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A Grammar of Toba-Batak
A Grammar of Toba-Batak
A GRAMMAR OF TOBA-BATAK
by
P. W.J. Nababan
Department of Linguistics
ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton
EDITORIAL ADVISERS:
The Secretary
PACIFIC LINGUISTICS
Department of Linguistics
Research School of Pacific Studies
The Australian National University
Canberra, A.C.T. 2600
Australia.
The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in
the production of this series.
This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas
Fund.
Page
Introduction viii
Introduction to the Thesis (1958): Chapters on Phonology xvi
Introduction to the Dissertation (1966): From Morphophone mics
to Syntax xx
Map� xxiii
CHAPTER II - PHONOTACTICS 41
2.1. Word Patterns 41
2.2. Consonant Clusters 43
2.3. Vowel Clusters 50
iii
1v
Page
3.2. External Sandhi 58
3.2.1. Examples of External Sandhi 59
3.3. Internal Morphophonemics 60
3. 3.1. Regular Internal Alternations 60
3. 3.2. Irregular Internal Alternations 61
3. 3. 3. Stress Alternation 63
3. 3.4. Examples 63
3.4. Conclusion 64
CHAPTER IV - MORPHOLOGY 65
4.0. Introduction 65
4.1. Parts of Speech 65
4.2. Inflectional Categories 66
4.2.1. Substantive Class 66
4.2.2. SUbstantive Reference 66
4.2.2.1. Allocation 67
4.2.2.2. Actor 67
4.2.2. 3. Object 68
4.2. 3. ' Voice and Resolution 68
4.2. 3.1. Voice 68
4.2.4. Mode and Aspect 68
4.2.4.1. Mode: Active Transitive 68
4.2.4.2. Passive Transitive 69
4.2.4. 3. Aspect 70
4.2.5. Degree 71
4.2.6. Ordinal 72
4. 3. Contentives 72
4. 3.1. Nouns 72
4. 3.2. Verbs 73
4. 3.3. Adjectives 75
4. 3.4. Adjuncts 75
4. 3.5. Interjections 76
4.4. Functors 76
4.4.1. Substitutes 76
4.4.1.1. Pronouns 77
4.4.1.2. Proverbs 79
4.4.1. 3. Pro-adjective 79
4.4.1.4. Pro-adjuncts 79
4.4.1.5. Pro-clauses 80
4.4.2. Directive Particles 80
4.4.2.1. Prepos itions 80
v
Page
4.4.2.1.1. Locative Prepositions 80
4.4.2.1.2. Instrumental Prepositions 81
4.4.2.1. 3. Attributive Preposition 81
4.4.2.1.4. Possessive-Agentive Preposition 81
4.4.2.1.5. Objective Preposition 81
4.4.2.1.6. Comparative Prepositions 82
4.4.2.1.7. Resu1tative Prepositions 82
4.4.2.1.8. Some Phrases Function as Prepositions 82
4.4.2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions 82
4.4. 3. Modal Particles 84
4.4. 3.1. Predicative Particles 84
4.4. 3.2. Imperative Particles 85
4.4.4. Connectives 86
4.4.5. Auxiliaries 86
4.4.5.1. Predicator Auxiliaries 86
4.4.5.2. Noun Auxiliaries 87
4.4.5. 3. Adjective Auxiliaries 88
4.4.5.4. Adjunct Auxiliary 88
4.4.5.5. Substitute Auxiliary 89
4.4.5.5.1. Numeral Auxiliaries 89
4.5. Structure of Words 90
4.5.1. Composition 90
4.6. Structure of Stems 91
4.6.1. Secondary Derivation 91
4.6.2. Primary Derivation 91
4.6.2.1. Root Compounds 92
4.6. 3. Noun Stems 93
4.6.3.1. Simple Noun Stems 93
4.6.3.2. Primary Derived Noun Stems 93
4.6. 3. 3. Secondary Derived Noun Stems 95
4.6.4. Verb Stems 97
4.6.4.1. Intransitive Verb Stems 97
4.6.4.1.1. Simple Intransitive Verbs 97
4.6.4.1.2. Primary Derived Intransitive Verbs 97
4.6.4.1. 3. Secondary Intransitive Verbs 98
4.6.4.2. Transitive Verbs 101
4.6.4.2.1. Simple Transitive Verbs 102
4.6.4.2.2. Primary Transitive Verbs 102
4.6.4.2. 3. Secondary Transitive Verbs 102
4.6.5. Stems of other Word Classes 104
4.7. Roots 104
vi
Page
CHAPTER V - SYNTAX 107
5.0. Introduction 107
5.1. Constructions 107
5.1.1. Endocentric Constructions 107
5.1.1.1. Attributive Constructions 107
5.1.1.1.1. Noun Phrase 108
5.1.1.1.2. Verb Phrases 109
5.1.1.1. 3. Adjective Phrases 110
5.1.1.1.4. Adjunct Phrases 110
5.1.1.1.5. Substitute Phrases 111
5.1.1.2. Co-ordinate Constructions 111
5.1.1.2.1. Additive Constructions 111
5.1.1.2.2. Alternative Constructions 111
5.1.1.2. 3. Appositive Constructions 112
5.1.2. Exocentric Constructions 112
5.1.2.1. Directive Constructions 112
5.1.2.1.1. Marked Directive Constructions 112
5.1.2.1.2. Verbal Directive Constructions 112
5.1.2.2. Predicative Constructions 113
5.1.2.2.1. Verbal Predicative Constructions 113
5.1.2.2.2. Equational Constructions 114
5.2. Clauses 114
5.2.1. Word Order 115
5.2.1.1. Direct Order 115
5.2.1.2. Inverted Order 116
5.2.2. Clause Types 117
5.2.2.1. Favourite Types 117
5.2.2.2. Minor Types 118
5. 3. Sentences 119
Page
4. Pitch Contours 1 37
5. Phonotactics 1 38
B�b.uogJtaph!f 145
INTRODUCTION
vi i i
ix
in t he re-o rgan i sat ion o f the model for ' inflect ional cat egori e s ' and
in the addit ion o f certain t e rms l i ke ' promi s s ory ' ( p . 7l ) , ' exp l i c i t
p lural obj e c t ' ( p . 7 9 ) , ' intens ive- i n s t rument a l ' ( P . 7 0 ) , for concep t s
t hat are spe c i fi c t o t he Batak l anguage .
The t wo chart s on p . 7 4 are a summary repre sent at i on o f t he verbal
infle ct ions o f Batak . The upper t ab l e does not only give the morpheme
order s t ructure of t he verbal in fle c t i ons but als o the c orrela t i ve
components of di s continuous morpheme s and t he mutual exc lus i on of s ome
of those inflections . The lower' chart repre s ent s the aspectual forms
o f the verb , indicat ing t he gap s in the pattern s , by means of dashe s .
I n the choice o f t erms , the seman t i c or fun c t i onal aspe c t s o f the
morpheme s have had s ome influenc e . Howeve r , the anal y s i s is a formal ,
not a s eman t i c , one .
The s t ructure , though not ne cessari ly the form , o f per sonal pronouns
is s imilar to the other members of t he I ndone s i an b ranch of the
Austron e s i an family .
The sub - c las s i fi c at i on s o f the prepo s it ion s i s grammat i c a l - func t i onal ,
and s o i s t hat o f the c onj unct ions and t he part i c le s . Thi s approach
was taken a ft e r t ry i ng out other b a s e s of c l as s i fi cat ion , e . g . a purely
s emant i c b as i s . The ( grammat i cal ) funct ional approach t urned out to
b e a more s at i s fact ory b a s i s .
The last s e c t i on o f the Morphology deals with the s t ru c t ure o f s t ems
at some lengt h . There are t wo morphophonemi c s ymb o l s ( p . 9 2 ff ) us ed i n
non-product ive pr imary derivat ion , i . e . [LJ and [+J. They fol low a
pattern o f harmonious d i s s imi larit y real i s at i on . Thus [L] i s Irl b e fore
a root , i . e . b ound base , c ontaining Ir/; otherw i s e it is repre sented
b y Ill. The morphophoneme [+J i s lui b e fore roo t s w i t h the di s s imi lar
non-back vowe l s Ii e E al in first s y l l ab le ; otherwi s e i t is real i s e d
a s Iii. Thi s i s a neat morphophonemi c p at t ern o f phoneme harmony that
does not e x i s t in the produc t ive morphophonem i c s o f Batak . An example
is given o n p . 9 4 , item ( 5 ) ; o t hers are on p . 9 7 . A ctually , there is
another e x amp l e on p . 10l, ( 1 2b ) and ( 12 c ) , that could b e i nc luded in
t hi s rule . In this way , ru l e s ( 12b ) and ( 1 2 c ) could be c onflat e d into
tar + s f + Root , w i t h the addit i onal ' c oales cence rule o f Iii + lui
int o Iii' or ' t he l o s s o f lui i f immediat ely fol lowed by Iii". I opted
for t he separat ion o f the t wo i n s t an c e s as there were no other examp l e s
( t hat I could fin d ) t o support s u c h a n analy s i s . Neverthel e s s , it
s t i l l looks l i ke an at t ra ct ive alternat ive t o me , even at present .
Another interest ing morphological phenomenon in Batak i s redup l i
cat ion ; ful l redup l i cat ion i s c a l l e d ' doubling ' in t h e d i s s ertat ion .
The d e s cr ipt ion of both t yp e s o f redup l i cat i on , fu ll and part ial , c an
b e found from p age 9 2 onwards . The interesting thing t o men t i on here
xii
The s e two examp l e s wil l also exemp lify t he main functional s t ruct ure
of the Batak sentence , name l y comment + topic, i . e . what is said o f
s omet hing ( new information ) + t hing about which something i s s aid
=
l
See Map 1, p .
2
Figures published in 1981 indi c ate a total Batak populat ion of approximately 3�
million with the Toba Batak population being around l� million.
xvi
xvii
1
See Map 2 , p .
2
see Appendix I.
xvi i i
l
See Map 2 for the geographical name s .
xix
1 . A I M AND SCOPE
2. T H E L A N GU A G E
the mount ainous regions s out hwe st o f Humbang down to Upp er Baru s .
This study is based on the speech o f the writer , who is from Humbang
but has had extensive contact with Toba Holbung and Silindung . To
re fre s h his memory the following books were used : Loembantobing 1 9 2 0 ;
Sihombing 1 9 5 9 and Van der Tuuk 18 6 1 .
xx
xxi
3. E A RL I E R ST U DI E S
INDIAN OCEAN
MA P 2
" ,
TOBA Dialect name
Tob. Sub·Dialect name
'::;:'"
- .. ' ,'
Medan
",
ANGKOlA·
INDIAN
MANDAILING
OCEAN
/
'"
1 . C O N SO N A N TS
,
I�I from t he pai r : papan ' b oard ' - p a �a n ' e a t '
I w l from the pair : p a, p a n - pawa� ' fo reman '
I y l from the pair : h a p u r ' cha l k ' - s a y u r ' v e g e tab l e '
The last pair I h a p u r l and I s a y u r l i s not a min imal pair . A s no
minimal pair c an b e found t o c ontrast I p l and I y / , t h i s near-minimal
p ai r , in which two di ffering feature s are found , is u s e d . I h l and l s I
c an b e shown b y many minimal pairs t o b e di fferent phoneme s , a s I h a l a l
' s co r p i o n ' - I s a l a l ' m i s t a k e ' , I h a l i l ' dig ' - I s a l i l ' b o rrow ' , I h 6 d o k l
' s w e a t ' - I s 6 d o k l ' s pade ' . I f t he di fferenc e in c ont ent was cau s e d b y
the d i fference in t he init ial I h l and l s I , then I h a p u r l and I h a y u r l
would b e ident i cal in content , whi c h they are not , as I h a y u r l doe s
not e x i s t in Batak . I f the sequence I h Vp . . 1 were always contra s t e d by
the s equence I s Vy . . 1 then the contrast I h f p u l ' hu rry ' - I s f p u l ' em b e r '
wou ld b e imp o s s ib l e , whi c h they are not , as those two forms are nat ive
Batak words , and many pairs l ike t hem can be found .
Iwl and I y l are found in Batak only in their consonantal funct ions ,
as there are no dipht hongs or comp l e x nuc l e i in the Batak l anguage .
The above c ont ; ast ing pairs o f utt eran c e s e s t ab l i s h the Batak con
s onant phoneme s , s eventeen in a l l . A more detai led d e s c ript ion o f
these c on s onan t s fo l lows be low .
1.1. T H E STO PS
sub s titute / j / for the /z/ in loanwords such as in za m a n ' e ra ' which
t hey p ronounc e /j ama n / .
/ h / A voic e l e s s glottal fric ative . I t oc curs with a single exception
only in initial and medial positions , as in / h o/ ' y o u ' , in / f h u r / ' ta i l ' ,
and / h o h os / ' b e l t ' . The only in s t ance in the writer ' s idio l e c t in
which / h / is found in final position is / a h / ' an interj e ction of
reluc t an c e or refusal ' , meaning something like ' O h , n o , I won ' t ' .
S ome words , in which / h / o c curs in medial position b etween a pre
c e ding s t r e s s e d vowe l and a fo llowing unlike and uns tre s s e d one , are
in s t y listic free variation wit h forms wit hout a medial / h / , for
examp le l a h u l which varie s wit h t a u t . The fir s t form , l a h u l , is us ed
i n very formal sit uations , whereas t a u t is us ed in ordinary conversa
tion . Other similar words are :
1 1 a h o/ 'V 1 1 a o/ ' g o '
/ b a h E n / 'V / b a E n / ' do '
The writer him se l f invariab ly u s e s the form without / h / . This variant
is being use d more and more ext en sively now als o in formal situation s .
In older Batak t he / h / and / k / s eem t o have been in c omp lement ary
dis t rib ution , thus making up one phoneme : / h / o c c urring in initial and
medial p osition s , while / k / o c curred only finally . This c an s till b e
s een from t he morphophonemic be haviour of t h e / k / i n word formations ,
a s in t he word base / dok/ ' s ay ' and the derivations : / d oh o n on / ' w i l l
b e s a i d ' and / p a d d o h a n / ' w h a t i s s ai d ' . This theory is als o supp orted
by the fact that the Batak s cript has only one symbol , n l , for both
/ h / and / k / . It c an b e safely inferred from this repres ent ation o f two
different sounds , at least so to a modern Batak ear , by a single s ymbol ,
t hat no confu sion was caused by it becaus e those two sounds were in
comp lement ary dist ribution . Thu s :
/ h6da/ 71 X ,.( ' ho rs e '
! f hu r/ � T1 =t, ' ta i l '
/ a n a k/ V7 -on' ' so n '
Lope z ( 19 3 9 ) rec ognis e s this fact b y s aying t hat "h and k are equiva
l ent " .
Trac e s o f t his once al lophonic arrangement o f / h / and / k / c an still
b e o b served from t he morphophonemic alternation o f words ending in / k /
wit h a form ending in / h / , as for examp le:
/ a n a k/ ' s o n ; i n t e r e s t '
/ a n a h f / ' that son '
/ a n a h a n / ' b o rrow a t i n t e r e s t '
l
See Appendix I, p .
5
1 .3. T H E AFFRICA T E S
1 .4. T H E NASALS
1 .5. T H E L I NGUA LS
1 .6. T H E S EMI V O W E LS
1 . 7. T H E G L O TTA L STO P
(1) I kl
I p a k p a kl - ' cre s t '
It�ktukl - ' kn o c k '
I s a k s a kl - ' snow-wh i t e '
* /h a k k a kl
I k l k k E kl - ' g i gg l e '
(2) I pl
I po p p o p l - ' to o t of horn '
lt a t t a p l - 'wash '
I s a c a pl - 's lice '
I h o k k� pl - ' s a crifice for '
* /k a k ka pl -
( 3) I tI
I p f pp i tl - ' c lose the eyes '
I t � t t u tl - ' s o u n d of h o rn '
Isoss�tl - ' i n s i s t some t h i n g o n s o m e b o dy '
I h � t d tl - ' thick, of b ro t h '
*/ka k k a t l -
The above l i s t shows t hat t he I kl i s found i n all five instances o f
co lumn one : t h a t the I pl o c curs o n l y once in t he s e cond c o lumn ; and
that I t I i s found only twice in c o lumn t hree . Thi s means that the
formulat ion of the condit ioning of the c omplementary di s tribut i on o f
[ k J a n d [ ? J i s e a s i e r and s imp ler b e c au s e o f i t s c on s i s t ency t han it
would be for I p l and I t / , whi ch is suffi c ient reason t o a s s i gn [ ? J to
I k/.
