accuracy is
conducted, with permanent monuments installed near portals, adits, and other selected locations
in the project corridor. Design and execution of the survey must be done with the objective of
establishing a singular and authoritative survey system that is based on securely founded
monuments and meets the accuracy standards required for the project. All subsequent surveys
and construction work must be based solely on the control survey network, and the project plans
and specifications should contain specific statements affirming this.

(a) Electronic Distance Measuring: Modern EDM instruments (Total Station) combine
accurate measurement of angles and distances, computer processing of data and storage of
observed angle & distance data. Range of distance measurement depends upon type of EDM
used, number of reflective prisms and clarity of the air. Typical range is 2000-3000m, with some
specialized instruments ranging in excess of 7000m. Standard deviation of angles and distance
measurements vary with the various models and makes of EDMs available. EDMs with data
collectors can download survey data for processing and plotting using specialized "field-to-
finish" software.

Theodolites, Total Station and EDMs cannot be adjusted or calibrated in the field. This work
must be done in a competent service facility as recommended by the OEM. Level instruments,
however, require regular testing to assure that the horizontal crosshair defines a true level plane.

(b) Global Positioning System (GPS):

Coordinate positioning of widely spaced control monuments is usually accomplished by GPS

surveys, which utilize the signal transit time from ground station to satellites to determine the
relative position of monuments in a control network. The accuracy of measurement is dependent
upon the number of satellites observed, configuration of the satellite group observed, elapsed
time of observation, quality of transmission, type of GPS receiver, and other factors including
network design and techniques used to process data. GPS surveying requires the simultaneous
operation of several receiving instruments located at different stations throughout the survey
network, and the success of an observing session depends upon each instrument being in place
and operating at a predetermined time. This requires detailed advance planning.

Although GPS surveying is now increasingly becoming common, high-order GPS surveys entail
extremely sophisticated procedures for both field and office work. Accordingly, the work should
be planned and executed under the direction of a qualified GPS specialist with strong credentials
in the application of advanced geodesy to design and construction.

2. Surveying steps in alignment control of Tunnels:

Setting out centre line of tunnel at exact location and elevation is done in following steps:

(i) Establishment of temporary benchmarks and alignment posts, as required for work, and
ensuring their stability. In case stability is in danger or they have been disturbed, prompt
measures shall be taken to transfer & re- establish these temporary benchmarks and alignment
posts.

2. (ii) Surface Survey (setting out tunnel on ground surface).

3. (iii) Transferring the alignment underground (transfer of centre line from surface to
underground).
4. (iv) Underground setting out, taking care to eliminate cumulative error.
5. (v) Transferring levels underground (underground leveling), taking care to eliminate
cumulative error.

Modern Tunnel Boring Machines are normally equipped with semi-automated or fully automated
guidance instrumentation that offers good advance rates with great precision.

3. Recommendations for framing contract documents: Except in rare instances, the contractor
should be entrusted with responsibilities for all surveying, including control of line and grade
and layout of all facilities and structures. Railway officials must conduct verification surveys at
regular intervals and also ensure that the work is properly tied to adjacent existing or new
construction. Contract documents should be framed to clearly stipulate the responsibilities of
Railways & Contractor. Also, the contract documents must contain all reference material
necessary to conduct surveying control during construction including specifications stating the
accuracy requirements and the required quality control, quality assurance and surveyor
qualification requirements. Minimum requirements to the types and general stability of
construction benchmarks and alignment posts should also be stated.

i) Setting out central line of tunnel:

The centre-line of tunnels is fixed on the surface along with shaft locations.
Generally the surface control points of the tunnels are not visible from each other. However, by
the method of reciprocal ranging points on the summit can be established which can be joined to
get the central line. The measurements should be made accurately. Linear measurements are
made using invar substance bars with an accuracy of 1 in 10000. Angular measurements are
made using 1 second theodolite with an accuracy 0f 15√ N where N is the number of angles. In
case of N tunnels in hilly regions it is neither feasible to align the tunnel ends by direct ranging
or reciprocal ranging. In such cases precise triangulation has to be used.
The figure shows a scheme of triangulation network with QR as base line for a tunnel project.
Here all the angles are measured accurately by one second theodolite. Usual corrections for
length, temperature, terrain, sag and reduction of levels with respect to sea level are all followed
in arriving at the values of the coordinates. The traverse is adjusted for angles and coordinates.
The proposed tunnel axis is shown in figure as HR.

ii) Setting out Inside Tunnels:

After the coordinates of portals and shafts are finalized, setting out is started. Centre line
of tunnel is done as shown in figure from various portals and shafts. Back sighting on the pillar,
aligned and constructed as far as practicable on the extended centre line such as pillar C and then
by transiting. Reference points are constructed on the roof of tunnels or slightly below the invert
for every 300 m.

iii) Transferring of alignment through shafts:

Transfer of alignment is done through shafts by adopting any one of the following methods:
i) By hanging two or more plumb lines down the shaft.
ii) By lighting directly from edge of shaft where shaft diameter to depth ratio is high.
Co-planning is done by hanging two or more plumb lines down the shaft and determining the
bearing of the plumb planes so formed which are connected to the surface. The plumb
lines should be well apart as for as possible. The plumb lines are of special type. The line
shall be of fine steel wire and carrying a symmetrical weight of 35 kg or more. The wire
 should be well stretched to keep it tight. In order to keep the wires vertical, the bob should be
contained in a canister with a hood. This arrangement will shield the bob and will reduce
oscillations set up by air currents or by water dropping down the shafts. The canister can be
filled with water or oil to reduce the vibrations. The bearing of the plumb plane underground
is assumed same as at the surface.
This forms the starting direction for the underground survey work.

The following procedure is adopted for transferring the centre line from top.
A theodolite is set up on top of the hill at a suitable position to maintain the centre line of
the shaft.
The RLs of both the ends of the shaft are determined by a level. Knowing the bottom RLs
of the ends the depth of the shaft is found.
Excavation of the shaft is started and verticality is maintained with the help of the plumb-
bob which is suspended from wires from top through pulleys.
The excavation is continued until the required bottom level is reached. The depth of the
shaft is measured by measuring the length of suspended wire.
The centre line inside the tunnel is maintained by a precise theodolite. This type of
theodolites are provided with an artificial illumination system to enable work at night and in
the darkness of the tunnel.
It should be properly taken care to see that the centre line is maintained from both ends
and one transferred from top coincide.

8.1 Tunnelling in firm ground- types of ground-firm, soft, self-supporting, running.

8.2 Characteristics of soft ground

8.3 Operations involved in tunnelling in soft ground.

8.4 Tunnelling in soft ground- Needle beam method, multiple drift method, Shield method of
tunnelling. Method of supporting roof and sides in multiple drift method.

● Shaft, Pilot Tunnel:

Shafts are the vertical tunnels, generally circular in section. In case of the hydro projects you
have to construct the surge shafts to prevent the water hemorrhage. In the highway projects surge
shafts are constructed from the top to reach down to the main tunnel and provides the access path
to the main tunnels.
A numbers of shafts may be constructed at places more than one in a long tunnel project, and
work may be started from those numbers of places. Diameter of a shaft depends upon the
purpose of the shaft, if a TBM is to be lowered to the main tunnel than it is necessary to make the
shaft of the required size.

Similar to shaft Pilot tunnels serves as the access tunnels to the main tunnels. The cross section
of a pilot tunnel is usually 240 cm or a little bigger and are driven parallel to the main tunnel.
The pilot tunnel is first driven to the full length of the tunnel and is connected to the center line
of the main tunnel at many points. From these points, the work of the main tunnel may be started
and also they make is easy to take out the muck. Uses of the pilot tunnels may be summarized in
the following points:

1. It helps in providing proper ventilation to the main tunnel.

2. It helps in removing the muck from the main tunnel quickly.
3. It helps in providing proper lighting in the main tunnel.

Pilot tunnels also offers a path to reach to the main tunnel so that you can access it to go for the
further construction. Pilot tunnels are constructed generally parallel to the main tunnel, and when
in connects to the main tunnel path, you get two faces/two directions to excavate your main
tunnel.

● Driving Tunnel in rocks, sequence of construction operations:

Actual sequence of the tunneling operations, will depend upon the site conditions, size of the
tunnel and method of construction. However, the general sequence of the operations carried out
during construction of a tunnel is as given below:
1. Setting up and drilling
2. Loading holes with explosives and firing them.
3. Ventilation and removing the dust after the explosion.
4. Loading and hauling muck.
5. Removing the ground water if necessity arises.
6. Erecting supports for sides and roofs in necessity arises.
7. Placing reinforcement.
8. Placing concrete lining.

Methods of Tunnelling
There are various methods of tunnelling. The selection of a method depends upon the size of the
bore, the condition of the ground, the equipment available, and the extent to which timbering is
required. Tunnelling may be basically divided into two main groups.

(a) Tunnelling in hard rocks

(b) Tunnelling in soft rocks

These are described in detail in the subsequent sections. Tunnelling through water-bearing
strata and compressed air tunnelling are discussed subsequently.

Tunnelling in Soft Ground or Soft Rock

Tunnelling in soft ground or soft rock is a specialized job. It does not involve the use of
explosives and the requisite excavation work is done using hard tools such as pickaxes and
shovels. In recent times, compressed air has also been used for this purpose. During excavation,
the rail requires support at the sidewalls and the roofs depending upon the type of soil. The
support could be provided in the form of timber or steel plates or other similar material. The
various operations involved in soft rock tunnelling are as follows.

(a) Excavation or mining

(b) Removal of excavated material

(c) Scaffolding and shuttering

(d) Lining of tunnel surface

The nature of the ground is the most important factor in deciding the method to be used for
tunnelling.

The types of ground which are generally encountered in the field are detailed in Table 30.3.

Table 30.3 Types of grounds

 In the case of soft rock, the selection of the method of tunnelling depends upon the following
important factors.

(a) Nature of ground

(b) Size of tunnel

(c) Equipment available

(d) Sequence of operations

Some of the important methods of tunneling in soft rock are described in the following
sections.

Forepoling method

Forepoling is an old method of tunneling through soft ground. In this method, a frame is
prepared in the shape of the letter A, placed near the face of the tunnel, and covered with suitable
planks. Poles are then inserted at the top of the frame up to a viable depth. The excavation is
carried out below these poles, which are supported by vertical posts. The excavation is carried
out on the sides and the excavated portion is suitably supported by timber. The entire section of
the tunnel is covered thus. The process is repeated as the work progresses.
 Forepoling is a slow and tedious process and requires skilled manpower and strict supervision.
The method has to be meticulously repeated in sequence and there is no short cut for the same.

Linear plate method

In the linear plate method (Fig. 30.7), timber is replaced by standard size pressed steel plates.
The use of pressed steel plates is a recent development. The method has the following
advantages.

(a) The linear plates are light and can be handled easily.

(b) The number of joints is less, as the linear plates are bigger in size, and as
 such the maintenance cost is low.

(a) The steel plates are fireproof and can be safely used while working in compressed air
condition.

(d) The necessary work can be done by semi-skilled staff.

(e) There is considerable saving in terms of the excavation and concrete required.

Needle beam method

The needle beam method (Fig. 30.8) is adopted in terrains where the soil permits the roof of the
tunnel section to stand without support for a few minutes. In this method, a small drift is
prepared for inserting a needle beam consisting of two rail steel (RS) joists or I sections and is
bolted together with a wooden block in the centre. The roof is supported on laggings carried on
the wooden beam. The needle beam is placed horizontally with its front end supported on the
drift and the rear end supported on a vertical post resting on the lining of the tunnel. Jacks are
fixed on the needle beam and the tunnel section is excavated by suitably incorporating timber.
This method of tunnelling is more economical compared to other methods.

American method

In this method (Fig. 30.9), a drift is driven into the top of the tunnel. The drift is supported by
laggings, caps, and two vertical posts. The sides of the drift are then widened and additional
support is provided using timber planks and struts. The process of widening is continued till it
reaches the springing level. Wall plates are fixed at the springing level, which in turn are
supported by vertical posts. The vertical posts now occupy the entire roof level. The posts
supporting the drift can then be removed and tunnelling work continued further in a similar
manner.
English method

This method is similar to the American method except that the roof load is supported by
underpinning instead of using vertical posts. A drift is driven into the top of the tunnel about 5 m
ahead of the existing arch lining. The drift is subsequently widened on both sides and supported
by crown bars and posts. The work is carried on till the springing level is reached. The sill is then
extended across the tunnel and the extended piece is supported by underpinning. This method
requires good quality timber as well as simultaneous and frequent shifting from place to place.

Austrian method

This method is used for long tunnels, particularly those at great depths, where the walls of the
excavation may yield under the weight of the cover. It involves excavating the whole section for
a short length and furnishing with sidewalls and an arch.

Belgian method

This method is particularly suitable for areas where the height of the overburden is less and the
surface is not to be disturbed. In this case, the heading is excavated first and supported by crown
bar posts and laggings. The sides are excavated next and supported by crown bars and posts.
Finally, the work of lining the arch is carried out and further excavation is done.

 Driving tunnels in soft ground

 While tunneling in soft grounds, explosives are not used and tunneling is done with the hand
tools such as pick-axes, shovels etc. During excavation operation supports for soil are required
immediately depending upon the type of soil. In the old days, timber was the only material used
for supporting soft ground till the introduction of the steel liner plates few years ago. As heavy
supporting system is needed to support the roof and sides, there is more obstruction in the
movement inside the tunnel, which reduces the progress of the work. Care should taken to ensure
that all struts should be sufficiently strong to bear the pressure coming on them. The method to
be adopted in the soft ground tunneling depends upon the type of ground.
● Needle beam method,

● sequence of construction operations

This method is useful for tunneling in the soft ground whose roof soil can stand without support
for few minutes. In this method 5 to 6 meters long R.S. joist or timber beams are required in
addition to other timber boards and struts. This method requires large number of jacks which
cause obstruction in the efficient working of the laborers. For tunneling in soft ground it is more
economical than other methods.
● Sequence of Working:
1. First of all a small drift of size of about 1*1 m is prepared on the working face of the
tunnel.
2. The needle beam consisting of two I girders, bolted together with a wooden block at the
center, is inserted in the drift and its roof is supported on lagging carried on the wooden
segment as shown in the figure below. These segments are supported by jacks resting on
the needle beam.