The glottal s t op , or ' h a rn z a h ' in Indone s i an , d o e s o c cur in other
I n done s i an l anguage s , as for examp le i n Javane se : I t a t a ? a nl ' c o a s t e r ' .
Lop e z ( 1 9 3 9 : 1 8 ) c a l l s t h i s s ound phenomenon a laryngeal and a s s ign s
t o it t he s ymb o l s : ' and < , and says t hat it i s found very frequent ly
in i n i t i a l , me dial and final p o s i t i on s . The example he gives i s
I ' a s u< I . I n the wri t e r ' s speech t here s e ems t o be n o a c t i v i t y in the
gl ot t i s b e fore lal e x c ep t t he normal narrowing of i t s opening in
p rep arat i on o f t he p roduc t ion o f a s ound , but a ft e r lui t he re is a
momentary c lo sure o f t he glot t i s . The first i s the normal tran s i t ion
from s i lence t o s ound called ' vowe l onset ' and t he final laryngeal
s e ems to be only a s omewhat abrupt stop a s a t ran s i t i on from s ound t o
s i lence . 1 Thi s glottal act ivity has no p honemi c value s , a s we c an
leave it out and drawl out the l u i and let i t die out without caus ing
l
The absence o f a distinct glottal stop c an be seen on the appended spectrogram
No . 3b for the word 150/.
11
Voi c e le s s Ip t e k
STOPS { Vo i c e d b d j 9
NASALS m n Q
S P I RANTS ( Fri c a t i v e s ) 5 h
SEMIVOWELS ( G l i de s ) w y
Lat eral
LINGUALS { Tri l l e d rl
1 . 8. CON C L U VING R E M A R KS
V I AGRAM 1
CON SONANT CHART
t k
Voi c e l e s s P
STOPS d 9
Voi c e d b
5
h
Voi c e le s s
FRICATIVES
Vo i ce d
c
Voi c e le s s
AFFRICATES j
Vo i ce d
Voi ce d m n I)
NASALS
Lat e ral , Vd .
LINGUALS r
Tri l l , Vd .
y
SEMIVOWELS w
13
2. VOWEL S
The only minimal pairs that can b e found for 1 0 1 and l e i , and for I � I
a n d l eI , and the reason why they are t o b e regarded a s di fferent
phoneme s , have been given above . Thi s leave s u s s t i l l two s u s p i c ious
pairs , name ly :
15
l e i - - l e i , and 1 0 1 - - 1 0 / .
The se two pairs cons i s t o f members that have phone t i c s imi larity . I n
art i c ulat ion , l ei i s d i fferent from l e i only in t ens ene s s and t he height
o f the tongue - and t hi s di fference in t ongue p o s i t i on can b e very
sma l l - and in t he same way i s 1 0 1 d i fferent from 1 0 / . Brands t e t t e r
( 1 9 1 5 : 1 8 ) not e s t hat in many liv ing Indone s i an language s s ome vowe l s
have t wo shades ( ' Nuance n ' ) . This could be t he c as e in o lder Batak ,
but in modern Bat ak we have t o do , not with two s ha de s o f one vowe l ,
but with two d i f fe rent vowel phoneme s . Lop e z ( 1 9 3 9 : 1 7 ) agre e s wi t h
Brand s te t t e r ' s finding· when he s ay s that there are five vowe l s i n
Toba-Bat ak .
When we e xamine the d i s tribut ion o f l e i and l e i , we s ee t hat our
s u sp i c ions are not ent i re ly without ground . They are not condit ioned
by a p re ceding phoneme , vowe l or consonant , a s we c an have almos t any
consonant or vowel b e fore l e i and mo s t o f them c an a l s o precede l e i .
But there se ems t o b e a pattern of d i s trit uion condit ioned by the
fo l l owing consonant , l thus :
( 1 ) b e fore voi c e d s t o p s ( / b , d , g / ) and 1 1 1 , we have l e i ,
( 2 ) b e fore vo i c e l e s s s t o p s ( / p , t , k / ) , fri c at ive s , nasals and
I r l , we have l e i .
Examp l e s :
lei : I debal ' pa r t o f; p a r t Zy '
Ime d a rl - 'missing; Zost '
I s �g a l ' de fe c t '
I pe l e l 'worship '
l E I : I re p a k l
-
, Z im p i n g '
Isetanl-
' the devi Z '
I s e k k a l - ' han dke rchi ef '
I p e s a n l - ' de s troy e d '
Ihehel ' g e t up '
I n u . h 1) 1 - ' now '
/£me l ' un h u s k e d r i c e '
I mE n a kl - ' c a Zm '
Ise rEpl
-
' humb Z e '
However , there are many exceptions t o t h i s d i s t ribut i on , a s for examp le :
leddel ' s o n g ' , i n whi ch we wou l d expe ct l e i
I h e l al ' s o n - i n - Z aw ' , in whi ch we would expect l e i
Idesal ' comp a s s p o i n t ' , i n whi ch w e woul d e xp e c t l E I
Ibetal ' co m e ; Z e t u s ' , - i dem-
I d e l)g a n l - , goo d ' , - i dem-
lSee Diagram 2 , p . 1 6 .
16
VIAGRAM 2
D I S T R I BUT I ONAL P ATTERN OF lei - l E I , AND 101 - 101
+ + P + + P +
+ + b + + + b +
+ t + + t +* +
+ + d + + + d +
+ k + + k +* +
+ + 9 + + + 9 +
+ + s + + + s + +
+ h + + h +
c c +
+ j + + j +
+ + m + + m +
+ n + + n +
+ I) + + I) +
+ + 1 + + + 1 + +
+ r + + r +
The s emivowel s are exclude d , due t o the rare o c c urrence with the s e
vowe l s .
*
Found only in weak st re s se d c l o s e d syllable s .
17
Except ions like t h e s e do not show any pat terning , hence t hey c annot b e
formulated i n t o con d i t i oned exception s .
The above patt ern o f d i s t ribut ion , i f it were ab s o lut e , would be
enough t o j us t i fy conc luding t he l e i and l e i were allophone s . Yet in
addit ion t o the irregulari t i e s already not e d , there are also t hree
pairs in which l e i and l e i contrast minimal ly . They are :
I be l - ' eaah ' Ibel
- ' a ny m o r e '
Idesal - ' aomp a e e p o in t ' Ide sal
- ' rura l v i l l a g e '
Ipel - ' interj e c t ion o f di sgu s t ' Ipel
- ' kind o f adverb o f
admi s s ion '
The forms I d e s a l and I d e s a l can o c cur in a phrasal minimal pair , t hu s :
I t u d e s a d f a i ba n a l a � 1- ' In w h a t d i r e a t i o n did he go ? '
I t u d e s a d f a i bana l a� 1 - ' To w h a t vi H a g e did h e go ? '
I b e l and I b e l a l s o oc cur in a non-minimal pair ( di fferent iated by
stre s s ) , t hu s :
I n u f) f)a 5 ) a b e l
- ' E a a h hae n i n e a l ready . '
I n u f) f) a 5 f a b e l
- ' Th e r e a r e n i n e a l r e a dy . '
From all t h i s it seems t o be b e s t t o consider l e i and l e i a s two d i f
ferent phoneme s , be cause :
( 1 ) t he condi t i oned d i s t ribut ion a s shown above has except ion s , and
new words t end to increase their number , and
( 2 ) minimal pairs e x i s t that s how their c ontrast ive di stribut i on .
The case o f 1 0 1 and I � I i s very much like t hat o f l e i and l e i . The
d i s t ribut ional pattern , as can be seen on the diagram on p . 1 6 , shows
part ial s imilarity t o that o f l e i and l e i , and like t hat pattern , the
d i s tribut ion o f 1 0 1 and I � I has except ions . There are , moreover , two
minimal pairs in whi ch the 101 and I � I c ontra s t , namely :
Ij 6 1 01 - ' fro n t '
- - Ij � l �1
- ' au x i l i ary word u s e d t o soften a
reque st , as Engl i s h ' p l e a e e "
I dol - ' first tone o f a - I d� 1 ' an aux i liary word u s e d in
diatonic scale ' affirmat ive sentenc e s '
Henc e , a s in the case o f l e i and l e i and in para l l e l i sm t o it , it i s
b e s t t o cons ider 1 0 1 and I � I a s two di fferent vowel phoneme s .
Now that the number of vowe l phoneme s has been d e c i ded on , let u s
compare o n e o f the vowe l s , I � / , in t he fo l lowing utt eran c e s whi ch
repre s ent a l l the p o s s ib l e comb inat ions o f I � I with a fo l lowing d i f
ferent phoneme , t o s e e how the vowel is influenced by i t s environment .
( 1 ) Ig� a r l - ' name '
( 2 ) Ig�tapl - ' e e ver '
( 3 ) Is�1 - ' qu i e t ; mo t i on l e e e '
( 4 ) I t� p l - 'joined '
( 5 ) I h� t l - ' fixe d '
18
(6) I t o kl -
' a ch i n g , ( o f h e a d ) '
( 7) I ho s l - ' la t e '
( 8 ) I s o rI - ' a lmo s t '
( 9 ) Ito ! 1 - ' s p i n n i n g top '
( 10 ) I bo m l - ' b omb '
( l l ) I bo n l - ' o n credi t '
( 1 2 ) I go r] 1 -
' i nac t i v e ; c e a s e a c t i o n '
( 1 3 ) I mo s o s l - ' rubbing '
In t he above examp les we see that t he 1 0 1 i s not alway s the s ame
length in all t he utteran ce s . I t i s longe st i n 1 5 0 / , and s li ghtly
short er than that in I g o a r / . There i s no perceivab le d i fference in
length be tween the / o / ' s of I g o a r l and I g o t a p / . In 1 5 0 1 t he tran s i t ion
t o s i lence is not gradual but rather abrupt , but there is no definite
art i c ulat ion whi c h mi ght be called a glottal stop . There usually i s a
c l osure o f the glo t t i s which i s a comp lement ary feature o f Batak final
vowe l s . In Batak , with final vowe l s , one does not stop the breath by
j ust ceasi ng the pres sure on t he che st cavity , but by obstruct ing the
pas s age o f t he breath in the glott i s , nor does one let the vo i ce t ra i l
o f f a s i n Engl i sh , where a n utt erance never ends in a monophthong but
in a comp l e x nucleu s , at least under stre s s . 1 That t h i s kind o f stop
i s not phonemi c has been shown in the s e c t ion dealing with consonan t s
on p . l O . T o show impat ience w e lengthen t h e 1 0 1 t o at l e a s t doub le
length and let it t rail o ff into breath without , however , produ c ing
I h / , thu s only resemb l ing a complex nuc leu s . Thi s kind of lengthen ing
of t he vowe l , accompanied by a r i s e in p i t c h , app l i e s t o all utteranc e s .
The 1 0 1 i s short e s t in I t o p / , I ho t / , an d I t o k / , but any nat ive
speaker o f Batak c an s t i l l re cogn i s e this 1 0 1 a s e s sent ially the s ame
as t he 1 0 1 of I g o a r l and 1 5 0 / .
In I t o s l the 1 0 1 i s a l i t t le longer than in the last three examp l e s .
Thi s degree o f length i s also found i n the 1 0 1 of I bom/ , I b o n / , and
I g o r] / .
In I s o r l and I t o ! 1 the 1 0 1 i s again s l i ght ly longer than in I t o s / .
Thi s greater length seems t o b e the result o f the relative ly longer
t ime t he t ongue gives t o the art i culat ion of the following l ingual .
The se di fference s o f lengt h are small and their product ion automat i c
f o r a n at i ve speaker . The following five de gree s length o f 1 0 1 - or
any o t her vowel - are seen in the above e xample s : 2
In open sy llab le s :
1 . The 1 0 / , or , in fac t , any other vowel , i s longe st when it o c curs in
l
Dr . A . A . Hill in clas s lecture .
2
See also Appendix I I , Spectrograms 1-6 .
19
final p o s i t ion .
2 . Next in length i s the 1 0 1 when followed by another vowel or cons on
ant in open p o s i t ion .
In c l o s e d sy l l ab l e s :
3 . When the 1 0 1 i s fol l owed by a final l ingual .
4 . When the 1 0 1 i s followed by a final 1 5 1 or a nasal .
5 . The 1 0 1 i s short e st when fol lowed by a final voi ce l e s s stop in the
syllab l e .
One other feature i s o b se rve d in the 1 0 1 o f I bo m / . I bo n / . I g o � / . and
I mo s o s l , n ame ly , that it is s l i ght ly nas a l i s e d when pre c e d e d or fo l
lowed by a n a sal .
In the above examp l e s t he l e xi c al content i s not c hanged by the change
i n expre s s i on , i . e . lengthening or na s ali sat ion . The o c c urrence o f a
spec i fi c type o f 1 0 1 i s t o t a l ly predictable in t erms o f i t s environment .
Hence we can conc lude t hat lengt h , or quantity , and nas ali s ati on in
Batak vowel s are non-phonemi c , s o that the varie t i e s of 1 0 1 above are
allop hone s .
Thi s same kind o f compari s on c an be made for the other vow e l s w i t h
s imilar re s u l t s regarding t h e length o f vowe l s a n d nasa l i s at i on , t hu s
s upport ing t he ab o ve finding about their non-phonemi c c hara c t e r .
O n t h e chart b e l ow , t h e so - c alled Vowel Triangle ( Gleason 1 9 5 5 : 2 0 1 ) ,
the seven vowels are shown in t he i r relative t ongue p o s i t i ons . l
V I AGRAM 3
VOWEL CHART
\ u HI GH
� e
(a)
0
0 MID
\ a LOW
l
See also Diagram 6, p . 136 .
20
3. STRESS
l
Term used by Dr . A . A . Hill in clas s lecture s .
22
We c an find innumerab l e e x amp l e s l ike the s e . Thi s and the fact that
t here se em t o be no e x cept ions tend t o s ugge s t that this phenomenon
fo l l ows a rigorous pattern .
Another kind of contrast i f s een in the following p ai r :
/ t a 8 amm u / and / t a 8 amm� / .
Both mean ' y o u r han d ' in Engl i s h , but the ' y o u r ' i n t he first one i s
informal o r famil i a r ' y o u r ' , o r the o b s o l e s cent ' thy ' ( German : d e i n ) ,
whi le t he ' y o u r ' o f the se c on d i s honor i f i c ' y o u r ' ( German : I h r ) .
Here again t he contrast i s e ffe c t e d by the s t re s s p o s it ion .
The s e cond ut t eranc e / t a 8 amm � / c ould b e cons i dered as the re sult o f
an e l l ip s i s o f / - n a / from the form / t a 8 a mm � n a / ' y o u r h a n d ' . However ,
t here i s a di f ference between / t a 8 am m � / and / t a 8 a mm � n a / . The former
is plain re spect ful spee ch , and t he latter is very formal if used for
one person , and b o t h in formal and very formal in p lural ( German e u e r
and I h r ) .
A variat i on o f t h i s last phenomenon i s s een in :
/ b o r � m / - - / b o r um � / - - / b o r u m � n a / .
A l l three mean ' yo u r daug h t e r ' . The first ' y o u r ' i s famil i ar , and the
last t wo honorific ' y o u r ' , the t hird being very formal . Thi s variat i on
can b e explained morp hophonemi cally by the fact that t h i s kind o f
' y o ur p lu s mod i f i e d noun ' c o n struct ion o c curs only when the word bas e ,
in thi s in st an c e / bo r u / ends in a vowe l . Thi s gives u s another t ype
o f minimal pa i r s contrast e d by the p o s it i on o f t he s t rong s t re s s , as
c an be seen from the fol lowing examp le s :
/ ( tom/
- ' b l a c k dy e '
/ i t�m/
- ' y o u r s i s t e r , or b ro t h e r '
/� tom/- ' p l a n e ' i . e . carpent e r ' s tool
/ o t � m/
- ' y o u r fo l ly '
In t h i s c onne c t i on it should be ment ioned t hat the personal pronoun
/ h a m � / ' y o u , p lura l or s i ngular honori fi c ' i s s t r e s s e d on the last
s y llable and i s a variant o f the more formal and less frequently us ed
/ h a m� n a / .