Needle beam method- 1

3. As shown in the figure below, the needle beam is placed horizontally, whose front end
rests on the drift itself and the rear end is supported on the vertical stout post, resting on
the lining of the tunnel.
 Needle beam -2
4. The jack is placed on the top of the beam(Needle Beam) to support the roof with lagging
and then drift is widened sideways and the whole section is excavated. After excavating
lining may be provided.
● Compressed Air Tunneling Method:
This method is considered as most modern method of tunneling in soft grounds having
water bearing stratum. A compressed air is forced into the enclosed space to prevent the
collapse of the roof and sides of the tunnel.
Usually air is used in conjunction with a shield and air-tight locks. However, numerous small
tunnels have been driven using only linear plates or wood cants only. This method can be safely
adopted if the air pressure is approximately 1 kg/cm^2. If the pressure is more than 1 kg/cm^2,
the working hours should be reduced considerably which will increase the cost of tunneling.
Application of the air pressure to the tunneling is not so simple due to the following reasons:
1. The earth pressure varies from the top of the tunnel to the bottom of the tunnel.
2. As the pressure in the floor of the tunnel depends upon the nature of the strata, it is
difficult to ascertain it theoretically.
3. The value of pressure varies with the moisture content in different strata, which is
difficult to ascertain.
4. The compressed air will escape through the pores of the soil, hence air pressure will
diminish continuously. Thus the value of air pressure will have to vary from time to time
to get a balanced value and the determination of this value depends more on experience
than theoretical considerations.
This method is ideally suitable for clay formations which do not contain large number of pores
and the pressure does not vary much from top of the tunnel to its bottom.

Tunnelling Through Water-bearing Strata

Tunnelling through subaqueous or water-bearing strata is quite a different job. Shield tunnelling
is generally preferred in such cases. A shield is a movable frame that is used to support the face
of a tunnel. The tunnel is excavated and lined under the protection of the shield.
A shield is a device meant for excavation that is to be carried out beneath water-bearing strata. It
basically consists of a cutting edge, a skin plate in the form of a shell structure, and a hood of
jacks, ring girders, stiffening steel plates, ports as well as port doors, and a tail. The various
methods of shield tunnelling through different types of soils are enumerated in Table 30.4.
Table 30.4 Methods of shield tunnelling in different soils

Tunnels constructed using the shield method usually have a circular section because of the
following considerations.

(a) The rotation of the shield is easy in a circular section.

(b) It grants protection to the primary lining.

(c) The circular section provides the maximum cross-sectional area with the smallest
perimeter.

(d) The circular section is ideally suited to resist the semi-fluid pressure exerted by the soft
ground.

Compressed Air Tunnelling

This method is possibly the most modern method of tunnelling. The compressed air, which has a
pressure of about 1 kg/cm2, is forced into the enclosed space within the tunnel so that the sides
and top of the tunnel do not collapse and remain in their position. The equipment for tunnelling
consists of a bulk head, which is an airtight diaphragm with an airlock. The airlock is an airtight
cylindrical steel chamber with a door at each end opening inwards.

Tunnelling by means of compressed air is quite a difficult process because of the following
reasons.
 (a) The pressure inside the earth varies from the bottom to the top of the tunnel.

(b) It is not possible to ascertain the pressure on the floor of the tunnel as it depends upon the
nature of the strata.

(c) The pressure varies from strata to strata depending upon the moisture content, which is
difficult to ascertain.

(d) The compressed air normally escapes through the pores and the air pressure diminishes
continuously. The application of air pressure has to be varied from time to time in order to
achieve a balanced value. The determination of this value depends more on experience than
on technical considerations.

Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

The following methods are generally employed for tunnelling in hard rocks.

Full face method

The full face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose dimensions do not exceed 3
m. In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled at the same time.
Vertical columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large number of drills mounted or
fixed on these columns at a suitable height as shown in Fig. 3.2. A series of holes measuring 10
mm to 40 mm in diameter with about 1200 mm centre-to-centre distance are then drilled into the
rock, preferably in two rows. These holes are charged with explosives and ignited. Next the
muck is removed before repeating the process of drilling holes.

Advantages
 (a) Since an entire section of the tunnel is tackled at one time, the method is completed
expeditiously.

(b) Mucking tracks, which are tracks used for collecting muck, can be laid on the tunnel floor
and extended as the work progresses.

(c) With the development of the 'jumbo' or drill carriage, this method can be used for larger
tunnels too.

Disadvantages

(a) The method requires heavy mechanical equipment.

(b) It is not very suitable for unstable rocks.

(c) It can normally be adopted for small tunnels only.

Heading and bench method

In this method, the heading (top or upper half) of the tunnel is bored first and then the bench
(bottom or lower half) follows. The heading portion lies about 3.70 m to 4.60 m ahead of the
bench portion (Fig. 30.3). In hard rock, the drill holes for the bench are driven at the same time
as the removal of the muck. The hard rock permits the roof to stay in place without supports.

Advantages

(a) The work of drilling of holes for the explosives and the removal of muck can progress
simultaneously.

(b) This method requires the use of lower quantities of gunpowder than the full face method.
Drift method

A drift is a small tunnel measuring 3 m � 3 m, which is driven into the rock and whose section
is widened in subsequent processes till it equates that of the tunnel. A number of drill holes are
provided all around the drift and these are filled up with explosives and ignited so that the size of
the drift expands to become equal to the required cross section of the tunnel.

The position of the drift depends upon local conditions; it may be in the centre, top, bottom, or
side as shown in Fig. 30.4. Field experience has shown that the central drift is the best choice, as
it offers better ventilation and requires lower quantities of explosives. The side drift, however,
has the advantage that it permits the use of timber to support the roof.

Advantages

(a) If the quality of the rock is bad or if it contains excessive water, this is detected in advance
and corrective measures can then be taken in time.

(b) A drift assists in the ventilation of tunnels.

(c) The quantity of explosives required is less.

(d) A side drift allows the use of timber to support the roof.

Disadvantages

(a) It is a time-consuming process, as the excavation of the main tunnel gets delayed till the
drift is completed.
(b) The cost of drilling and removing the muck from the drift is high, as the work has to be
done using manually operated power-driven equipment.
Pilot tunnel method

This method normally involves the digging of two tunnels, namely, a pilot tunnel and a main
tunnel. The cross section of the pilot tunnel usually measures about 2.4 m � 2.4 m. The pilot
tunnel is driven parallel to the main tunnel and connected to the centre line of the main tunnel
with cross cuts at many points. The main tunnel is then excavated from a number of points. The
pilot tunnel offers the following advantages.

(a) It helps in removing the muck from the main tunnel quickly.

(b) It helps in providing proper ventilation and lighting in the main tunnel. The method,
however, requires the construction of an additional tunnel and therefore the time and cost of
construction are higher as compared to the methods described before.

Perimeter method of tunnelling

In this method, the excavation is carried out along the perimeter or periphery of the section. The
method is also known as the German method.

Tunneling in hard rocks is carried by one the following methods:

1. Full face method

2. Heading and benching method
3. Drift Method
4. Pilot tunnel method
5. Perimeter method
Here we will discuss the first three methods in details.
● Full Face Method
This method of tunneling is adopted when the length of the tunnel is more than 3 meters. Large
sized tunnels in rocks are always driven by this method. With the development of drill carriage
this method is becoming more and more popular. In this method vertical columns are fixed to the
face of the tunnel to which a large number of drills may be mounted or fixed at any suitable
height as shown in the figure below. A series of drill holes are drilled at about 120 cm center to
center in any number of desired rows, preferably in two rows. The size of the holes may vary
from 10 to 40 mm. These holes are then charged with explosives and ignited. The muck is
removed before the next operation of drilling holes.

● Heading and Benching Method

Tunnel cross section is divided into two parts, the top portion of the tunnel is known as
the heading and the bottom portion as bench. Usually this method is adopted for railway tunnels.
In this method of tunneling, top portion or heading will be about 3.70 to 9.6 m ahead of the
bottom portion as shown in the figure below. In hard rock which may permit the roof to
withstand without supports, the top heading generally is advanced by one round of bottom
portion. If the rock is broken then heading may be driven well ahead of the bottom portion and
after giving proper support to the roof, the bottom portion is completed. In hard rock the heading
is bored first and the holes are driven for the bench portion at the same time as the removal of the
muck. This required less explosive than the full face method, but due to the development of the
drill carriage or jumbo, the use of this method is decreasing.

Heading and Benching Method (Tunneling)

● Drift Method:
Drift is a small tunnel, usually its size is 3m*3m. In driving a large tunnel it has been found
advantageous to drive a drift first through the full length or in a portion of the length of the
tunnel prior to the excavating the full bore.
 Drift Method (tunneling)
The drift may be provided at the center, sides, bottom or top as desired. In this method after
driving the drift, the drill holes are drilled all round the drift in the entire cross section of the
tunnel, filled with explosives and ignited. The rock shatters, the muck removed and the tunnel
expanded to the full cross section.

Ventilation of Tunnels

A tunnel should be properly ventilated during as well as after the construction for the reasons
given below.

(a) To provide fresh air to the workers during construction.

(b) To remove the dust created by drilling, blasting, and other tunnelling operations.

(c) To remove dynamite fumes and other objectionable gases produced by the

use of dynamites and explosives.

The methods listed below are normally adopted for the ventilation of a tunnel. These are
illustrated in Fig. 30.10.
Natural method of ventilation This is achieved by drilling a drift through the tunnel from portal
to portal. In most cases natural ventilation is not sufficient and artificial ventilation is still
required.

Mechanical ventilation by blow-in method In the blow-in method, fresh air is forced through a
pipe or fabric duct by the means of a fan and supplied near the washing face (or the drilling face;
the drilling operation requires the washing of bore holes too). This method has the advantage that
a fresh air supply is guaranteed where it is required the most. The disadvantage is that the foul air
and fumes have to travel a long distance before they can exit the tunnel and in the process it is
possible that the incoming fresh air will absorb some dust and smoke particles.

Mechanical ventilation by exhaust method In the exhaust or blow-out method, foul air and
fumes are pulled out through a pipe and is expelled by a fan. This sets up an air current that
facilitates the entrance of fresh air into the tunnel. This method has the advantage that foul air is
kept out of the washing face. The disadvantage, however, is that fresh air has to travel a long
distance before it can reach the washing face during which period it may absorb some heat and
moisture.

Combination of blow-in and blow-out methods By combining the blow-in and blow-out
methods using a blower and an exhaust system, respectively, a tunnel can be provided with the
best ventilation. After blasting the ground, the exhaust system is used to remove the smoke and
dust. After some time, fresh air is blown in through the ducts and the rotation of the fans is
reversed to reverse the flow of air.

A tunnel built in soft ground—such as clay, silt, sand, gravel or mud—requires specialized
techniques compared to hard rock, to compensate for the shifting nature of the soil.. There are a
wide variety of techniques for soft-ground tunneling, and the best fit is ultimately determined by
ground type, timeline, budget and surrounding structures.

In order to select the most appropriate method for a particular tunnel, several factors need to be
taken into consideration, including ground conditions, length, depth, diameter, alignment
geometry and budget. Another important consideration is the risk to—and sensitivity of—nearby
infrastructure and buildings to ground movement.

an important aspect of soft-ground tunneling is the protection of existing structures and utilities,
as many soft-ground tunnels are located in sensitive urban environments where settlement caused
by tunneling is a major concern. Protective measures such as dewatering, ground improvement,
and compensation grouting and positive pre-support can be used to ensure successful tunneling
in soft ground is achieved. Above all, a comprehensive real-time instrumentation and monitoring
system is essential..

1. Tunneling in Hard rock- https://youtu.be/JxGEaWRDTTM

Ventilation of Tunnels

A tunnel should be properly ventilated during as well as after the construction for the reasons
given below.

(a) To provide fresh air to the workers during construction.

(b) To remove the dust created by drilling, blasting, and other tunnelling operations.

(c) To remove dynamite fumes and other objectionable gases produced by the

use of dynamites and explosives.

The methods listed below are normally adopted for the ventilation of a tunnel. These are
illustrated in Fig. 30.10.
Natural method of ventilation This is achieved by drilling a drift through the tunnel from portal
to portal. In most cases natural ventilation is not sufficient and artificial ventilation is still
required.

Mechanical ventilation by blow-in method In the blow-in method, fresh air is forced through a
pipe or fabric duct by the means of a fan and supplied near the washing face (or the drilling face;
the drilling operation requires the washing of bore holes too). This method has the advantage that
a fresh air supply is guaranteed where it is required the most. The disadvantage is that the foul air
and fumes have to travel a long distance before they can exit the tunnel and in the process it is
possible that the incoming fresh air will absorb some dust and smoke particles.

Mechanical ventilation by exhaust method In the exhaust or blow-out method, foul air and
fumes are pulled out through a pipe and is expelled by a fan. This sets up an air current that
facilitates the entrance of fresh air into the tunnel. This method has the advantage that foul air is
kept out of the washing face. The disadvantage, however, is that fresh air has to travel a long
distance before it can reach the washing face during which period it may absorb some heat and
moisture.

Combination of blow-in and blow-out methods By combining the blow-in and blow-out
methods using a blower and an exhaust system, respectively, a tunnel can be provided with the
best ventilation. After blasting the ground, the exhaust system is used to remove the smoke and
dust. After some time, fresh air is blown in through the ducts and the rotation of the fans is
reversed to reverse the flow of air.

A tunnel built in soft ground—such as clay, silt, sand, gravel or mud—requires specialized
techniques compared to hard rock, to compensate for the shifting nature of the soil.. There are a
wide variety of techniques for soft-ground tunneling, and the best fit is ultimately determined by
ground type, timeline, budget and surrounding structures.

In order to select the most appropriate method for a particular tunnel, several factors need to be
taken into consideration, including ground conditions, length, depth, diameter, alignment
geometry and budget. Another important consideration is the risk to—and sensitivity of—nearby
infrastructure and buildings to ground movement.

an important aspect of soft-ground tunneling is the protection of existing structures and utilities,
as many soft-ground tunnels are located in sensitive urban environments where settlement caused
by tunneling is a major concern. Protective measures such as dewatering, ground improvement,
and compensation grouting and positive pre-support can be used to ensure successful tunneling
in soft ground is achieved. Above all, a comprehensive real-time instrumentation and monitoring
system is essential..