When we e xamine the s t re s s e s in a vo c ative word , we s ee that they
are also not s t re s s e d on t he penult , but on the last s y l l ab l e . Thi s
furn i s h e s another type o f contra s t , a s e . g . :
/ ( na 8/ - 'mo t h e r '
/ i na8/ 'mo ther ! ' , a s i n : 0 1 0 , i n a n g . ' y e s , mo t h e r . '
/saha l a/ - ' a boy ' s fi r s t name '
/saha l a/ - a s in : Ro h o t u s o n , S a h a l a ' Come h e r e , Saha l a . '
Other categories o f words wh i c h have the s tre s s on the l as t s y llable
are :
24
we s e e that there are t wo t e rti ari e s , five weaks and one primary there .
Ordinari ly the s t re s s on / p a r - / i s s l ight ly s t ronger than the one on
/ - n i - / , but t hey seem to be al lophones of the same s t re s s , a s , if we
give b ot h the s ame amount of s t re s s or reverse t he p o s i t ion of t he
s t re s se s , i t w i l l s t i l l s ound norma l .
Let us now o b serve the st re s s phenomena in the word b a s e ' bo r u ' and
a few de riva t i ve s :
/b6ru/ - ' da u gh t e r '
/boruna/ - ' hi s daugh t e r '
/pa rb6 ru/ - ' p a re n t of a g i r t '
/ b o r u n am i / - ' o u r dau g h t e r '
/pa rboruon/ - ' re L a t i v e on t h e di s ta ff s i de '
/parboru5nna/ - ' hi s re L a ti v e on t h e di s ta ff s i de '
/ p a rbo r uo n nam i / - ' o ur re L a ti v e o n t h e di s taff s i de '
/ p a r b o r uo n n a s f d a / - ' th e i r re L a t i v e on t he di s t aff s i de '
I n a l l the s e utteran c e s we s ee that the penult a lway s ge t s the
primary s t re s s , and t hat the i n i t i a l s y l l able , if not penu l t imate or
immediately pre ceding the penult , get s t he t e rt i ary . The other t e rt i ary
s eems to be pl a c e d at such a plac e t hat the s t ronger s t re s s e s , namely ,
the p rimary an d t e rt i ary , are i n a rhyt hmic arrangement with the
t ertiari e s in unit s o f t wo or thre e s y llab les removed from the primary .
Thi s rhyt hm i c arrangeme nt , howeve r , i s not ab s o lut e , for , as we s ee in
t he l a s t exampl e , t he uni t s can alt ernate from two or three i n one
s ingle utt eran c e , if t he numb er of s y l l ab l e s be fore the penult i s not
divi s i b le by two or thre e .
Let us now con s i de r how the s t re s s phenomenon i s when we take an
utt erance that consi s t s o f two part s , whi ch are ordinari ly c alled
words : r u ma ' ho u s e ' and g o r g a ' aa r v i n g ' . Read s ep arately , both r u m a
and g o r g a have a primary o n t he i r first s y l l ab l e s , and a weak o n the
s e con d . But when we put t hem t o gether int o one uni fied c ons tru c t i on ,
thus :
/ r uma g 5 r g a / - ' a h o u s e w i t h a a r v e d o rname n ta t i o n s '
the s t rong s t re s s on r u m a b e c ome s much weaker than t he one on g o r g a .
The s t re s s on the first s y l lable o f g o r g a remains a primary , but the
one on t he first syl lab le o f r u ma is now tert i ary . I t is not p o s s ib l e
t o give t ho s e t w o word s t h e s ame degree o f s t re s s a n d s t i l l mean t he
s ame t hing . Thi s sequence o f two word s with a t ert i ary and a p rimary
is t yp i ca l of c ompound nouns cons i s t ing of a noun plus a noun modi fie r .
Other examp l e s o f thi s are :
/ ho d a p a c u / - ' raae h o r s e '
horse ra a i n g
/ h a t a ba tak/ - ' t he B a t a k L a n gu ag e '
26
eats only h is fi s h .
- ' fe t c h FISH '
This last e xpre s s ion shows minimal , or near minimal contrast w ith the
comp ound noun , a s more o ft e n t han not the pitch o f the last syl lable
will vary :
l a l a p i k k� u l
- ' honori fic t e rm for ' to n g u e " ,
whi c h con s i s t s o f a verb and i t s obj e c t noun .
The o c currence o f t he s e c on dary c an als o be seen in phra s e s like
the fo l lowin g :
I g a n u p l a o m� s u k s a i ma r E d d e d o n a s i d a l
I n t h i s sentence a break o c curs between Im� s u k l an d I s a i / . Wit hin the
first hal f o f thi s sentence t here are one primary , one s ec ondary , one
t ert i ary , and t hree weak s ; and in the s e cond half , one primary , two
t ertiaries and s ix weak s . In c itat ion form each word would get one
primary , but in a context t h i s primary may be re duc e d to a s ec ondary or
t e rt iary acc ording to the interre lat ionship of t he words , exc ept the
fun c t i on word I do l whi ch always ge t s weak s tre s s in context .
In Batak the primary se ems t o fal l on the item o f maximum information
27
l
see also Appendix I I , Spectrogram 7a and 7b .
28
The s t re s s pattern s are alike , but the word orders are revers ed . The
imp l i c a t i on of these phenomena for language learning w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
in Chap t e r I V ( o f the original t he s i s ) .
In conclus ion o f t h i s s e c t ion a word should be s ai d about the writer ' s
o b servat i on o f four d i s t inct ive st re s s e s and hence h i s propo s it ion o f a
four- s t re s s notation . When we o b serve s ingle and c ompound utt eran c e
un i t s , w e c an e a si l y d i st ingu i s h t hree contrast ive s tre s s e s : s t rong ,
me dium and weak . The s e c ondary st re s s has been introduced above by
comparing the s t re s s e s in this pair :
ja l a p i kkau/
- ' fe t ch FISH '
/ a l a p i k ka u /
- ' tongue '
The e xp re s sio n for t ongue c annot b e pronoun c e d otherwi s e , but the
' fe t c h fi s h ' expre s s i on , t hough with a di fferent content , c an be read
with a p rimary on /� l a p/ and t erti ary on / i k k a u / , t hus :
ja l a p i k ka u / .
Thi s i s i n fac t the mo st frequent pronun c iat i on , a s the c ontext i s t he
more common be cause t h i s i s the normal imperat ive . Thi s i s a l s o the
cas e for t he other s imilar exampl e s .
The ' F e t c h fi s h ' ( with empha s i s on ' fi s h ' ) ut terance c an a l s o be
p ronoun c e d , as many people do , with a sequence primary-s e condary ,
thus :
ja l ap i kkau/ .
For t ho s e people the sec ondary wou ld b e e s t a b l i shed from t he contra s t
in t he s e c o n d member o f t h e utteran c e s , tertiary in o n e a n d s e condary
in the o t he r .
It should b e we l l t o state a t t h i s point that the s e c ondary s t r e s s
has a far smaller funct ional l o a d than t h e t e rt iary , and t hat it seems
to be t he least important of t he four s t re s s e s .
A t hree s t re s s notat i on would result from an anal y s i s ( Brands tetter
1 9 1 5 : 9 2 ) along the lines o f Van der Tuuk ' s finding t hat Batak has no
s ent ence s t re s s ( ' Sat z ak z ent ' ) . B ut as c an b e seen from the above
e xamp l e s , t h i s sentence s t re s s does e x i s t in the writer ' s spe e c h , by
29
4. JUNCTURE
Most o f the e xamp l e s c it ed above are s i ngle words . Let u s now take
utteranc e s that c on s i s t of more than one word , and written c onvent ion
ally in t wo or more separat e unit s .
A d o n g rna n a d j o l 0 s a d a h a l a k n a rn a r g o a r s l P o srn a
' Th e r e w a s o n c e a man , ca l l e d Posma '
We can d i s t in c t ly hear t wo breaks , or ' j unc tures ' , in this senten c e .
The first and longe s t b reak o c curs after h a l a k . I t s durat ion i s at
least twice as long a s that of a normal vowel sound , and it i s
a c c ompani e d b y a r i s e i n tone ( pi t c h ) o n t h e pre c eding s yll ab le . We
w i l l ca l l t hi s , to borrow the English t e rminology ( as in H i l l 1 9 5 8 ) ,
a ' double b ar ' , and repre sent it b y I I I I . The s e c ond b reak o c curs aft er
rna r g o a r . Thi s b re ak i s short e r than t he I I I I , and t here i s no
apprec iable change in the p i t c h of the pre c e ding s yl lable perce ivab l e .
Thi s j un c ture w i l l b e c a l le d , again a ft er the Engl i sh termino l ogy , a
' s ingle b ar ' , or I I I. The above sentence c an a l s o b e read with a I I I
after n a dj o l 0 . At the end o f t he s entence there i s an other break , t he
longe s t variety of j uncture s . I t i s a c c ompanied b y a fall i n pit c h .
This j un c ture w i l l b e ca l l e d a ' double c r o s s ' , and repre sented b y 1#1 .
The above se nt ence c an now b e tran s cribed t hu s :
l a d ;) !) rn a n a j o l 0 s a d a h a l a k I I n a rn a r g ;) a r I s i p ;) s rn a # 1
The wri t e r has , unfortunat e ly , n o t been able t o measure t he exac t
rat io o f t he du ra t i on o f these j unc ture s , but it c an b e pre t t y s afely
as sume d t h a t the I I I i s at least a s long a s t he t ime it takes to pro
nounce a short vowe l , whi c h is about e ight cent i s e conds ; the I I I I a s
long a s t w o normal vowe l s , i . e . appro x imately twenty cent i sec onds ; and
30
l
the lUI more t han two vowel s ounds . The s e j uncture s are chara c t e r i s e d
by p i t c h ; t he I I I by leve l p i t c h , t h e I I I I b y ri s i ng p i t ch , and the lUI
by fall i ng p i t ch . The lUI , by t he fall in p i t c h , gives an impre s s i on
o f final i t y , and wi l l normally be found at p l ac e s where in ort hography
we would expect a peri o d , but this c orre s pondenc e is far from exact .
The other two j unctures by the nat ure o f their p i t ch give an e f fe c t o f
suspen s e .
The ut t e ranc e s b ounded by t h e se j unc ture s are c al l e d phras e s ; and
as t h e i r o c currence is at the end of phras e s , they are called ' t erminal
j uncture s . '
A t yp i ca l p lace where a I I I w i l l b e found i s in normal c ount ing , as
for e x amp l e :
I s a d a I d u a I t o l u I 6 p a t U I - ' o n e , two , t hr e e , four . '
But when we want t o c ount down , as for example , in s t art ing a ra ce , the
s i ngle bars w i l l be rep laced b y doub le bars , t hus :
I s a d a II d u a II t 6 1 u 11 6 p a t # 1 .
The I I I I i s norma lly found at the p lace where in ordinary spelling we
would expect a comma , but here again the c orre lation is not exac t .
Be low follow a few senten c e s t o s how the o c currence o f t he t erminal
j un c t ure s :
( 1 ) I d u k s a l p u p h u a r i I I r:, b e rn a n a s a p i d o l) I rn a d d a po t t o n l a l i #1
' aft e r s e v e n day s a l l t h e b irds came t o t h e c h i c k e n e a g l e '
(2) l a l a i I d U I) a d 6 1) d u a a r i I I l a o rna b a b ) a t i I rn a n 3 p o p b o d a t # 1
' Bu t aft e r two day s t h e t ig e r w e n t t o v i s i t t h e don k e y . '
(3) I h a l a k n a p o g o s I I a l a i n a b u rj u I j lI l a n a r f n g a s I d:, s i p 6 srn a # 1
' Po sma i s a p o o r , b u t a g o o d and i n t e l l i g e n t man . '
Other o c currences o f t he t e rminal j unc tures w i l l b e further shown in
t he s e c t ion on p i tc h , a s i t i s p i t ch sequence together with a t erminal
j un c t ure t hat make s intonat ion .
In t he original Batak writings the terminal j unc ture s are not marked .
But s ince the intro du c t i on o f the Lat i n a lphabet the e x i s t en c e o f the
t e rminal j unc ture s has been recogn i s ed a s evidenced by t he us e of
punctuat ion marks a s t he comma , t he peri od , the que s t ion mark , e t c .
Howe ve r , a s mentioned above , many j uncture p o s i t ions have b e en m i s s e d ,
and t he u s e o f those punctuat ion marks i s not c on s i s t ent phono log i c a l l y .
Let u s now cons ider another type o f j uncture whi c h i s l e s s recogn i s e d
b y Batak ort hography .
When we se e the fo l lowing phonemi C transcript i on c ons i s t i ng o f s eg
mental phonemes only ,
I r i l) g a s n a s i d a l ,
l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrograms 10 and 11 .
31
I
Dr . A . A . Hill in class lecture s .
32
5. P ITCH
l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 14 .
35
l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 1 5 .
36
I
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . IB .
2
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 16 .
3
See al s o Appendix II , Spectrogram No . 17 .
37
emphat i c /2 4 1 #/ , t hu s :
2 3 1 2 4 1
I d i j a b u # 1 , or I d i j a b u # 1 .
When we want t o show doubt a s to the verac ity o f the answer we u s e
t hi s contour :
2 4 3 3
I d l j a b u + d :> + i b a n a I I I ' IS he i n t h e h o u s e ? '
in which the p eak i s p i t c h /4/ on I - j a - I and falls t o /3/ on I - b u / ,
and remai n s on that level t o the end . The answer to t h i s wou ld normal ly
b e emphat i c , thus :
2 4 1
I d i j a b u # / 1 ' He IS . '
Further doub t t o t h i s answe r , or irony , c ould b e expre s se d with a
/ 2 4 2 1 / c ontour , t hu s :
2 4 2
2
I d i j a b u 1 / ' R ea l t y ? '
Thi s type o f cont our c an b e o ft en heard a l s o in l i t t le girl s ' s pee c h ,
when they want t o show o ff somet hing and t e a s e another child w ith it .
I f t hi s would o c cur in a s ituat ion in which the child has a new toy in
t he hou s e , t he n it wou l d expre s s s omething l ike ' We l l , I do h a v e i t , b u t
i t i s i n o u r hou s e . Y O U don ' t h a v e o n e , a n d Y O U may n o t s e e i t, b u t I
can go in a n d p l ay w i t h i t as much as I l i k e t o . ' The difference be
tween irony an d a l i t t l e girl ' s t e a sing w i l l b e mo s t ly s ignal led b y
t he context and t h e paralingu i s t i c kine s i c s .
In a s t a t ement sentence t hat cons i s t s o f more than one phra s e , we
have l inked contours . For e xample :
2 3 2 2 2 3 2 1
I d i j a b u + d :> + i b a n a I a l a i + d a k + k a r e j o # 1
' S h e i s i n t h e h o u s e , b u t s he i s n o t worki n g . '
Here the end p i t c h o f t he fi r st phrase i s the s ame a s t he p i t c h at t he
beginning o f the s e c ond phras e , with the s ingle bar in b e tween . The
s ingle bar j unc ture w i l l be o ften found between two ident ic al p i t c he s .
In ut t e ran ce s , t radit iona l l y s pelled a s s i ngle sentenc e s , we c an
have more t han one # , for examp l e :
2 3 2 1 2 3 1
I d i j a b u + d :> + i n a t t a # n 1 n n a + i b a n a # 1
, Mo t h e r i s a t h o m e , he says . '
l
See also Appendix II , Spectrogram No . 19 .
2
See al so Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 1 9 .
I f we t urn t h i s s entence around , we c an get the s ame p i t ch contours ,
2 3 1 2 3 2 1
I n i n n a + i ba n a H d i j ab u + d� + i n a t t a H I .
When we give another contour t o the first part , thus :
2 3 2 2 3 2 1
I n ) nna + i bana
i t means 'HE s ay s , t h a t mo t h e r i s a t home ' , with t he s t re s s o n ' he ' ,
with or without the imp l i cat i on that the speaker knows t hat i t i s not
t rue , but b y whi c h , at any rat e , the speaker wan t s t o indicate that he
doe s not want to c ommit hims e l f .