The shield tunnelling method often used in tunnel construction in urban areas. It enables safe
excavation even in areas underneath built-up areas, in areas under rivers with a high ground
water level. This method is used primarily for building underground tunnels in urban areas. This
facilitates safe tunnel construction while preventing the collapse of soil even in areas of soft
ground or underneath a river with a high level of groundwater
1) Tunnel construction in the shield tunneling method starts with boring a vertical pit.
2) A cylindrical excavator called a tunnelling shield is brought in through the vertical pit
and assembled.
3) The Machine starts excavation toward the adjacent vertical pit.
4) The tunnelling shield presses and rotates its cutting wheel at the front against soil to
excavate.
5) The machine excavates and moves forward as hydraulic jacks at the back stabilizes it.
6) Once a certain distance is excavated the machine folds the jacks in and pre-cast's a ring
shaped concrete wall called a segment.
7) The segment is precast inside the tunneling shield while protecting the excavated area
from exposure with a steel cylinder. This ensures safety of the tunneling excavation.
8) The machine builds the tunnel by repeating the process of precast in the segment
extending the jacks then folding the jacks in and pre casting the segment.
9) When the machine reaches the next vertical pit it is removed to complete the underground
tunnel.
10) The shield tunneling method excavates a tunnel while reinforcing the excavated area with
precast segments.

Economics of tunneling is a broad question and in general depends the relative cost of open cut
Vs. tunneling. Generally when depth of cut is over 18 m, tunneling is advisable. From view point
of economy and traffic safety, the tunneling operation is desirable under the following
conditions......

1. To allow rapid and unobstructed transport facilities in big the congested cities.

2. To avoid acquisition of valuable land.

3. To avid long circuitous routes around a mountain or spur.

4. To avoid sliding of open cut sides in softer soils.

5. To connect two terminal stations separated by mountain.

6. To divert water for generation of power.

11th April, 2015, S.N. Patel Institute of Technology & Research Centre, Umrakh, Bardoli 3

International Conference on: “Engineering: Issues, opportunities and Challenges for

Development”

ISBN: 978-81-929339-1-7

7. To carry public utility services like oil, gas, water etc. across the stream or a mountain.

8. To avoid the steep gradients in mountains and thereby maintain a high speed.

9. When the provision of the bridge over the river is costlier and in convenient.

10. It is preferred on routes of strategic importance because a tunnel is hidden in ground.

11. To save the maintenance cost which is generally lesser for tunnel compared to a

bridge and an open cut.

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Drill and Blast Method

Drill and blast method is mostly used method for the excavation throughout the world. The
method can be used in all types of rocks and the initial cost is lower than the mechanical method
like TBM. This tunneling method involves the use of explosives. Compared with bored tunneling
by Tunnel Boring Machine, blasting generally results in higher duration of vibration levels. The
excavation rate is also less than TBM (usually 3 to 5m a day).
 The typical cycle of excavation by blasting is performed in the following steps:
a. Drilling blast holes and loading them with explosives.
b. Detonating the blast, followed by ventilation to remove blast fumes.
c. Removal of the blasted rock (mucking).
d. Scaling crown and walls to remove loosened pieces of rock.
e. Installing initial ground support.
f. Advancing rail, ventilation, and utilities.

Advantages:
a. Potential environmental impacts in terms of noise, dust and visual on sensitive receives are
significantly reduced and are restricted to those located near the tunnel portal;
b. Compared with the cut-and-cover approach, quantity of C&D materials generated would be
much reduced;
c. Compared with the cut-and-cover approach, disturbance to local traffic and associated
environmental impacts would be much reduced;
d. Blasting would significantly reduce the duration of vibration, though the vibration level would be
higher compared with bored tunnelling;
Disadvantages:
a. Potential hazard associated with establishment of a temporary magazine site for overnight
storage of explosives shall be addressed through avoiding populated areas in the site selection
process.

Drilling and Blasting Method Sequences

1- Drilling
Before the blasting takes place, the drilling rig bores the drill holes – determined in advance in a
blasting plan – in the foremst front wall of the tunnel (working face). The more solid the rock,
the more explosives are required.
A jumbo is used to drill holes in the rock face. This one has three drilling arms and an operator
tower. It is run by electric cable; a hose brings water to the drills. The drills are pneumatic. That
means that the drill bits both hammer and rotate. Broken bits of rock are flushed out by water.
These drill holes are 2.4-3.6 metres long.
The first sets are straight holes (parallel cut) located around the edge of the face and in the
middle. A second set (V-cut) is angled toward the center. These allow the rock to be blown away
from the face into the drift (tunnel).

2- Loading and Blasting

The drill holes are now filled with explosives, detonators are attached to the explosive devices
and the individual explosive devices are connected to one another. The holes are blasted in a
proper sequence, from the center outward, one after the other. Although more than 100
explosions may be set off, one after the other, the blastsequence is completed in several seconds.
The devices should not explode at the same time, but rather one after the other at specified
intervals. Only when the blast master has ensured that nobody is left in the danger zone can the
explosion be triggered by the blasting machine.
3- Ventilating
The blast causes lots of rock to be flung through the tunnel, dispersing clouds of dust that then
mix with the combustion gases of the explosion. So that the miners can resume work in the
tunnel, the bad air must be removed from the tunnel. This is done by using so-called air-ducting
systems, long steel or plastic pipes, which are attached to the roof of the tunnel and blow fresh
air onto the working face. This gives rise to localized excess pressure and the bad air is pushed
towards the tunnel exit.
4. Dislodging
Dislodging refers to the stripping away and removal of loose pieces of rock, which were not
completely released from the rock during the blasting procedure. This working step is completed
by a robust tunnel excavator.
5. Removing rubble
After the loose pieces of rock have been dislodged from the working face, the blasted material –
the rubble or spoil – is carried out of the tunnel. The material is either loaded onto dump trucks
with wheel loaders and taken from the tunnel to an outside landfill or it is transported from the
site of excavation to the landfill on conveyer belts. During the construction of the Brenner Base
Tunnel, the transportation of the excavated material mainly takes place automatically using
conveyor belts.

6. Securing
The quickly drying shotcrete used for this purpose in particular enables a cavity-free connection
of the securing mechanism to the rock. Depending on the type of rock, a variety of securing
measures can be implemented: wire mesh, tunnel arches, stakes or so-called bolts, which can be
driven into the rock.
The final method for stabilizing rock faces is most commonly rock bolting. A jumbo is used here
to first drill holes into the rock. The holes vary from 2.4-6 metres long. Next a steel rod with a
wedge threaded on the end is inserted in the hole. When it is in place, the rod is turned so that it
pulls out against the wedge, forcing it into the walls of the hole. The outside end of the rod is
secured with a steel plate and large nut. Geologists and engineers at a mine determine the
spacing and depth of rock bolts required for the conditions at their site.
Under the poorest ground conditions it may be necessary to put steel arches in place to hold up
the walls and roof of a tunnel. In other situations a steel mesh may be secured to the walls and
roof to prevent other loose materials from falling on workers below.
7. Geological mapping
The working face is now freely accessible and the geologist has a few minutes to map it. In the
process, he determines what type of rock is present and how the rocks lie, i.e. whether they dip in
a flat or steep manner, whether they are folded or even broken. He uses a special compass as an
aid to measure the angle of incidence and direction of incidence of the rock structures. At the
same time, the strength of the rock, the reaction of the rock mass to the excavation process and
any mountain water infiltration are also documented. The mapping report created from this –
with sketches and photos – serves as the basis for the selection of appropriate supporting
measures.
Drilling Patern Design
The drilling pattern ensures the distribution of the explosive in the rock and desired blasting
result. Several factors must be taken into account when designing the drilling pattern: rock
drillability and blastability, the type of explosives, blast vibration restrictions and accuracy
requirements of the blasted wall etc. The basic drilling & blasting factors, and drilling pattern
design are discussed below. Since every mining and construction site has its own characteristics,
the given drilling patterns should be considered merely as guidelines.
Many mines and excavation sites still plan their drilling patterns manually, but advanced
computer programs are available and widely used. Computer programs make it easier to modify
the patterns and fairly accurately predict the effects of changes in drilling, charging, loading and
production. Computer programs are based on the same design information used in preparing
patterns manually.
 Drilling pattern design in tunneling and drifting is based on the following factors:
a. Tunnel dimensions
b. Tunnel geometry
c. Hole size
d. Final quality requirements
e. Geological and rock mechanical conditions
f. Explosives availability and means of detonation
g. Expected water leaks
h. Vibration restrictions
i. Drilling equipment
Depending on site conditions, all or some of the above factors are considered important enough
to determine the tunnel drilling pattern.Construction sites typically have several variations of
drilling patterns to take into account the changing conditions in each tunnel. Drifting in mines is
carried out with 5 to 10 drilling patterns for different tunnel sizes (production drifters, haulage
drifters, drawpoints, ramps etc.) The pattern is finalized at the drilling site.Tunnel blasting differs
from bench blasting in that tunnels have only one free surface available when blasting starts.
This restricts round length, and the volume of rock that can be blasted at one time. Similarly, it
means that specific drilling and charging increases as the tunnel face area decreases.When
designing a drilling pattern in tunneling, the main goal is to ensure the optimum number of
correctly placed and accurately drilled holes. This helps to ensure successful charging and
blasting, as well as produce accurate and smooth tunnel walls, roof and floor. A drilling pattern
optimized in this way is also the most economical and efficient for the given conditions.

Sources: bbt-se.com; mineralsed.ca; Rock Excavation Handbook (Sandvik Tamrock Corp.)

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The full face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose dimensions do not exceed 3
m. In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled at the same time.
The full-face method of advance (Figure 1, centre), in which the entire diameter of the tunnel is
excavated at one time, it is most suitable for strong ground or for smaller tunnels. Vertical
columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large number of drills mounted or fixed on
these columns at a suitable height as shown in Fig.3.2. A series of holes measuring 10 mm to 40
mm in diameter with about 1200 mm centre-to-centre distance are then drilled into the rock,
preferably in two rows. These holes are charged with explosives and ignited. Next the muck is
removed before repeating the process of drilling holes
 TUNNEL BORING
Jerod Coleman, Jesse Owens, Matt
Maechler

1. DEFINITION

What is tunnel boring? The bore construction method for tunnels involves digging a tube-like
passage through the earth. This usually refers to mountain tunneling, however it has also been used
for tunneling under bodies of water. Rather than conventional tunneling methods which extensively
use explosives and manual labor, mechanized tunnel excavation is done by Tunnel Boring Machines
(TBM's).
The term lining is used to indicate the finishing touch given to the cross section of tunnel. If the
tunnel is passing through hard stratum, it may be left unlined.

Lining may be of two types:

1. Temporary lining:
It is provided for supporting the roof and the walls of tunnel during construction.

2. Permanent lining:
It is provided in soft soil which is always liable to disintegrate. The ideal lining should be easy to
maintain, economical, durable, simple to construct and stable.
The basic materials for tunnel lining construction are cast-in-place concrete, cast-in-place and
prefabricated reinforced concrete, cast iron and steel. These materials are chosen according to
conditions of construction area and tunneling methods. The shape and size of lining are defined
by size, depth and function of the tunnel and sort of take up load (rock pressure, hydrostatical
pressure, traffic load, etc).Cast-in-place lining is mainly used for construction of tunnels with
most complex structure and big cross-section. Precast lining is widely used for shield and
erector- arm tunneling, mainly in subway tunnels.

TUNNEL LIGHTING SYSTEM

In the majority of tunnels, the natural penetration of light does not allow satisfactory visibility for
users. It is therefore necessary to install artificial lighting to improve visibility conditions and
comfort.

In terms of functionalities, the lighting installation must allow for:

● normal lighting that provides appropriate visibility for users, both day and night
● safety lighting that provides minimum visibility for users, to enable them to leave the tunnel
in their vehicles in case of power outage.
● evacuation lighting, such as evacuation marker lights, to guide tunnel users on foot in the
event of an emergency.
Normal artificial lighting usually includes two successive zones:

● an entrance zone (also called a reinforcement zone) where the lighting level is reinforced at
the tunnel entrance and gradually decreases further along the tunnel
● an interior zone that corresponds to the rest of the tunnel. In this area the lighting level is
constant and much lower than in the entrance zone.
In some tunnels, where there is a risk of glare at the exit, there is an exit reinforcement zone.
Figure 1: Example of reinforcement lighting in the Puymorens tunnel (France)

Entrance lighting
Motorists approaching a tunnel entrance will often experience what is known as the “black hole
effect”. This is because luminance levels inside the tunnel are much lower than those outside and
our eyes have difficulty adapting to the sudden difference. To alleviate this effect, a higher,
“reinforced” level of lighting must therefore be provided at the tunnel entrance. This will ensure
that drivers can see objects within the correct stopping distance before entering the tunnel. It will
also help to prevent them from slowing down, which is important to maintain optimal traffic
flow.

The amount of light required to avoid the black hole effect will depend on the brightness outside
the tunnel (sunny or cloudy weather). Luminance measurements at portals are normally used to
determine and adjust the lighting levels required for the entrance zone.

In order to enable drivers’ eyes to adapt from the entrance zone lighting to the interior zone
lighting, the entrance lighting level is gradually reduced as drivers move along the tunnel.
 Figure 2: Example of interior zone lighting: Ponsérand tunnel (France)

Interior zone lighting

Once drivers have adapted to the lower luminance levels in the tunnel, sufficient lighting is
needed in the interior zone for safe passage. Luminaires in the interior zone are therefore spaced
at regular intervals, throughout the rest of the tunnel. Daytime and night-time levels of interior
zone lighting are controlled by a photoelectric cell.

The design of a lighting installation should respect several criteria, notably those relating to the:

● level of luminosity and lighting on the pavement

● level of luminosity and lighting on the side walls
● uniformity values for the different operating regimes
● glare values.
Several types of installations are possible; the most common are symmetrical lighting and
counter-beam lighting.