An e x ampl e o f linked contours w i th a que s t i on i n the first part i s :
2 3 2 3 2 3 1
n i nna + i bana HI
' Is mo t h e r a t home, a s k e d h e . '
Linked p i t c h contours o f a ques t i on are foun d , for examp l e :
3 2 3 3
lob n f mmu + d o I I I ' D i d y o u s a y y e s ? '
To expre s s surpri se at t he ' Ye s ' answer given the que s t i on woul d have
t he fo l lowing contour ( se e a l so p . 3 5 ) :
3 3 3 3
l o l � I n f m m u l ' DID y o u say y e s ? '
When we cons ider t he fol lowing p o s s ib le answer t o a ques t i on l i ke
' Wh a t are you doing t h e re ? ' ,
3 21 1 1
I d a � + a d o � I a �g i a H I ' N o t h i n g , b r o t h e r ' ,
w e s e e that t he p i t ch contour i s c ont inue d i n a monotone beyond the
s ingle bar in the vocative material . Here t he vocat i ve material has
a c ont i nuous p i t c h /1/ , with a s l i ght upt urn on I - g i - I and I - a / ,
fo l l owed b y a fal l s o rap i d t hat t he voi c e van i s h e s and we hear only
breat h .
Voc at ive material , monotonous e xcept for the p i t ch fall o f t he
# j un c t ure , c an b e seen in this impat ient answer :
2 32 2 2
I da � + a d o � I r a j a n am i H I ' N o t h i n g , SIR '
But the vocat ive mat erial c an a l s o have a two-pi t ch contour . Thi s
i s t he t ype o f p i t c h c ontour o f a p o l i t e ans we r .
3 22 2 2
/ d a � + a d 5 � I r a j a n am i # 1 'No t h i n g , s i r .
Here t he p i t c h gradually fall s from / 2 / o n I r a - I t o /1/ o n t h e last
s y l lable I - m i l .
I n ordinary reque s t s the p i t ch contour ends in /1/ , fol lowed b y a
/#/ , a s , for e xamp le :
39
3 21
I ro + h a m u + t u s o n H I ' P � ea e e , aome h e r e . '
The d i f ference o f t h i s p i t ch contour from that o f a peremptory c ommand
is that t he fall at the last s yllable is more gradual in a reque s t ,
whic h tends t o cause a pro longat ion o f that s y l l ab l e . Other means are
emp l oyed to s o ften a reque st , as the us e of funct ion word s , as I j o l � / ,
and t he t on i ng down o f t he s t re s s e s . A corresponding c ommand to the
above requ e st wou l d be :
3 21
f rO + h � + t u s o n H I ' Come h e re ! '
with a much short er last s y l l ab l e .
Above we have se e n e xamp l e s o f t he oc curre n c e s and fun c t ions of some
categories of s en t en c e s . Two more vari e t i e s w i l l be d i s cu s s e d be low .
One i s the contour o f a que s t i on , with an interrogat ive word helping
to s i gnal t he que st ion .
2 3 2
I m a r h � a + h a m u + d i s i H I ' Wha t are y o u doi n g t h e re ? '
2 3 2
I b e h � + d � + u l a omm u n a i H I 'How ie y o u r work g e t t in g o n ? '
This i s the ordinary contour for a c i vi l que s t i on , / 2 3 2 # / or / 2 3 2 2 # / .
A p erempt ory que st i on w i l l have a / 2 3 2 1 # / , for· examp le :
2 3 21
I m a r h � a + h � + d i s o n H I ' Wh a t are y o u do i n g h e re ? '
The b ru squene s s w i l l a l so depend on overloudne s s o f I - h u l and the
short ne s s o f t he syl lab le I - � n / .
A l t hough we c an redu c e both the first que s t ion above and t he last one
into a one-word que s t ion , they w i l l s t i l l have the same cont our , if t he
imp l i ca t i on i s the same , t hu s :
2 32 2 321
I m a r h u a H I and I m a r h u a H I .
The se cond que s t ion c an a l s o b e redu c e d t o :
2 32 2 31
I b e h � # 1 ' how ' ( po l it e ) and I b e h a # 1 ' how ' ( bru sque )
Thi s brings us t o an e xpre s s i on o f m i ld s urpri s e c ommonly employed
i n conversat i on , somet ime s a s a polite interj e c t i on ,
2 32
I b e h� i I I
whi ch would mean s omet hing l ike , ' Wh y , ie t ha t e o ? ' .
We have already seen a few charac t eri s t i c p i t c h contours o f Batak .
O f c ourse not e ve ry p o s s i b i l i t y has been explored above , as t here are
s t i l l o t he r type s of sentenc e s , other context s , and s ome other shades
o f t he ones ment ioned above , whi ch have not been s hown . However , the
40
more import ant and frequent p i t c h cont ours have been inc luded in the
d i s c u s s ion .
CHAPTER I I
PHONOTACT I CS
The t erm phonot act i c s i s defined a s the " area o f phonem i c s whi ch
covers t he s t ructural characteri s t i c s o f seque n c e s " ( H i l l 1 9 5 8 : 6 8 ) .
Spe c ial att ent ion w i l l b e given t o s e quence s of phonemes o f t he s ame
cat egory , a l so c a l l e d c l u s t ering , i . e . consonant s fol lowed by c onson
ant s , vowe l s followed by vowe l s , et c . The gre ater p art o f thi s s e c
t ion w i l l concern c lu s t ers o f s egment al phoneme s .
In the appropriate s e c t i on s we have s een that t he four p i t c he s
cluster with each o t he r and with t hems elve s , and t hat a l s o the four
s t re s s e s fre e l y c lu st e r with each other and themselve s , except the
pr imary whi c h does not c lu st e r with another primary in the s ame phra s e .
2. 1 . WORV PATT E R NS
41
42
From t he examp le s we have had s o far , we can see that any consonant
s eems to be able t o have any vowe l after i t , alt hough , a s we have seen
in t he s e c t ion on vowe l s on p . 1 5 f f . , s ome consonan t s s how a pre ference
but incons i stent ly , for l e i or l e i , and for 101 and I � / . But there are
l imitat ions as to the sequence vowe l-con s onant in the s ame syllable ,
b e c au s e , as ment ioned in the s e c t ion on consonant s , there are consonan t s
whi ch never o c cur finally in a word .
Summing up t he phono t a c t i cal d i s t ribut i on o f the consonant s a s
ment ioned in t h e s e c t i on on cons onant s , w e have :
( a ) a l l the con s onan t s can o ccur initially and medial ly ,
( b ) t he con s onan t s that c an oc cur in final p o s i t i on are : I p , t , k ,
5 , ( h ) , m , n , r) , r l
( c ) t he con s onan t s t hat d o not o c cur i n final p o s it i on in a word are :
( 1 ) the voi c ed s t op s : I b , d , g / ;
( 2 ) the affricat e s : I e , j / ; and
( 3 ) the semivowe l s : I w , y , h i , w i t h t he pro v i s i on that I b , d ,
j l c an o c cur finally in a non- final s y l lab le , when t he
following syl lab le begins w i t h I b , d , j l re s p e c t i vely .
The above d i s t ribut ional characteri s t i c s o f the consonant s w i l l b e s een
i n t he c l u s t ers .
The most frequent ly oc curring syl lab le in Batak i s t he C V - type .
Thi s fact i s refle c t e d , apparent ly , in the b iphonemi c charac ter o f t he
Batak alPhab e t . l
In Batak the consonan t s do not c luster in one s y l l ab l e . There s eems
l
See Appendix TIl .
44
t o b e a re lat ion ship between thi s fact and ( 1 ) the Batak language hab i t
o f pronoun cing t h e vowel s rather c learly and distinctly ; t h e centering
o f uns t re s sed vowe l s never coming so close to the central neutral vowe l
r a J , t o cause t hem t o lose their i dent ity , whi c h woul d have meant one
step towards the c lust ering of consonant s through a s lurring and event
ua l dropp ing o f a vowe l , an d , ( 2 ) the s yllabic charac ter o f the Batak
alphabet , whi ch t ends t o help preserve the great syllabi c i ty of the
Batak language .
Another way of de s c ribing the c lust ering hab it of Batak consonant s ,
i s by saying t hat the consonan t s do not c luster init ially and finally .
This fac t i s a l so re fle cted in the Batak language hab it in b orrowing
fore ign words whi c h have such c lust ers , namely , by insert ing some
vowe l in between the c omponent consonant s ; for example :
Dut ch : ' s t oker ' be comes Bat ak : / 5 i t o k k a r / ' bu s conducto :r> '
Dut ch : ' klas ' be come s Batak : / k a l a s / ' c Z a s s '
or b y omit t ing one o f the consonant s , as :
Dut ch : ' mot orfiet s ' become s Batak : /mo t o r p f s / 'mo t o :r>cy c Z e '
Dut ch : ' band ' be come s Batak : / b a n / ' t i:r>e ' .
This means then that in Batak there are only medial , or intervocali c ,
c lust ers , for exampl e :
/ p a s t a p / ' s lap ' .
All t he intervoc a l i c con sonant c lust ers con s i s t of only two components
and t he clustering i s always to be regarded as a s equence of the final
consonant of one syl lable and the initial consonant of the fol l owing
one .
I f any combinat ion of any t wo consonants were pos sible , but taking
into con s i deration the limitation o f the non-occ urrence in final
p o s i t ion of seven of the con s onant s , we would have 1 7 0 di fferent
clusters . But the numbe r o f actual c lusters is much sma l l e r , name ly 69 .
In Batak t here are 1 1 ident i c al c onsonant c lusters , i . e . c lus ters
con s i s t ing o f two i denti cal consonant s . They are phonemi c , as c an be
seen from the fo l l owing pairs , s o that they are not to be regarded
]
mere ly as an e l ongat i on . Tho se pairs are :
/ t u l a l) / ' un c l e ' and
/ t u l l a l)/ ' s tab ' ,
/ h a d a l) / ' ca:r>ry s u spended f:r>om t h e s ho u Z de:r> ' and
/ h a d d a l) / ' fe n c e ' ,
/ u m a / ' :r>i c e fie l d ' and
/ um m a l ' ki s s ' ,
/ d p a / ' forge, (wo:r>k o f a smi t h ) ' and
/ d p p a / ' c:r>ea te ' .
l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrograms No . 20 and No . 2 l .
45
Another evidence t hat shows that they are c lusters and not e longat i on
i s t rying to segme nt them by insert i ng a j un cture , a 1+1 or I I I. Let
us take the t hird p a i r , thus :
l um + a l or l u mmmmm + a I , or
lu + m a l or lu + mmmm m a / .
We could make the I ml in both s egmentations very long , but they would
never be taken as l umm a l by a nat ive speake r , even though the durat ion
o f the s i ngle Iml is longer t han the doub le I m / . Only i f the s egment s
are l u m + m a l w i l l they mean ' k i s s ' .
A l i st o f t he i nt e rvo c a l i c c lusters as found mo s tly in word b a s e s
i s given be low . Other c omb ina t i ons are p o s s ib l e , at l e a s t in c areful
spee ch , but alway s with a d i s t inct 1+1 int ervenin g . S u c h c l u s t e r s are
not include d . The ones l i s t e d below are what is called genuine
c lusters , i . e . c lu s t ers that c an oc cur without an intervening 1+1 .
The examp l e s given are a l l native words with the e x c ept i on of a few
we l l -e s t ab l i shed fore i gn ones if their inclus ion i s inevitable . The
' fore i gn ' , that i s , not origina l but well-establi shed and unive rsally
u se d , c lu st e r s w i l l b e enclosed between parenthe s e s . If the writer has
b een able to find on ly one word where the cluster oc curs , it will be
ind i cated by an asterisk placed t o the right o f the cluster , thus ,
( / - n c - / ) mean s ' fo r e i g n , b u t w e l l - e s tab l i s h e d ' , I - n t - I * means ' o n e
o ccurrence ' , and ( / - n t - / ) * mean s ' fo r e i g n , o n e o c c u rr e n c e ' .
The c lust ers are :
I-bb-I It�bbal ' in c r e as e d '
I - dd - I I h � d d a l) l ' fe n c e '
I-kb-I I b ukb akl ' throb b i n g '
I - kd - I I d a k d � n a k l ' ch i l d '
I - kg - I Igukgukl ' he a p e d up '
1- kj - I I j u kj u k l ' t o u c h wi t h a s t i c k '
I-kp-I I p u kpakl 'noisy '
I-kt-I I t f k t i l) l ' ba n n s '
I- kk-I Idakkal ' b ra n c h '
I - km - I Im:> kmo k l ' fa t '
I - kn - I InEknEpl ' pa c i fi e d '
I - k l) - I I I) � k l) a t l ' de v o u r '
I-k l -I I l �k l akl ' ri n d '
I-kr-I I re k rE kl ' s he l f '
I-ks-I Ip�ksal ' comp e l '
( /-pt -/) * Is�ptul ' S a t u rday '
I-pp-I 16ppul ' g randp a re n t '
I-ps-I* I :> n o p s a l ' a l l- s ix '
I-tt-I Ip� t ta rl ' fl- o o r '
46
Another thing about the l - k X - I c lu s t ers ( here /X/ s t ands for any
p o s s ib l e consonant ) , is the fact that mo s t of the examp l e s are redup l i
c a t i on s , due t o the f a c t t hat t he glo t t a l i s e d I k l i s a regular morpho
phonemi c alternant for t he voi ce l e s s s t ops I p l and I t I be fore vo i ced
consonant s , an d f o r the ve lar nasal I� I b e fore voi c e l e s s consonant s .
I n t erms o f the phoneme s which c an occ upy p o s i t ion 2 , we can make
t hes e statement s :
( 1 ) The mos t frequently o c curring c on s onant s in p o s i t ion 2 are the
voi c e l e s s s t op s , the fri cat ive l s i , and t he nasal s .
(2) The v o i c e d stops o c cur only in i dent i cal c lu s t ers , and after I � I
and t he lingua l s .
( 3 ) I c l o c curs only after I n / , i . e . : ( / - n c - I ) .
( 4 ) The glottal fri cat ive I h l o c curs only aft er a lingua l .
( 5 ) The l ingual s oc cupy p o s i t ion 2 only in i dent i c a l c lu s t ers .
1
See page 9 .
49
V I AGRAM 4
D I A G RAMMAT I C TABLE O F THE CONS ONANT CLUS TERS
b d 9 j P t k c m n I) s h r
b bb
d dd
9
j jj
p pp £.!.* ps*
t tt ts*
k kb kd kg kj kp kt kk km kn k l) ks k1 kr
c
m �* mm
n nt* nc nn
I) I) b I) d I) g I) j .2.!.* � I)m I) n 1) 1) � 1) 1 I) r
s sp st 5 k* sm sn 5 1) 55*
h
1b 1 d 19 1j 1p 1t 1m 1 1) 1 s 1 h 11
r rb rd rg rj rp rt rk rm rn r l) rs rh r r*
The st ructural st atement s above contain some e x cept ions and s how
s ome patterning imbalan c e s . Howeve r , t h i s is not very unc ommon in
language analys e s , as t he re s e em t o b e few , if any , one hundred per
cent rigorously s ymme t r i c a l s t ructural patterns in language . But on
the whol e t he st ruct ural patt erning of t he Batak c on s onant c l u s t e r s
can be sa i d t o b e rather regular .
50
2.3. V O W E L C L UST E RS
L I ST OF TWO-VOWEL CLUSTERS :
/ a / in p o s i t i on 1 :
/au/ /aup/ ' w a s h away '
/ ra u t / ' kn i fe '
/bau/ ' o do u r '
* ( /ao/) / dao/ ' fa r '
/a�/ /a� r/ ' sp r ea d '
/ma� s / ' re p e a t e d l y '
/ ta�/ ' la k e '
fa i l /a i t/ ' pu l l t oward onese lf '
/ra i t/ ' s t ru o t ure '
/da i / ' taste '
* ( /ae/) /dae/ ' imprope r '
/a€/ /ae k/ 'water '
/da€ k/ ' g a t he r '
/sa€/ ' fi n i s h e d '
51
/ i / i n p o s i t ion 1 :
*/ i u/ / s f u k/ , ladle, vb . '
/ p f u/ ' twi s t '
* I i 0/ / t fop/ ' ho l d '
/p fo/ 'invite '
*/ i o/* / d f o r/ ' s ea I' c h '
I i a/ / i fH/ ' c Z ea n '
/ b f a l) / ' dog '
/p fa/ ' k i dn e y '
/ e / i n p o s i t i on 1 :
*/eu/ /peut/ ' fa Z Z '
/ma h e u / ' exhaus t e d '
(le i !) /e i ! ' Hey ! '
leal /deak/ 'a Zot '
I deal , luI'e '
/ E / in p o s i t ion 1 :
*/co/ / pe o p / ' keep '
/ I eo/ ' k i nd o f wa t e I' p l an t '
lEa/ /ea l / ' ga i t '
/me a t / ' p e I' c h '
/gea/ ' w o I'm '
/ u / i n p o s i t ion 1 :
* ( luo/) / t uo / ' to s s up c o i n '
*/u i /* /tu i t/ 'vanity '
(fuel) f uel 'A lack ! '
/bue/ ' ab u n da n t '
/ua/ /uas/ , t h i I's t '
/ tuak/ 'pa Zm w i n e '
/dua/ ' two '
/ 0 / in p o s i t ion 1 :
foul /6u/ ' Ye s , comi ng .
/ k6 u m / ' k i nsman '
/j6u/ 'cal l '
/0 i f /6 i / ' He y ! or Ah! '
/ d6 i t / , s ting '
/ b6 i / 'may , or can '
*/oa/ / b6 a n / , take, b I'i n g '
/d6a/ ' i n v o ca t i o n '
{ lo e l } joel ' A h , me ! , i n de s p a i I' . '
/ 0 / i n p o s i t i on 1 :
* (o i /* / s!:, i t / ' hi p '
*/O E / * / b e l) / ' v e I'y u g l y '
*/oa/ / g :S a r / ' name '
/ ro / d ' ug Zy , bad '
52
V I AGRAM 5
D I A G RAM OF THE TWO - VOWE L C LUSTE R I N G PATTERNS
e E a 0 0 u
1 ia io io iu
e ea 1 eu
E Ea EO
a ai ae aE ao ao au
0 oi OE oa
0 o i (oe) oa ou
u ui ue ua uo
THREE-VOWEL C LUSTERS . There are two kinds o f three- vowe l c lus ters ,
n amel y t he c lusters found in word b a s e s and those re sult ing from
a ffixat i on . As with t he two vowe l c lusters we w i l l c a l l the former
' original c lu st e r s ' and the latter ' derived c lus ters ' .
The original t hree-vowel c lu st ers are ve ry few . We c an d i s t ingu i sh
two s t ruc tura l type s , name ly :
( 1 ) The c lu s t e r that cons i s t s o f a sequence o f a bac k vowe l , a
central vowe l , and a front vowe l . The only exampl e the wri t e r has
been able t o find i s :
/ n u a e r] / ' n o w '
( 2 ) The c lu st e r that c on s i s t s o f a sequence o f a central vowe l , a
b ack vowe l , and aga i n the central vowe l . Three examp l e s o f t h i s have
been found :
/ba6a/ ' m a l e p er s o n '
/ s a fJ a n / ' v ia l '
/ s a r a fJ a l / ' t r o u s e r s '
There are for s ome speakers more examp l e s o f t h i s type , name ly for tho s e
s p eakers who have / � / f o r t h e commoner / w / i n s u c h words as :
/ b a fJ a r] / for / b a w a r] / ' o n i o n '
/ m a fJ a s / for /ma w a s / ' ap e '
The wri ter u s e s only the variant with /w/ for these words . But as
men t i oned earl ier , for / s a r a fJ a l / he o ften has / s a r aw a l / . Thi s kind o f
free variat ion never o c curs in h i s speech for the other two examp l e s .
The sub j e c t o f derived t hree- vowe l c l us ters w i l l b e t ouched only
l ight l y , a s they ari s e under the same condit i ons as t he derived two
vowe l c lus t ers , and on the cons ide rat ion of spac e , b e c aus e t here are
f i ft y types o f those c lu st er s .
There are here a l s o two c l a s s e s :
( 1 ) The c lusters formed by t he addit ion o f a pre fix ending i n a vowe l
b e fore a word with an i n i t i a l two-vowe l c lu s t e r , for e xamp l e :
/ h u a u h � n / ' I a c c ep t '
/ d i e ah i / 'go after '
/ d i p a f a s / ' c l e a ne d '
55
N O T ES
1 . For ease o f typing during the preparat ion o f the d i s s ertat ion
manus cript , the vowe l symb o l s I t I and I � I were rep laced by l E I and 101
re s p e c t ively . The latter symb o l s are retained in this edition .
The refore , in Chapters I I I , I V , and V and in App endix I , only l E I and
101 w i l l be u s e d .
MORPHOPHONEM I CS
3.1 . WORVS
bb
dd dj
pp £.!. ps
tt tc
kb kd kg kj kp kt kk kc km kn k l) ks kl kr
md !!!£. mm
nt nc nn
I) b I') d I) g I) j !l! I) k I)m I)n 1) 1) 1) 5 1) 1 I) r
sb sd sg sp st sk sm sn 5 1) 55 51 sr
1b 1d 19 1j 1p 1t 1m 1n 1 1) 15 1h 11
rb rd rg rj rp rt rk rc rm rn r l) rs rh rr ry
57
58
3. 2. E X T E R N A L S A NV� I
The alt ernat ions of s hape where words c ome together are sub s umed by
the following ten rule s , which must be app l i ed in the order given :
ESl . h - � p- after - p , - m
t- aft e r - t
k- after - k , - n , - I)
5- after - 5
ES2 . 5- � c- after - t
ES 3 . - n � -5 be fore 5 -
-r b e fore r -
ES 4 . -m
-n
-1
�
�
-P}
be fore 1 -
- t be fore p- , t- , c- , k- , 5-
- I) � -k
ES5 . -t � -p be fore p-
-k b e fore k-
Es 6 . - n � -m be fore b - , m-
- I) b e fore g - , 1) -
ES7 . -m �
- I) b e fore g-
Es 8 . -m � -b b e fore b-
- n � -d be fore d- , j -
ES9 .
ES 1 0 .
-k
-p
- t
�
)
-h
-
b e fore
k( [q] )
v - ( any vowe l )
be fore b - , d - , j - , 9- , m- , n- , I) - , r- , 1 -
-k( [k])
TA B L E 2
p t c k 5 h b d j 9 m n f) r V
p pp pt pc pk ps p 'p' kb kd �j �9 km kn � f) kr kl pV
t 'p'p tt tc kk tc tt kb kd �j �9 km kn �f) kr kl tV
k kp kt kc kk ks kk kb kd �j �9 km kn � f) ke kl hV
5 Sp st sc sk 55 55 sb sd sj 59 sm sn S f) sr sI sV
m 'p'p .p.t .p.C 'p'k 'p'S .P..P. bb md mj .2.9 mm mn m f) mr ml mV
n 'p'p tt tc kk ss kk bb dd �j .2.9 mm nn .22 rr 1 1 nV
f) �p kt kc kk ks kk f) b f) d f) j f) 9 I)m I) n 1) 1) f) r nI nV
( no alt ernat i on s with other word-final phoneme s )
3.2.1 . E x am p l e s o f E x t e r n a l S a n d h i
-m t - I h O h O p t a b � a t l �t e t ' s t a k e ( i t ) s t e a t th i t y ';
c- I h O h 6 p c E t l ' p a i n t ( i t ) s i t en t t y ' ;
k- / l a p k O t O r l ' ( b e com e ) more di r t y ' ;
5- I ho 1 6 p s a O t i k l ' s omewhat dark ' ;
b I l a b b a l g a l ' b ecome b i gg e r ' ;
g- I l a l) g o g 6 1 ' b e come s t ron g e r ' .
-n p I b u l a p p u r n a m a l ' fu t t moon ' ;
t- I s 1 a t t O r u l ' from b e t o w ' ;
c- I s a b u t c � c i l ' t aundry s oap ' ;
k I s O I) O k k � l i f ' H k e a c o o ly ' ;
h- I s ) a k k � t a l ' from t h e v i t t a g e ' ;
5- I s ) a s s � I)E I ' from t h e r i v e r ' ;
m- I s O I) O m m a n u k l ' H k e a c h i c k en ' ;
I h O l a l) I) a l � k n a l ' o n ty t h e m i s e r y ' ;
r- I s ) a r r � r a l ' from t h e o a t l e y ' ;
1- 1 5 0 1) 0 1 l 6 b u u l ' H k e a cow ' ;
b I s O I) O b b a t u l ' H k e a s t o n e ' ;
d I s O I) O d d 6 l o k l ' l i k e a m o u n t a i n ' ;
g- 1 5 0 1) 0 1) g E a l ' H k e a worm ' .
- I) p I d a k p 6 l a l ' n o t n e c e s s ary ' ;
t- I d a k t a b 6 1 ' n o t de H ci o u s ' ;
c- I d a k c � k k u p l ' n o t enough ' ;
k I d a k k O t 6 r l ' n o t dirty ' ;
h- I d a k k E b b a l) 1 ' n o t spread ' ;
5- I d a k s a l) a l ' n o t e n ou g h time ' ;
-k h I h a l a k k � t a l 'vi Hager ' ;
v- I h a l a h O n l ' t h i s p e rs o n ' ;
-5 h- I l a O s s u d O k ( ma ) 1 'and I said ' .
3.3. I N T E RN A L M O R PH O P H O N E M I CS
3.3. 1 . R e g u l a r I n t e rn a l A l t e r n a t i o n s
B y and l arge the internal alternat ions follow the s ame rul e s a s ex
t e rnal s andhi . For internal comb inations we will write a hyphen at
61
morpheme boundary , and a dash for un completed forms . The rul e s given
below apply spe c i fi c ally to internal comb inat ions not covered by the
irregular alternat i ons , and are to be app l i e d in the orde r given ; the
output i s then run through the ES rul e s , with the addi t ional provi s ion
that at the end of the whole p ro c e s s the hyphens are de leted .
I S 1 . - Q � - n b e fo re cons onant s , except Q - , h
I S 2 . - n � - t b e fore S - , h -
I S 3 . - r � - I b e fore 1 -
Examp l e s :
I p a Q - dang u r - h O n l � I pan - da Q g u r - h O n l ( IS1 )
I p a d - d a Qg u r - h O n l ( ES 8 )
I p a d d a Q g u r h O n l ' t hro w ( t h e m ) '
Id i -dal an-hOnl � I d i da l a t tOnl ( 1S 2 , ES1 ) ' ( h e ) aarri e s o u t '
Ima r- l a QEI � Ima l l a Q E / ( I S 3 ) ' to swim '
suffi x .
IISL pV--
maQ- { mV - - } � mam V - -
tV--
maQ- ma n V - -
{
{ sV-- }
{ }
�
rv-- rV--
l V- - -+ maQa- IV-
nV-- nV--
Ex cept i ons t o thi s rule are found with s ome s t ems beginning with I b l
y i e l ding I m a m V - - I ; name ly , I b u n u l ' ki L L ' , I b u r i l 'wa s h ' , I b E r E Q I ' s e e ' ,
I b6 d i l l ' s ho o t ' , I b u r O I ' s aare away b i r ds from a r i a e fi e L d ' , and a few
other derived t ran s i t ive verb s .
62
lIS2 . m a l] l - h V - - � m a n V - -
- b V - - � mamV - -
- s V - - � ma n - s V - -
otherwi s e , I I S l appli e s .
Except ions are :
/ m a l] l - h u l i l] / / m a k k u l i 1] / ' to s p e a k '
/ m a l] l - s i a m u n / /ma l] i a m u n / ' t o t u rn r i g h t '
/ m a l] l - s i l]g a l a k / / m a n i l]g a l a k / ' t o l i e on o n e ' s back '
�
-h i
- h On
-han
-mu + {� n
an
�
�
-mi
- mO n
-man
IIS1 0 . - mu � -m after - - v
63
3.3.3. S t re s s A l t e r n a t i o n
3.3.4. E xamp l e s
I n t he first few e x amp l e s t he app l i cat ion o f the rul e s are s hown
s tep by s t e p ; the others give only the input and output with a
spe c i fi cat ion o f the rules app l i e d ; the s lant ing l i ne s are omi t te d .
U M - n a l ( + u n - I)a l ( ( I I S 3 )
u l) - I) a l r ( Es 6 )
u l) l) a l ( ( Hyphen De let ion )
u l) l) a l i ( SR2 ) ' c o L de r '
p a - l u l) u n - h u l + p a - l u l) u t - h u ( IS2 )
p a - l u l) u t - t u ( ES l )
p a l u l) u t t u (H.D. )
pa l u u t t u ( SR3 ) ' to o L on e Ly '
p a l) - s u a n - h O n + pan - s ua n - hOn ( lS I )
pa t - s ua t - hOn ( IS 2 , twi c e )
pa t - s u a t - t O n ( ES l )
pat-cuat- tOn ( ES 2 )
patcua t tOn (H. D. )
pat cua t tOn ( SRI ) ' p L a n t ( them) ,
64
ma n - s O h O t ( lIS2 )
,
ma t - s O h O t ( IS 2 )
,
ma t - c O h O t ( ES 2 )
,
3.4. C O N C LUS I O N
MORPHOLOGY
4.0. I NTROVU CT I ON
4. 1 . PARTS O F S P E E C H
65
66
4.2. 1 . S u b s t an t i ve C l a s s
4. 2 . 2 . S u b s t a n t i v e R e fe r e n c e
4.2.2. 1 . A ll o c.at� o n
4.2.2.2. A c.tOll
4. 2 . 2 . 3 . 0 b j e ct
In non-initial p o s i t ion in the sentence , act ive tran s i t ive verb s are
inflect e d , with - s a , for third person s ingular obj e c t . Thi s inflect ion
i s opt ional in the s imp le mode , obl igatory in the comp l e t ive mode :
m a b b e g e ' h e a r ' : m a b b e g e s a ' he a r i t ( him, h e r ) ' ; u b b e g e ' ha v e h e a r d '
u b b e g e s a ' ha v e h e ard i t ( h im, h e r ) ' ; t a d d a ' know ( re cogni s e ) ' :
=
4. 2 . 3. V o i c e a n d Re s o l u t i o n
4.2.3.1 . V o .i. c e
Act ive t ran s i t ive verb s appear in four mode s : imperat ive ( wi t h no
infle c t ional a ffixe s ) , s imp le ( m a Q - ) , c omp l e t ive ( -part i c ip i a l ) ( U M - ) ,
and d i s t rib ut ive ( m a s i - ) . The third i s rarer than the others .
j 6 u ' ca l l ' : j 6 u ( i b a n a ) ' ca Z Z ( hi m ) ! ' ;
m a d j o u ( d O Q a n ) ' ca l l (a fri e n d ) ' ;
j umo u ( d O Q a n ) , have ca l l e d ( a fri end) ; c a l l i ng
(a fri e n d ) ' ;
ma s i j o u ( d O Q a n n a ) ' ea c h ca l l s ( h i s own fri end) ' .
69
Pas s ive t ransit ive verb s are infle c t e d for a d i f ferent s e t o f mode s :
s imp le , comp l e t i ve ( -part i cipial ) , promi s sory and potent i al .
The s imp le mode shows infl e c t ion for pe rson o f t he actor : h u - ' first
person e x c l u s i ve ' ; t a - ' first person inc lus ive ' ; d i - ' non-first person ' .
The actor i s placed immediat e ly aft e r the verb ; when the actor i s first
person s i ngular or first person inclus i ve , i t is repre sented b y z e ro ;
when the actor i s third pers on s i ngular , i t i s op t i onally repre sented
by zero :
b u a t ' ta k e ' h u b u a t ' ta k e n by me ' ;
h u b u a t h a m i ' ta k e n b y u s ( exc l . ) ' ;
t a b u a t ' ta k e n by us ( in c l . ) ' ;
,
d i b u a t h O ' ta k e n by t h e e ' ;
d i b u a t h a m u ' taken by you ' ;
d i b u a t or d i b u a t i ba n a ' ta k e n b y him ( h e r ) ' ;
d i b u a t n a s f d a ' ta k e n b y t h em ' ;
d i b u a t h a l a k f ' ta k e n b y t h e man ' .