Symetrical lighting
In symmetrical lighting systems, light is distributed symmetrically with respect to a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel. An equal amount of light is sent towards each end of the
tunnel. This system is generally used in the interior zone. It may be used in the entrance zone for
tunnels which have a slow approach speed or where there is not enough room to install lighting
fixtures above the carriageway.

Counterbeam lighting
Counterbeam systems project light in the direction of motorists, in conditions that avoid
dazzling. This type of system, which should be fitted above the carriageway and facing the
traffic flow, uses the photometric properties of the pavement (brightness and specularity). It is
suitable for use in entrance zones if there is sufficient room to install light fixtures above the
carriageway. It has advantages in terms of investment costs and operation costs, especially when
the approach speed is relatively high (>70 km/h).

In addition to the type of lighting system, attention should also be paid to coatings on the side
walls of tunnels which can affect the overall efficiency of the chosen system. For symmetrical
lighting, wall coatings should preferable be light coloured. In the case of counterbeam systems,
darker, but more specular coatings are preferred.

Depending on the characteristics of the tunnel and the type of lighting system, the light fittings
may be installed in one or more rows, above the road or at the top of the side walls.

TUNNEL VENTILATION SYSTEM

The term ventilation combines several functions: pollution ventilation, smoke extraction, and
sometimes ventilation for environmental protection purposes.

The characteristics of the ventilation equipment to be installed strongly depend on the type of
ventilation system for normal operation and fire scenarios.

Tunnel Ventilation

There are two basic types of mechanical ventilation systems: longitudinal and transverse, which

can be combined or modified such as with semi-transverse systems. There are also single point
extraction systems that supplement the ventilation requirements for emergency conditions.

Longitudinal systems use axial fans that discharge air parallel to the axis of the impeller rotation;

and transverse systems use centrifugal fans that discharge air at 90 degrees to the rotation.

Tunnel ventilation systems incorporate several mechanical components such as fan motors,

louvers, motor-operated dampers, and various drive trains. The fans can be centrifugal or axial.

The inspection of the ventilation system should include, the following items:

• Review the maintenance records for each piece of equipment and note any special or

frequent previous maintenance problems.

• Note the physical condition of fans, airway, louvers, motor-operated dampers, and drive

trains.

• Verify that each fan and the associated motor-operated dampers and components are

operational.

• Perform vibration analysis on the fans, motors, and bearings during typical fan operations

and inspect the fan drive system and bearings.

• Ensure that the airways, where accessible, are free of obstructions and debris.

• Test the operation of the carbon monoxide (CO) monitoring equipment.

• Check airflow (cfm) to ensure that ventilation design criteria are being met

Longitudinal ventilation systems utilize the tunnel tube as the “duct”. With the help of an air-jet
placed in the tunnel air column, the flow resistance can be overcome by converting the jet
momentum into static pressure.

The air jets can be placed at the tunnel entrance (Saccardo), blowing outside air into the tunnel or
as ducted fans (usually called jet fans) along the tunnel, each one accelerating part of the tunnel
air flow. Jet fans can work in both tunnel directions.

When a fan is installed into a tunnel a considerable decrease in the thrust occurs when the unit is
close to the soffit or wall of the tunnel or in a niche.

In some countries, air filtration systems have been put in place to mitigate the impact of vehicle
emissions on ambient

Jet fans operating in a tunnel can generate high noise levels, and can have adverse effects on
speech transmission between people in the tunnel. This may become a safety issue when the
noise level prevents the tunnel users from understanding what they are asked to do or when it
makes it difficult for the firemen to communicate with each other. Therefore, some care must be
taken in the assessment of sound emission by the jet fans.

Transverse ventilation uses ducts that run parallel to the tunnel. Two kinds of ducts are
typically utilized:

● Fresh air ducts are used to inject fresh air into the tunnel in order to dilute the polluted
gases produced by the vehicles;

● Extraction or exhaust ducts are used to remove vitiated air or smoke and hot gases
produced by the fire from the tunnel volume. In some cases, the extraction capacity may
be used in order to limit the longitudinal velocity in the tunnel under normal operation.

Extraction for smoke control is usually concentrated to a zone smaller than the length of the duct
by the addition of motorized, remotely controlled dampers, also known as “point extraction”.
The fans serving the ducts are often located in ventilation plants close to the tunnel portals or
shafts; however, many variations can exist.

The extraction fans must be sized to ensure the required extraction airflow rates for all fire
locations in the tunnel. In the past, extract ducts were typically connected to the tunnel with a
number of small, evenly spaced open vents. This concept has since evolved by replacing the
small, open vents with larger vents equipped with remotely controlled motorized dampers and
spaced further apart. The use of thermal fuses and panels has been assessed and found to have
adverse effects: the effectiveness of the smoke control system using such thermal devices was
found to be compromised by the untimely opening of some dampers and/or the opening of
dampers in non-optimal locations.

The thermal resistance of the fans must ensure that the extraction of the hot smoke is possible
with any configuration. Cables, junction boxes and all other non-protected parts of the
ventilation system should have the same fire resistance as fans

To fulfill their function, dampers must be able to withstand normal tunnel environmental
conditions and to operate under emergency conditions.

Ventilation tests

Because the ventilation system plays a major role in tunnel safety, it is essential that it operates
properly and effectively at all times. To achieve this goal, sets of tests have to be defined and
adapted to specific tunnel specifications. The primary objective of road tunnel ventilation system
testing is twofold:

● to verify the functionality of all elements of the system, both at the time of ordering
(factory and acceptance testing) and in-situ (functionality testing at specified intervals);
 ● to verify the in-situ performance of the system and its component parts by comparing it to
the design specifications.

Chapter – Maintenance

Introduction

An effective maintenance program helps reduce costs, decrease the number of tunnel closures,

increase public safety, and ensure adequate levels of service. To maximize efficient use of

resources and minimize costs, maintenance programs should be optimized. When large-scale

repairs and upgrades are implemented, these projects are typically referred to as tunnel

rehabilitation. Maintenance activities range from simple tasks to complex endeavors as indicated

in the hierarchy below:

• Removing debris, snow, and ice

• Washing tunnel structures, flushing drains, tightening bolts, and changing light bulbs

• Servicing equipment, painting fixtures, and restoring pavement.

• Tests, verifications, measurements, and calibrations

• Planned interventions

• Unplanned interventions

• Rehabilitation

Deterioration and Corrosion

Groundwater induces moisture into the tunnel which can accelerate the rate of deterioration and

corrosion especially if road salts, dissimilar metals, and stray currents

are involved. Some of the common degradation processes associated with groundwater include:

• Corrosion, section loss, and reduced element strength.

• Removal of material particles and cements, especially when the groundwater is acidic.

• Concrete spalling due to corrosion of reinforcing steel.

• Failure of electrical and electronic components due to corrosion and short circuiting.
• Freeze thaw damage in colder climate.

• Deterioration of the protective finishes and coatings.

• Removal of soil particles with voids created around the tunnel liner.

• Redeposit and clogging of drainage systems

Ideally, the maintenance strategies of a tunnel facility should strike a balance between

preventative maintenance and on-demand maintenance. Safety, service requirements, and costs

must be considered

Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is conducted to reduce likelihood of failure and to extend the service life

of components. An optimized maintenance approach focuses on various preventative

maintenance schemes such as cyclical, conditional, and predictive-based methods. With cyclical

methods, the maintenance is performed at pre-determined intervals. This approach is common

when there is an established service-life. Conditional maintenance draws upon observations and

measurements to gauge the onset of failure. An example of this scheme is the use of wear

indicators on fan belts, drive chains, and sprockets. Predictive maintenance is based on

mathematical forecasting models and statistical analysis.