The c omplet ive mode shows a di fferent inflect ion for person o f the
actor : h u - ' first person s i ngular ' ( c f . s imp le mode above ) ; t a - ' fi r s t
person inc lus ive ' ; N I - ' ot her p e r s o n s ( inc luding inde finite person ) ' .
The verb , furthe r , has an infle c t i onal ending for pronoun actor ; i n the
c a s e o f h u - ' fi rst person s ingular ' and t a - ' first per son inc lus ive ' ,
the actor i s repre s ented by zero ; noun a c tors are marked by n i :
b u a t ' ta k e ' : ( n a ) b i n u a t ' (w ha t ) has b e e n t a k e n ' ;
( n a ) h u b u a t ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k en b y me ' ;
( n a ) b i n u a k n a m i ' (wha t ) has b e en t a k e n b y u s ( e x c l . ) ' ;
( n a ) t a b u a t ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n by us ( inc l . ) ' ;
( n a ) b i n u a k m u ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n by t h e e ' ;
( n a ) b i n u a k n a ' (w ha t ) has b e en t a k e n b y him ( he r , i t ) ' ;
( n a ) b i n u a k n a s f d a ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n b y t h e m ' ;
( n a ) b i n u a kn f b a ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n b y o n e ' ;
( n a ) b i n u a t n i h a l a k f ' (w ha t ) h a s b e e n t a k e n b y t h e
man ' .
When the s t em ends in t he suffix - i , t h i s i s rep l a c e d b y - a n for t he
N1- in fle c t ion o f the comp let ive-p art i c ip i a l mode ; e . g . u 1 6 5 i ' c o v e r
( w i t h a b la n k e t ) ' ( from u 1 Os ' b 1- a n k e t ' ) + - i : n i u 1 G s a n ' ha v e b e e n
covered ' .
The mo st frequent u s e s o f t he comp l e t i ve are : when the actor i s
inde fini t e ; i n ab so lute pass ive forms ( i . e . when n o actor i s expre s s e d ) ;
and as t he verbal e lement in a nominal c lause ( int roduced by n a as
above ) .
The p rom i s s ory has the mode marker - O n ( - a n , when the underlying
forms ends in the suffix - i ) , and t ake s t he inflect ional ending t o show
70
4.2.4.3. A� p e cz
The e x p l i c i t pl ural ob j ect aspect can oc cur with the intens ive-ins tru
ment al :
p a s a k 'beat ' pa p p a s a kkOn ( n a s f d a ) ' DO b e a t ( t h em ) ' ;
pappasakkOn ( ba l obas () ' b ea t w i t h ( t h e ru l e rs ) '
or ' b e a t w i t h t h e r u l e r many t i m e s ' .
From the last examp le we se e that it i s somet imes not easy t o t e l l
whether w e have t o d o w i t h s omething done many t ime s o r w i t h many
things u se d indivi dual ly .
Modal inflect ion i s supe rimpos e d on aspe c t ual inflect ion . The
modal infle c t ions of the i terat ive aspect are given b e l ow in the
s e cond column , the first column is the s imple aspect :
Act ive : impe rat ive j o u ' ca l Z ." jou i ' ca Z Z repea tedly ! ' ;
s imp le madj ou madj ou i ' ( t o ) ca Z Z r e p e a t e d l y ' ;
compl et ive j um6u j u m o u i ' ha v e ca l l e d r e p e a t e d ly ' ;
d i s t ribut ive ma s i j o u m a s i j o u i ' e a c h ca l l s r e p e a t e d l y ' ;
4.2.5. Degree
4.3. C O N T EN T I V ES
4.3. 1 . Nouns
4. 3.2. Verbs
TA B L E 3
-2 -1 +1 +2 +3
Mode/
Actor re f . Aspect s t em Aspect Mode Act or/Obj e c t
ASPECTS :
I t e rat i ve -il
I nt ens ive
inst rument al -hOn2
Exp l i c i t
p lural p a l) -
ACTIVE MODES :
S imple ma l) - - s a ( Obj . )
Comp l e t i ve
part i c i p i al UM- - s a ( Ob j . )
Dis t ribut ive mas i -
PASS IVE MODES :
S imp le hu-
ta
di-
Comp let ive hu- - n a m i , etc . ( ac t o r ,
part i c ipial ta-
except 1st s g .
& 1 s t incl . )
NI
( NI -an)
1
Promi s sory -On - h u , - n a m i , etc .
( A ct . )
-anl
- O t t O n 2 ( ab s olute use )
Potent i a l tar-
( ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - an) l
RE CI PROCAL VOI CE : ( ma s i - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - a n )
A sma l l s e t o f verb s are i n fl e c ted for actor in the s ame way a s the
potential pas s ive ; t he s e verb s have a pas s ive denot at ion :
s u d a ' fi n i s hed; u s e d up ' : s u d a s a ' fi n i s h ed by him ' ;
j u p p a Q ' found ( a f t e r a s ea r c h ) ' : j u p p a k s a ' fo u n d b y him ' ;
d a p O t ' found; g o t ' : d a p O t c a ' found b y him; ob t a i n e d b y him ' ;
t O l a p ' capab l e o f do i n g ' : t O l a p s a ' c an b e done b y h im ' .
One verb forms the promi s sory p a s s i ve i n an irregular way : d O k
' sa y ; t e H ' : d O h O n O n ' w i H b e s a i d ' .
One t rans i t i ve verb has a defect ive i n fl e c t ion as to mode and i s
pe cul i ar in other way s . The s t em i s n i Q - ' s a y ( quotat i ve ) ' . The
o c c urring forms are : n f k k u 'I say ( s a i d ) ' , n f t t a 'we ( in c l . ) s a i d ' ;
n f n n a or n ) n n a i b a n a ' h e s a i d ' , n ) n n a h a m i ' w e ( e xc l . ) s a i d ' , n ,l mm u
o r n ) n n a h O ' thou said ' , n ) n n a h a m u 'you said ' , n ) n n a n a s f d a ' they said ' ,
n) nna h a l ak ' t he p e r s o n s a i d ' . The phrase n ) n n a h a m u i s u s e d as a
t o ken o f high formali t y : n U Q Q a r 6 i b a n a ' he has come ' ( an ordi nary
statement ) , n U Q Q a rO i b a n a n ) n n a h a m u ' he has come ' ( s ai d to a person
w i t h whom one i s on a very formal re lat ionship ) .
I ntran s i t ive and t ran s i t ive ve rbs do not only di ffer in syntax and
i n fl e c t i on , but a l s o in de rivational patt erns ( see § 4 . 6 . 4 . b e low ) .
4.3.3. A dj e c ti v e s
4.3.4. A dj u n c t s
4.3.5. I n te rj e c t i o n s
Interj e c t i on s are e x c lamat ory words ( words used i n curs ing , animal
c a l l word s , words for the attract ion of attent ion , and the l ike ) and
other words whi ch regu larly o c cur a s one-word c lauses (minor c lause
type s ) .
Examp l e s :
Exc lamat ory words : b u r i a p u s or a p u s ' I ' l l be damne d ' ; b a y a or p u a f)
' b uddy ' ; h u r r e e ' chi cken call ' ; h u d j e e ' pi g cal l ' ; s e h ' t o drive away
dogs ' ; p e h ' ex c lamat i on of d i sgust ' . Many of these words ( e . g . the
last four examp le s ) man i f e s t deviant phonologi cal behaviour .
Ot hers : b e t a ' aome ( i . e . Z e t ' s go ) ' ; b O h a i ' in d e e d ? ' ; t 6 1 E ' aome
o n ! ' ; h 6 r a s ' gree t ing , usable at any t ime ' , s f u ' p Z e a s e ' ( us ed at t he
end o f a s entenc e , only t o ch i l dren ) .
4.4. F U N C TO RS
4.4. 1 . 1 . P It O no un.6
The s e fall into s e veral type s : personal , demon s t rati ve , int erroga
t i ve , inc lus i ve , part i t ive , and indefinite pronouns , and numeral s .
The p ersonal pronouns are :
S ingular Plural
Free form Bound form Free form Bound form
,
First person : exc l . au hu- , -hu ham i - nam i
inc l . h f ta ta- , - ta
S econd person hO -mu ham� -muna
Third person i bana -na nas fda - na s i da
Inde finite person f ba - n i ba
there ' . The s e are more empha t i c than the first s e t . Morphologically ,
t hey s e em t o have deve l oped from * n a + d i + O n ( i , a n , a d u , a d u i ) ' t ha t
w h i c h i s here ( t h e r e , e t c . ) ' .
The interrogative pronouns are f s E ' w h o ' , a h a ' w ha t ' , d f a ' w h i c h ' ;
s a d f a ' how much ( pric e ) ' : f s E m a n u h O r O n 'who b o u g h t t h i s ? ' ; f s E g O a r m u
' who ( = wh a t )is y o u r name ? ' ; a h a d O 6 n 'wha t i s t h i s ? ' ; a h a 'wha t
is i t ? '; d f a d u m e l) g a n ' wh i c h is b e t t e r ? ' ; j a b u d f a n a t u m r b b o ' wh i c h
h o u s e i s ta l l e r ( o r ta l l e s t ) ? ' ; s a d f a O n ' how m u c h ( p ri c e ) i s t h i s ' .
The inclusive pronoun i s s U d e or s a s u d e s u d e d O r O ' e v e ry b o dy
'a l l ' :
came ' ; t u h O r m a s U d e ' b uy a l l ' ; s U d e j 6 1 m a ) k k O n m a t E d O ' a l l m e n m u s t
di e ' .
The partitive pronoun is deba ' s ome ' : d e b a d O rO ' s ome came ' ;
t u h O r m a d e b a ' b uy s o m e (pa r t ) o f i t ' .
The indef inite pronouns are s a O t i k or O t i k ' a Z i t t Z e ; s om e ; a few ' ;
( s i ) a n u ' s o - a n d- s o ' ( a h a i s a l s o u s e d for this purpo s e ) ; a h a ' s u c h
and- s u c h a t h i n g ' ; g o d a l) 'many ( p e o p l e o r t h i n gs ) ' . Examp l e s : t u h O r
m a s a O t i k ' b u y a few ( a Z i t t l e ) ' ; 1 � a n O n t u s i a n u ' g i v e t h i s t o s o
and- s o ' ; t u h O r ma a h a f ' b uy t h e wha t - do - y o u - ca l l - i t ' ; t u h O r m a g o d a l)
' buy many (mu c h ) ' . The inde fin i t e personal pronoun f b a ' o n e ' i s
men t i oned above : ) k k O n g a r a r O n d O u t a l) l) f b a ' o n e ' s deb ts mus t b e p a i d ' ,
that i s ' o n e mu s t pay o n e ' s deb t s ' .
Numerals. There are two c las s e s of nume ral s , cardinal and ordinal.
The s imp le cardinal nume ral s are : s a d a ' o n e ' , d u a ' two ' , t 6 1 u ' t h r e e ' ,
6 p a t ' fo u r ' , 1 r m a ' fi v e ' , 6 n Om ' s ix ' , p f t u ' s e v e n ' , u a 1 u ' e ig h t ' , s f a
' n i n e ' , p u 1 u ' te n ' , r � t u s ' hu n dre d ' , r f b u ' t h o u s an d ' , 1 6 k s a ' t e n
t h o u s an d ' ( t hi s i s going out o f u s e ) , j u t a 'mi l l i o n ' . Higher numbers
are formed by the patt ern numb er o f uni t + uni t + number o f next lower
un it + ( next lower ) un it + . . . + digit ( i f any ) ; when the number o f
unit i s one , the shortened form s a - of s a d a ( s a l) - b e fore p u 1 u ' t e n ' )
i s prefixe d t o the unit ; otherwi se , the full forms are preposed to the
uni t ; t hu s , s a p p u 1 u ' t e n ' , d u a p u 1 u ' tw e n t y ' , s a p p u 1 u p f t u ' s e v e n t e en ' ,
d u a p u 1 u p ) t u r f b u t o 1 u r a t u s u a 1 u p u 1 u ' tw e n t y s e v e n t h o u s a n d t h r e e
hundred a n d e i g h t y ' .
The lowe r c ardinal nume ra ls beginning with d u a ' two ' ( rare ly higher
t han e i ght ) t ake an i n c lu sive su ffix - s a , in whi c h case the nume rals
ending in a vowel have the a c cret ive ending / 1) / ( see also § 3 . 3 . 2 . ) .
Thu s , d u a t c a ' b o t h ' , O p a t c a ' a l Z fo ur ' , o n 6 p s a ' a l Z s i x ' . With higher
numb e r s , inclus i vene s s is e xpre s s e d by s U d e ' a l Z ' + na ' p rep o s i t i on ' +
numb er + demonstra t i ve pronoun : s U d e n a O p a t p u 1 u f ' a l Z for ty ' , s u d e
n a s a p p u 1 u O n O m O n ' a Z Z t h e s e s i x t e e n ( 1 . e . a Z Z s i x t e e n h e re ) ' . Perhap s ,
we a l s o have the inc lus ive suffi x - s a in s a s a d � s a ' ( a Z l ) b y hims e Z f ' ;
t he morphemi c s t ru ct ure se ems t o b e s a - ' on e ' ( b ound form ) + s a d a ' o n e '
79
n umb e r ? ' .
For ordinals , s e e § 3 . 5 .
The proverb s are formed from the root I- h u a : act ive intran s i t ive
m a r h u a 'do ( i n g ) w ha t ' , s t at ive int ran s it i ve m a h u a ' w h a t hap p e n e d t o i t ' ,
and t ran s i t ive h a h u a ' do e om e t hi n g t o ( eo m e t h i ng ) ' . Example s : ma r h ua
i b a n a d i s f 'wha t i e h e do i n g t h e re ? ' ; d a � ma r h u a h f t a t u s f ' w e a r e n o t
do i n g an y t h i n g t h e r e ( i . e . w e h a v e n o b u e i n e e e g o i n g t h e re ) ' ; m a h u a
i ba n a 'wha t happe n e d t o h i m ? ' ; d a Q m a h u a i b � n a ' n o t hi n g happ e n e d t o
h i m ' ; ( s E m a k k a h u a h O 'who hae don e w h a t t o y o u ? ' ( ac t ive vOice , s impl e
mode ) ; i n the fo l lowing e x amp l e s o f t h e p a s s ive , the t rans lat ions are
by nece s si t y i n the act ive : d l h a h u a i b a n a h O 'wha t did he do to y o u ? ' ;
d a Q h a h u a 6 n n a h � m i ' h e won ' t do a n y t h i n g t o u e ( ex c l . ) ' ; d a Q h i n a h u a
i b� n a d a Q t a r h a h u � s a ) ' h e can n o t do
' n o t hi n g hae b e en don e t o h i m ' ;
The above examp l e s s how that the t ran s i
a n y t h i n g t o ( o r , a bo u t ) i t ' .
t ive s t em h a h u a i s regularly infle c t e d for a l l t h e modes in t he p a s s ive
an d for the s imp le mode in the act ive . The re ciprocal m a s i h a h u � a n ' do
w h a t to e a c h o th e r ' does o c cur in the interrogat ive , but it i s rare ; s o
i s the d i s t ribut ive act ive m a s i h a h u a ' e a c h do e e w h a t ' ; the c omp let ive
act ive * h um a h u a does not se em t o oc cur .
y o n d e l" ; etc .
The pro-c lause s are 6 1 0 ' y e s ', d a O � ' n o ' ( note the di fferen c e from
the negat ive part i c l e d a � ' no t ; n o ' ) , b O a s a 'why ' ( s ome s ay b E a s a ) ,
, ,
a s a ' s o ' , j a d i ' s o ; t h e l'efol'e ' , f p E ' s o now ' or O p p E ( from I + p E and
,
O n + p E ) , a t t O � ' 8 0 now ' : a s a I l a O rn a h f t a ' s o l e t ' s g o ' ; j a d i l aO
,
rn a i b a n a ' t h e l'efol'e he w e n t ( away ) ' ; ( p E I b O r h a t rna h O ' s o now, go
t h o u ' ; a t t O n I m a r E d d E rn a h f t a ' s o n o w , l e t ' s s i ng ' .
4.4.2. D i re c t i ve P a rt i c l e s
4.4.2.1 . P� e p o � itio n�
4.4.2.1 .3. A t t r i b u t i ve P r e p os i t i o n
4.4.2.1 .4. p o s s e s s i v e - A g e n t i ve P r e po s i t i on
4.4.2.1 .S. Ob j e c t i ve p r ep o s i t i on
Of the t hree prepo s i t ions in t h i s c las s , the last two are int er
changeab le , s t a n b e ing the more common .
s 6 1) O n ' Z i k e ' : s O I) O n s u r u s u r u a n d O u l ( n a ' h e r b e auty is Z i k e an
a ng e Z ( ' s ) " that i s , ' s h e is as b e a u t i fu Z as an ang e Z ' .
s i a n ' t han ' : h u m a t O p d O 6 n s i a n m 6 t O r ' t h i s i s fa s t e r t ha n a m o t o r
car ' .
a s a ' t han ' : d u m e l) g a n d O 6 n a s a a n ' t h i s i s b e t t e r t h a n t h a t y onder ' .
4.4.2.1 .7. R e s u l t a t i ve P r e p os i t i o n s
The first t hree c ome between the predicator and the subj e c t , the
next two o c cur at the b eginning o f the c laus e .
d O ' a ffirmat ive ' : rn 6 d o rn d O i b a n a ' he is s l e e p i ng ' ; h u f d a d O i b a n a
' h e i s s e e n by me ' ; h O d O rna b b a E n O n ? ' d i d .YOU do t h i s ? ' ; r i rJ g a s d O
i ba n a ' h e i s di l i g en t ' ; g u r u d O i b a n a 'he i s a teacher ' .
rn a ' narrat ive ': rn a r s i a j a r rna i b a n a ' ( and s o ) he s t udied ' ; d i t u h O r
i bana rn a b u k k u r ' ( and t h e n ) he b o u g h t t h e b o o k ' .
pE ' conc e s s ive ' : huga ra r p E bukku f ' ( I prom i s e ) I wi l l pay fo r t h e
b o o k ' ; rn a r d a l a n p a t p E a u ' ( i t ' s a l l rig h t ) I w i l l wa l k ' ; O n p E h u l E a n
' I wi l l jus t give this ( i . e . , t h ere i s n o n e e d t o find a n o t h e r ) ' .
The first e xamp le can b e expre s s e d by the promi s sory mode o f t he verb :
g a ra r O k k u d O b u k k u f ' I wi l l pay for t h e b o o k ' ; the u s e of p E i s felt
to e xpre s s a s t ronge r commitment .
d a rJ ' n o t ; n o ' ( d a d a and d a t u rJ are more emphat i c ne gat ive part i c l e s ;
c f . s O b e l ow ) : d a rJ h u f d a i b a n a ' he is no t s e e n by me ( I don ' t s e e =
n o t come ' ; da8 pO l a h u b u a t ( ' i t won ' t be taken b y m e (= I won ' t take
it) ' . The negat ive c orre sponding to n U 8 8 a ' comple t ive ' is d a 8 b E 'no
longer ' : d a 8 bE j u k k a t i b a n a ' he i s no l on g e r n a u g h t y ' .
Except in s p e c i a l s t y le s , t hes e part i c l e s o c cur only i n independent
c lau s e s . In subordinate c laus e s or phras e s , the negat ive p art i c le i s
s o : l a O d O a u , m a l O s O r O i b a n a ' I w i l l g o , w h e n h e do e s n o t come ' ;
t he comp le t ive i s d U 8 ( n a u 8 in nominal c laus e s ) : l aO d O a u , ma l O d U 8
r O I b a n a ' I w i l l g o , w he n h e has come ' ; b E r E 8 j O I O ma n a 8 n a U 8 r O i b a n a
' g o s e e w h e t h e r h e has come ' .
s O i s also u s e d in independent c laus e s as an emphat i c negat ive ; c f .
d a 8 a d 0 8 h E p E k k u ' I h a v e n o money ' and s O a d 0 8 h E p E k k u ' I HA VE n o
mon e y ' .
d O p E ' s t i l l ' ( p rogre s s ive ) : m a k k a d i d O p E n a s f d a ' they are s t i l l
t a l ki n g ' . Thi s be longs marg inally t o thi s c l as s , be c au s e i t i s
mutual ly e x c lu s ive with t he non-negat ive p art i c l e s above ; however , i t
c an o c cur with t he negat ive d a 8 : d a 8 m a 8a n d O p E n a s f d a ' t h e y h a v e n o t
y e t e a t e n ' , and i t i s found in subordinate c lause s : l a O rna h f t a , m O I O
m a k k a t a i d O p E n a s f d a ' l e t ' s g o , i f t hey are s t i l l ta l k in g ' .
Aux i liaries are att ribut ive part i c l e s . They fal l into s e veral
c l a s se s . The first cons i s t s o f part i c l e s that mod i fy any form- c l a s s
whi c h c an fi l l t h e po sit ion be fore t h e predicat ive part i c l e d O in t he
c l au s e . In the direct word order , t h i s p o s i t ion i s fi lled by the
predi c a t o r , whi c h , in mo st c a se s , is a verb . We will call them
predicator auxiliaries . The other c l a s s e s c on s i s t of part i c l e s
mod i fying one form- c las s . W e w i l l group them ac c ording t o t he head .
4.4.5.2. N o un A uxilia�ie4
4.4.5.4. A d j u n c� A u xilia�y
Of the noun aixi liaries ab ove , h 6 1 a n 'only ', g a n u p ' e a c h ' , and a p a l a
are a l s o used with s ome pronoun s :
' re a l ' h O l a n i b a n a 'on l y h e ' ; g a n u p
h r t a ' each o f u s ' ; a p a l a i b a n a ' h e hims e l f ( n o t s om e b o dy e l s e ) ' ; h O l a n
a h a ' o n l y w h a t ' ; h O l a n t 6 1 u ' t hr e e o n ly ' .
4.4.5.5 . 1 . N u m e r a l A u x i l i a r i es
4.4.5.6. Two aux i l iarie s func t ion as at tribu t e s t o negat ive modal
part i c l e s : p 6 1 a and b E ( se e e xamp l e s ab ove § 4 . l . ) .
4.4.5. 7 . Some part i c le s , or comb i nat i ons o f them , seem t o mod i fy the
c l ause rat her than j ust part o f it . They expre s s s ome emot ion or
a t t i tude o f the speake r , or a shift i n predication mode .
t U !) ( . . . d O ) ' amazement ' : t lJ !) d i a l O d O n a t O r a s n a r ' he DID ( h a v e
t h e h ea r t t o ) o ppo s e h i s pare n t ! ' .
u a ( . . . d O ) ' impatience ' : u a b u a t d O b u k k u ' DO t a k e t h e b o o k ! ' ;
u a 5 0 d O h O ' DO b e s t i l l .' ' .
t a h E ' denial ' : b u k k u n a d O t a h E ' i t I S h i s b o o k ( a l t ho ug h h e s a i d
it was n o t ) ' .
n i a n ' regret ; emphas is ' : l a O d O I b a n a n i a n ' h e a c t ua l l y did go
( b u t t o n o avai l ) ' ; l a O m a hO n i a n ' DO go now ' .
( s O t U !) . . . ) m a O n ' doubt ' : s O t U !) m u r u k i b a n a m a O n ' h e MIGHT g e t
angry ' .
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4.5. S T R U C T U R E O F W O RDS
4.5.1 . Compo s i t i on
There are four types o f comp o s i t ion : the first involves a demon
s t rat ive pronoun , the s e c ond involve s a numeral , the t hird t ype i s
found i n t eknonymous personal proper nouns , t h e fourth involves two
nouns in att ribut ive or co-ordinat e construc t ion .
( 1 ) The c a s e o f enc l it i c demon st rat ives i s ment ioned i n § 3 . 3 . 2 . ,
1139 : j a b u k k f ' ( t h a t ) my h o u s e ' , from j a b u k k u ' my h o u s e ' p l u s i ' t h a t ;
the ' .
In the format ion of pro-adj unct s of locat i on , the prep o s i t ions d i
'at ' and t u ' t o ' are l inked by l s i t o a following demon s trative ( O n
' this ' , ' t h a t ' , a n ' t h a t y o n de r ' , a d u ( i ) ' th a t o v e r t h e re ' ) : e.g.
d i s O n ' h e re ' ; ( se e § 4 . 4 . 1 . 4 . above ) .
The demonstrat ive ' t hat ' o c curs linked t o a pre c e ding d i s i ' t h e r e '
by I n / : ( n a ) d i s i n f ' t h a t ( w h a t i s ) t h e r e ' . This word without the
c onn e c t ing phoneme s i s d i + i + i . The demons t rat ive O n ' t h i s ' i s
c onnected w i t h a pre c e d ing i ' t h a t ' b y I n / : n a h u d O k f ' ( th a t ) wha t
I s ai d ' : n a h u d O k i n 6 n ' ( t ha t ) what I j u s t s a i d ' ; j a b u k k f ' ( t h a t ) my
house ' : j a b u k k i n 6 n 'my h o u s e j u s t m e n t i o n e d ' . It may , h i s t orically
b e this t ype o f c omb inat ion t hat we have in s ome adj unc t s of t ime ( see
also .§ 4 . 3 . 4 . ) ; e . g . n a h i n a n ' fo rm e r l y ' , from na + i + a n .
( 2 ) The l inking o f numerals t o free and bound nouns o f measure i s
ment i oned above ( § 4 . 3 . ) : s a k f l o ' o n e k i l o gram ' ; t O l u k k a b b O n a ' t hre e
pieces ( u s e d for p l an t s ) ' .
(3) Teknonymous pe rsonal proper nouns are formed by prep o s ing n a i
'mo t h e r o f ' , a rn a n i ' fa t h e r o f ' , 6 p p u n i ' g randp a re n t o f ' to a name ( s ee
§ 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . When the name begins with Is t d j / , the format ives are pro
c l i t i ca l l y l inked t o the name in the s hap e s n a n - , a rn a n - , and o p p u n
re s p e c t i ve l y ; thus : n a d d a u l a t ' Mo th e r o f Da u la t ' , a rn a t c a h a t 'Fa t h e r o f
91
4.6. 1 . S e c o n d a ry D e r i v a t i o n
4.6.2. P r i m a ry D e r i v a t i o n
Comp o s i t e s t ems whi c h are not s e con dary derivat i v e s are formed by
primary tle rivat ion . Primary deri vat i ve s are forme d from root s and
affixes , by compounding o f roo t s , and b y a c omb inat ion o f affixat i on
and root compo s i t ion . When t here are two pre fixe s i nvolve d , we w i l l
c a l l t hem initial a n d medial . The suffixe s o f primary derivat ion are
the same as those in s e c ondary deri vat i on , and in many c a s e s w i t h the
s ame meaning , e . g . :
h u d d u l 'to sit ' h u d d u l a n ' s ea t ' ( p lace noun ) ;
IbO r t i - b O r d a n ' womb ' ( p lace noun ) ;
92
4.6.2. 1 . R o o t C o m p o u nd4
There are two types o f root compounds : doubl ing ( fu l l re dup l i cat i on )
and a compound o f two di fferent root s .
Doub l ing o f root s :
R + /l appu l a p p u l a p p u ' b u t t e rf l. y ' ( noun ) ;
IU l) u t u � u t U l) u t ' oomp l. a i n t ' ( noun ) ;
Ih E a h E a h E a ' p an t ' ( intran s i t ive verb ) ;
Ij a l a k j a l a k j a l a k 'wander a b o u t s e a r o h i n g fo r s ome t h i n g '
( in t ran s it i ve verb ) .
Compound o f t wo d i fferent root s :
la t t a + /j a u : a t t a j a u ' t ree bearing pearlike fruit ' ( noun ) .
Root Comp ounding and Affixat i on :
R + /u l i l) + - a n h u l i k k u l f � a n ' ri dd l. e ' ( noun ) ;
+ /u t i + - a n : u t i u t f a n ' m a o h i na t i o n s ; t r i o k s ' ( noun ) .
93
Examp le s :
j a b u ' ho us e ' ; d O l) a n ' fr i e n d ' ; t a l) a n ' ha n d ' ;
b f a l) ' do g ' ; 6 d a n ' ra i n ' ; p a t ' fo o t ; "l e g ' .
4.6.4. V e rb S tems
4.6.4. 1 . 3. S e c o n d a r y In t r a n s i t i v e Verbs
that form . Verb s like m a r g a l a s a 'wri t h e ' ( m a r - + < a l > + Ig a s a ) are not
inc luded here , b ecause i t i s covered by ( 3a ) above , g a l a s a 'wri t h ing
m o v e m e n t ' formed in the pattern of § 4 . 6 . 3 . 2 . , ( 1 0 ) .
( 5a ) m a - + s i - + N ( t he meaning i s ' t ry to obtain what i s expre s s e d
b y t he noun b a se ) : m a s i h 6 d a ' s earah fo r , o r try t o b u y , a h o r s e ' , from
h 6 d a ' ho rs e ' ; m a s i h E p E I) ' try to earn, or b o rrow, money ' , from h E p E I)
' m o n e y ' ; m a s i b6 r u ' b e in s earah for a w i fe ' , from b6 r u , s hort for
t U l) g a n E b 6 r u ' wi fe ; fema Le s p o u s e ' .
( 5b ) m a - + t u - + N : m a t u b a b a ' ha v e s h o r t a g e o f fo o d; s u ffe r
fami n e ' , from b a b a 'mou t h ' ; m a t u mO n a ' e a t fi r s t fru i t of arop ' , from
b 6 n a ' b e g i n n i n g ' with a change of consonant .
( 6 ) m a r - + s i - + A + - i ; used with a p lural subj e c t , the mean ing
is ' b e unequal in what is expre s sed by the adj e c t ive base ' : m a r s i t i b b6 i
' b e o f u n e q u a L h e i gh t ' , from t i b b 6 ' hi g h ' ; m a r s i g a d j a l) i ' b e of un e q u a L
L e n g t h ' , from g a d j a l) ' L ong ' ; ma r s i p o g 6 s i ' b e o f u n equa L p o v e r ty ' , from
p o g 6 s ' p o o r ' . The corre sponding noun has the form p a r - + s i - + A + - i ;
i t means ' t he d i fference in t he quali ty expre s s ed by the adj e c t ive ' .
S t at ive Intran s i t ive Verb s :
( 7a ) m ( a ) - + N : m a b u g a l) ' s u ffe r w o u nds ; b e wounde d ' , from b u g a l)
' w o u n d ' ; m a t O r a s ' ripe ; m a t u r e ' , from t O r a s ' ri p e n e s s ; m a t u r i t y ' ;
m a s f h O l ' y e a r n ; b e hom e s i a k ' , from s f h O l ' home si a kn e s s ; L o n g i n g ' ;
m a r s a k ' b e s a d ' from a r s a k ' sa dn e s s ' ; m E k k E l ' to L a ug h ' , from E k k E l
' a Laugh ' .
( 7b ) m a - + Vt : m a d a b u ' fa U ' , from d a b u ' drop; L e t fa U ' ; ma b a O r
' f L o a t down s t ream; b e was h e d away ' , from b a O r ' wa s h away ' ; m a r f b a k ' b e
from r f b a k ' t ear ( s ome t hi n g ) ' .
t o rn ' ,
( 8a ) p a - + V ; u se d with a p lural s ub j ect : p a s f t i k ' b e a t o dds ' ,
from s f t i k ' b e i n a n i rri tab L e mood ' ; p a g a t t i ' b e exahanged b y m i s t a k e ',
from g a t t i ' a hange ' ; p a j u p p a l) 'me e t w i t h ( s om e b o dy ) ' , from j u p p a l)
' ( b e ) found, reaovered ' .
( 8b ) p a - + t u - + V ; ( e xpre s se s a high degree o f something unde s ir
abl e ) : p a t u r a p a r ' s u ffe r extreme fam i n e ; s tarve ' , from r a p a r ' g o
w i t h o u t food; s u ffer h u n g e r ' ; p a t u l) O I) O I) ' s tand aomp L e t e L y i d L e ' , from
1) 0 1) 0 1) ' do n o t h i n g ' ; p a t u s � O k ' b e i n u t t e r a o n fu s i o n ' , from s a O k ' fry
wi t h o u t fa t ; t urn o v e r and o v e r as in s u a h fry i n g ' .