Corrective or On-Demand Maintenance

On-demand maintenance is sometimes referred to as corrective maintenance. This type of

maintenance is the most effective strategy against difficult-to-predict occurrences such as

damage from vehicle impacts, sudden equipment malfunctions, or unanticipated tunnel system

failure. Contingency plans should be developed in advance to facilitate the repair process and

return the tunnel to service.

Removing Debris, Snow and Ice

Debris, snow, and ice present a number of safety concerns. Debris should be removed from the

tunnel on a regular basis since it could obstruct vision, damage vehicles, foul equipment, or
present a fire or safety hazard. In cold regions, icicles above the roadway should be removed

since they could damage vehicles. Deicing agents should be used to clear ice from sidewalks,

roadways, and approaches. Ice should also be removed from areas that are not designed to carry

potentially ice loads

Tunnel Washing

The tunnel should be washed when the interior becomes dull with dirt. Washing

is also recommended to make the inspection work easier. The washing process consists of

spraying the tunnel with water and detergents, scrubbing the surfaces with rotating brushes, and

rinsing off the soap and grime using water jets. The frequency of washing varies from one tunnel

facilities to the next because of environmental conditions, traffic levels, and the type of vehicles

such as diesel burning trucks. Some tunnels should be washed quarterly, while others might only

be cleaned annually. Tunnel washing is sometimes suspended during winter months to prevent

the formation of excessive ice buildup.

Preventative measures include actions such as:

• Routinely monitor equipment, collect data, record findings, and maintain logs.

• Analyze the data to identify if there are any trends (vibration, oil analysis, operating

temperatures, bus temperatures, lighting levels, water pressure) that indicate component

failure.

• Stock a reasonable supply of spare parts.

• Sometimes equipment can be operated at reduced capacities but only when it is safe to do

so.

• Negotiate prices in advance with specialty contactors and equipment vendors.

• Evaluate rental equipment options and negotiate rental agreements in advance of the

equipment breakdown.
• Retain manufacturer documentation (e.g., operation manuals, spare parts lists,

recommended maintenance practices, schematics).

• Document repair processes and replacement activities. Identify the key issues and

develop aids such as checklists and schematics.

• Maintain cost records for parts, equipment, contracts, and labor.

• Provide mentoring and develop a training program for all of the maintenance staff

Drainage Inlets and Pipes

Roadway drain inlets should be cleaned of debris and flushed with water to prevent clogging.

These activities should be scheduled with tunnel washing activities. Plumbing snakes and down
the-hole video cameras can be inserted into pipes with cleanouts to help identify problems areas

within the concealed string. The drainage system should be monitored during periods of cold

weather to reduce any occurrence of pipe freezing and possible subsequent bursting.

Luminaire Cleaning and Replacement

Lighting and visibility play an important role in accident prevention. Lights should be easy to

service to limit lane closures and maintenance time. Lights should be sealed from harmful

environmental effects and keep out moisture, bugs, and dust. Luminaires that facilitate rapid bulb

replacement are ideal.

Pavement Markings and Signs

Pavement markings and signs should be cleaned when they become dull and painted, as

necessary, for luminosity. When traveling through the tunnel at the allowable speeds, the

motorists should be able to clearly identify the pavement markings and signs.

On-Demand Maintenance

On-demand maintenance activities are used in response to events that are more difficult to

predict such as impact damage, concrete spilling, equipment failure, and gaping potholes. This

method is also appropriate for the repair or replacement of noncritical items that have minimal

impact on tunnel safety and the required service levels. If the impact is potentially significant,
appropriate contingency plans should be developed to minimize the adverse effects.

Damage to Tunnel

Among other things, tunnels can be damaged by vehicle collisions, fires, explosions, floods,

earthquakes, rock slides, and landslides. After one of these incidents, a damage inspection should

be conducted in accordance with the guidelines provided in Chapter 4 of this manual.

Concrete Detachment

Concrete can loosen and detach because of faulty placement techniques, corrosion of rebar,

damage from excessive heat, impact from vehicles, and deterioration. Some of these processes

may occur without warning. When concrete debris is discovered in the roadway portion of the

tunnel, it should be cleaned up immediately; and any loose or dangling concrete should be

removed using small hand-held hammers, pry bars, jack hammers, or other appropriate tools.

Sudden Equipment Failure

Equipment failure can be difficult to predict, particularly when electronic components are

involved. Appropriate contingency plans should be ready for implementation to restore service

as quickly as possible. An effective preventative maintenance program can help reduce the

burden placed by on-demand maintenance.

Pavement Repair

Roadway wearing surfaces are typically comprised of concrete or asphalt materials. Sealing

cracks and patching potholes are part of roadway maintenance. Extensive subgrade repairs may

be needed due to freezing, insufficient drainage, or loss of fines in the subgrade. Pavement

repairs should not be allowed to impact the vertical clearances of the tunnel.

Groundwater Seepage through Liners

Groundwater seepage can be controlled temporarily by interim solutions using catchment

troughs and interior composite liners; however, these temporary solutions do not protect the final

liner from long-term corrosion and degradation. Before implementing these methods, an

engineer should evaluate the potential for:

• Fine soil particle migration, void creation, and redistribution of the stresses around the

tunnel liner.

• Fine soil migration, re-deposition, and drain clogging.

• Protection of structural materials from corrosion and further degradation.

• Settlement of adjacent structures because of soil or rock mass dewatering.

• Vehicle strikes due to insufficient clearance of new installed materials.

• Obscuring important safety defects during future inspections of the final liner

Groundwater Seepage through Liners

Groundwater seepage can be controlled temporarily by interim solutions using catchment

troughs and interior composite liners; however, these temporary solutions do not protect the final

liner from long-term corrosion and degradation

Repairs for Structural Concrete

When the concrete has areas impacted by spalling, mortar patches can be applied by hand to

patch smaller areas while larger areas are more effectively treated using shotcrete based

application methods and economies of scale. When cracks in the concrete need to be repaired,

the cracks can be injected with grout.

Construction Joints

If the construction joints are leaking, then chemical grout can be injected to seal the joint.

Defects such as delaminations and spalls near the joint should be removed and rebuilt with sound

materials having properties similar to the concrete substrate

Timber Liners

Timber liners sometimes need periodic treatments to prevent the spread of decay. Some
common wood treatments include:

• Boron compounds

• Copper chromium arsenic compounds

• Light organic solvent preservatives or tributyl tin oxide

Maintenance of Functional Systems

Functional systems include the mechanical, electrical, lighting, fire and life safety, security, sign,

and protective systems installed in the tunnel. The equipment rooms for these functional systems,

such as the ventilation buildings, pump rooms, and emergency generator rooms, should be kept

clean. Remove any debris, grease and oil. Loose debris can damage equipment. All gauges, sight

glasses, indicator lights, and safety equipment must be cleaned and checked. Some components

might require painting. Movable components should be exercised periodically