(9) U M - + base : h u m u t u r ' b e s h a k i ng ' , from h u t u r ' s ha k e ( s o m e
t h i ng ) ' ; g u m O r s i l) ' ( has ) b e aome brown ' , from g O r s f l) ' b rown ' ; h u m u r t i k
' ma k e a s L i g h t movemen t ' , from h u r t i k ' m o v e s L i g h t L y ; di s t urb, t o u a h ' ;
h u m a l a p u t ' b e i n a hurry ' , from h a l a p u t ' ha s t e ( N ) ' .
( 1 0 ) N + - O n ( rare l y , - a n ) ; the meaning i s ' s uffer from what i s
e xp re s s e d by the noun b a se ' : b a t u h O n ' h ave a a o L d ' , from b a t u k ' a ao L d ' ;
r u a l) O n ' ha v e ho L e s ' , from r u a l) ' ho L e ; a a v i t y ' ; I) a l f a n ' fe e L a o L d ' , from
101
Tran s i t ive verb s are s imp l e s t ems , primary derivat ive s , or s e c ondary
derivat i ve s .
102
4.6.4. 2. 1 . S i mp l e T r a n s i t i ve Verbs
p . b a k ' b ea t ' ; s E a t ' c u t ' ; d O k ' s ay ' ; b U a t ' t a k e ' ; j 6 u ' ca L L ' ;
a l a p ' fe t c h ' .
4.6.4.2.2. P r i ma r y T r a n s i t i ve Verbs
There are few primary derivat ives among the tran s i t ive verb s .
( 1 ) p a r - + root : p a r m E a m 'p Lay wi t h ( s ome t hi ng ) ' . from l - m E a m ,
which i s a l s o found in m E amm E a m ' to y ' and ma r m E a m ' p Lay ( Vi ) ' ;
p a r s i t t a ' w i s h for ; d e s i re ' . from I- s i t t a , a l s o found in s i t t a s i t t a
'wish ( N ) ' .
( 2 ) p a - + root : p a b6a ' te L L ' . from I - b o a , als o found in b o a b 6 a
'pro c Lama t i o n ; announcem e n t ' ; p a s f d i � ' a v o i d ' . from I- s i d i � , als o
found in m a r s i d i k s ( d i � ' ke ep on e s e l f away from a n y c o n t ac t ' ; p a u l l o p
' m a k e to 9merge ' . from I- u l l o p , a l s o found in m u l l o p ' emerge ' .
( 3 ) root + - h O n : t a r u h O n ' ta k e ( s ome t h i n g s om e w h e re ) ' . from I t a r u
a l s o found in p a t a r u ' t a k e ( i . e . a c c ompany a p e r s o n ) ' ; l u a h O n ' carry
away ' . a l s o found in m a � a l u a ' e l o p e ' ; a g O h O n ' l o s e ( s ome t h i ng ) ' . from
lag O , als o found in m a g O ' b e l o s t ( Vi ) ' .
( 4 ) root + - i : i t t 6 p i ' ex t i n g u i s h ' . from l i t t o p , a l s o found in
m f t t o p ' g o o u t ; e x t i n g u i s h e d ' ; p o d 6m i ' s l e ep o n ( s ome t h i ng ) ' . from
I p o d o m , als o found in p a p 6 d om 'pu t to s l e ep ' ; d a k d a t i ' co n t i n u e
( d o i n g ) ' . from Id a k d a t - .
( 5 ) p a � - + roo t + - i ( c f . intran s i t ive m a � - + root ) : p a k k u l f � i
' t o addr e s s ( a p e r s o n ) ' . from Ih u l i � ; p a � i h u t i ' to fo l l ow (a p e r s o n ) ' .
from l i h u t ( a l so found i n i h u t t O n ' fo L l ow ' ) .
( ld ) pa r - + h a - + A :
p a r h a t u t u ' ao nfe 8 8 ' , from t u t u ' t ru e ' ;
p a r h a rn a O l rn a 6 1 ' dear; diffi a u l t ' ; p a r h a s E a l) ' fi n d a
' a h e ri 8 h ; va l u e ' ,
U 8 e for; n o t th row away ' , s E a l) ' ( i t i 8 a ) pi ty ' .
( l e ) p a r - + numeral ; the meaning i s ' di vi de int o such and s uc h a
number o f parts ' : p a r d u a ' di v i de i n two ' , d u a ' two ' ; p a r t 6 1 u ' d i v i de
i n t o t h r e e par t 8 ' , t6 1 u ' t h r e e ' .
(2) p a r - + s i - + Vt : p a r s i a j a r i ' 8 t u dy ; l earn ' , from a j a r i ' t ea a h ' ;
p a r s i g a t t u l) ' s u 8 p e n d o n e 8 e lf from ' , from g a t t u l) ' hang ' .
( 3 a ) p a - + A , Vi : t he meaning i s ' make or cause what i s expre s s e d
by t he b ase : p a g a d j a l) ' l e n g t h en ; make l o n g e r ' , g a d j a l) ' l o n g ' ; p a b a l g a
' ma k e b ig g e r ' , b a l g a ' b i g ' ; p a d b b o ' rai 8 e ' , t i b b 6 ' h i g h ' ; p a p E a k
' lay ( down ) ' , p E a k ' t i e ' ; p a h u d d u l ' s e t ( down ) ; make t o 8 i t ' , h u d d u l
' 8 i t ' ; p a j O l) j O I) ' ma k e t o 8 t and ( up ) ' , j O l) j O I) ' 8 tand ' ; p a ( n u rn ' g i v e to
drin k ' , rn ( n u rn ' dr i n k ( Vi ) ' , ( n u rn ' dr i n k ( Vt ) ' . The s imp le mode in the
act ive vo� c e is not formed by pre fixing rn a l) - , but by s uffix ing - h O n ;
thus , p a j O l) j O k k O n j a b u d O i b a n a ' h e i 8 b ui l di ng ( e r e a t i n g ) a h o u 8 e ' .
( 3b ) p a - + N : p a b a r a ' p u t i n 8 tab l e ' , from b a r a ' 8 tab l e ' ; p a s a r u l)
' 8 he a t h e (a k n i fe ) ' from s a r u l) ' 8 h e a t h ' ; p a d u r u ' exomm u n i ca t e ' , d u r u
' t h e o u t s i de ' .
(4) pa- + N + - hon : p a t u k k a k k O n ' h a v e ( 8 0m e t h i n g ) fix e d b y a
carp e n t e r o r m e ah a ni a ' , from t u k k a l) ' aa rp e n t e r; me chan i c ' ; p a d a t u h O n
' ha v e ( 8 0m e t h i n g ) aured b y a m a g i a i a n ' , from d a t u ' 8 0rae rer; medi a i n e
man ' .
( 5 ) p a - + Vt- doub l i n g ; the meaning i s ' do repeatedly what i s
expre s se d by t he base in a p layful or i rre spon s ib l e manne r ' : p a d O k d a k
'ahatter about d O k ' 8 ay ' ; p a i l) O t f l) O t ' k e ep rememb e ri ng ' ,
( 80 m e t h i n g ) ' ,
f 1) 0 t ' rem emb e r ( 8 0me t h i n g ) ' ; p a h i d d a t t f d d a t ' t i ft u p p l a y fu Z Z y and
rep e a t e d ly ' , h f d d a t ' l ift ' .
( 6 a ) N + - i : t O r t a r i ' danae b e fo r e (or, around) s o me t hi n g ' .
t a r t O r 'danae ' ; u l a s i ' a o v e r w i t h a b la n k e t ' . u l 0 s ' b l a n ke t ' ; p u d ( i
' 8 ta n d w i t h ( o r, t u rn ) o n e ' 8 b a a k to ' , p u d i ' b a a k ( p a r t ) ' ; r u a l) i ' m a k e
a ho l e i n ' , r u a f) ' h o l e ' .
( 6b ) Vi + - i : h u d d u l i ' 8 i t o n ( 8 0m e t h i ng ) ' , h u d d u l ' 8 i t ' ; I) a t i
'wake up ( a p e r 8 0n ) ' , 'l O t ' b e awake ' ; r a p a r i ' m a k e hungry; 8 t arve ' ,
r a p a r ' g o w i t h o u t foo d ' .
( 7a ) N + - h O n ; the meaning i s ' do what i s appropriate w i t h ( o r ,
use ) the ob j e ct e xpre s se d b y the noun bas e ' : a b ( t t O n 'wrap a r o u n d
( l i k e a dre s 8 ) ' , a b i t ' a l o t h i n g ' ; t O r t O r h O n ' u 8 e , o r g i v e , i n dan a i n g
( e . g . a a e remo n i o u 8 b l an k e t ) ' , t O r t O r ' da n a e ' ; g u r u h O n ' l earn; 8 tu dy ' ,
g u r u ' teaaher ' .
( 7b ) Vi + - h O n : p E a k k O n ' p u t down ' , from p E a k ' l i e ' ; g a t t u k k O n
' ha n g up ( 8 0 m e t h i ng ) ' , from g a t t u l) ' 8 u 8 p ended; b e h u n g ' .
104
( Ba ) ha- + N + - i :
h a s i h O l i ' l o n g fo r ' , s f h O I ' l o n g i n g ' ; h a b i a r i
' fe a r ; fe e l fear for ' , b f a r ' fe a r ' ; h a p O s i ' t ru s t ' , p O s ( n i r O h a )
' t rus t ( o f h e a r t ) ' .
( Bb ) h a - + Vi + - i : hapO rsE a i ' b e l i e v e i n ( s om e t h i n g ) ' , from
p O r s E a 'b e l i e v e ; h a v e fai t h ( Vi ) ' j h a s i a t i ' b e symp a t h e t i a towards (a
p e r s on ) ' , from s f a t ' fi t ( i n to som e t h i ng ) ' .
(9 a ) h a - + Vi + - h O n : h a m a t � h O n . ' d i e of; k e e p do i n g some t h i n g t i l l
o n e d i e s o f i t ' , m a t E ' di e ' ; h a r O h O n ' aome fo r ' , r O ' aome ' ; h a j O l) j O k k O n
' b e a r w i tn e s s o f ' , j 6 1) j O l) ' s tand ' .
-
( 9b ) h a - + N + - h O n : h a l u f) u t t O n ' y earn fo r ' , I U f) u n ' l o n g i n g ;
s o l i tude ' ; h a b u r j u h O n 'p ers e v e r e i n ' , b U r j u ' s e r i o u s n e s s ; goodn e s s ' ;
h a d e f) g a t t O n ' a a a e p t ( a s g o o d ) ' , d e f) g a n ' go o d n e s s ' .
4.6.5. S t e m s o f O t h e r W o rd C l a s s e s
4.7. ROOTS
4.7.2. Many o f the d i s y l lab i c s imp le s t ems and root s seem c l e arly t o
b e t h e r e s u l t o f redup l i cat ion : d o k d o k ' he a v y ' ; t a t t a p ' ( lt a p - I t a p )
'wash ' ; s a t c a p ' ( /s a p - Is a p ) ' s l i ae a l e a n ' ; l a k l a k ' ba r k ; s k i n ( o f
fru i t ) ' ; d a f) d a f) ' p a y a h e avy s um ' ; Is O s o in s O s 6 i ' urge ' ; Id a k d a k
( /d a t - Id a t ) a s i n d a k d a t i ' ao n t i n u e ' ; Ib a k b a k a s i n m a b a k b a k ' s t ream
down (e . g. tears ) ' . Some of these man i f e s t peculiar alt ernat ion
105
SYNTAX
5.0. I NTROVU C T I ON
5. 1 . CONST R U C T I ONS
107
108
5. 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . N o un Phrase
H e a d first :
(1) V + N: m a r d a l a n p a t ' w a H on fo o t ' (wa l k , fo o t ) ; ma r b a d a b o l a k
' ha v e a b i g quarr e l ; fe ud ' ( quarre l, v a s t n e s s ) ; ma l l a l) E p u d i ' swim o n
one ' s baok ' ( swim, ba o k ) .
(2) V + Pronoun : ma r r O h a a u ' b e s e l fi s h ' ( ha v e m i nd, I ) ; ma r r O h a
s a d a ' b e s t ubborn ' ( ha v e mind, o n e ) ; rna I I a k k a d u a ' t o ga l l o p ' ( to s t e p ,
two ) .
( 3) V + Adj unct ( P ro-adj un ct ) : I a O rna r s o g o t ' g o tomorrow ' ; p E a k
d i s a n ' "li e t he r e ( y onde r ) ' ; t a r u h O n t u s O n ' b ri n g here ' ; ma l l a l) E d i s U I) E
' sw im in t h e r i v e r ' .
(4) V + Aux i l iary : l a O h i a n 'we n t pre v i o u s l y ' ; l a O b e ' ( e a o h ) g o e s
i n d i v i dua l l y ' ; m o d om m u s E ' s leep again ' .
Att ribute first :
( 5 ) A + V : ( h a l a k n a ) h a t O p ma r d a l a n ' ( a man who ) wa l k s fa s t ' ;
( d a l) d e l) g a n ) g o d a l) ma r f s a p ' ( i t is n o t good) to smo k e muoh ' .
( 6 ) Adj unct + V : s a u r m a t u a ' re a o h o l d age ' ( s u o o e s s fu l , b e o l d ) ;
s a u t m a r s a h i t ' g o t s i ok as expe o t e d ' ( a s exp e o t e d, b e s i o k ) ; t O r u s
m o d om ' s l e ep oon t in u o us l y ; k e e p s l e ep i n g ' .
(7) Aux i l i ary + V : n a E I) l a O ( d O i b a n a ) ' ( h e ) wan t s to go ' ; p l t t O r
rO ( d O i ba n a ) ' ( h e ) oame imm e di a t e ly ' ; s O r m a t E ( rn a i b a n a ) ' ( h e ) a lmos t
died ' .
A verb head c an have more than one attribut e ; s ee § 5 . 2 . b e low .
5 . 1 . 1 . 1 .3. A d j e c t i v e P h ra s e s
The order in adj e c t ive phra s e s i s fixed . The aux i l iari e s whic h
modi fy a n adj e c t i ve t hu s fal l i n t o prepo s e d and p o s t p o s e d c l as s e s .
Head first :
( 1 ) A + Aux i l i ary : d e l) g a n s a h a l l ' v ery good ' ; d a o s i t u t u ' tr u l y
far ' ; a r g a h f a n ' e x treme l y exp e ns i v e ' .
(2) Aux i l i ary + A : ma t c a i u l ( ' v ery pre t t y ' ; t a r m u r a ' s omewhat
e a s y ' ; I am m a O I 'more and more diffi o u l t ' .
I n c o l l oquial speech , we often find more than one aux i l i ary ( rarely
more t han two ) modi fying an adj e c t ive ; e . g . ma t c a i u l l s a h a l i ' ve r y
v e ry p r e t ty ' ; t U I) m a t c a i b a l g a ' v e ry ex treme l y b i g ' .
5 . 1 . 1 . 1 .4. A d j un c t Phrases
Attribute first :
(2) Aux i l iary + Adj unc t : marEak bOta r i ' t oward e ve n i n g ' .
5. 1 . 1 .2 . 1 . A ddi t i ve Con s t r u c t i o n s
5 . 1 . 1 .2.2. A l t e rn a t i ve Con s t r u c t i o n s
5 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 3. A ppos i t i ve Con s t r u c t i on s
,
5 . 1 . 2 . 1 . V��ect� v e C o n� t�uct� o n�
5. 1 . 2. 1 . 1 . M a r k e d Di r e c t i ve Co n s t r u c t i on s
5 . 1 . 2 . 1 .2. Ve r b a l Di r e c t i ve Con s t r u c t i o n s
5. 1 . 2 . 2. 1 . Ve r b a l P r e d i ca t i ve Con s t r u c t i on s
5 . 1 .2.2.2. E qu a t i on a l Con s t r u c t i on s
There are four types o f e quat ional constru c t i ons ac cording t o the ir
c on s t i t uent s .
( 1 ) Both the predic ator and the s ubj e c t are nouns or noun phras e s ;
the first c on s t i t uent i s the pre d i c at e : g u r u [ d O ] t u l a l) ' (my ) m a t e rn a l.
u n c L e is a t e a c h e r ' ; i b O t O k k u [ d O ] s i d o ' Ti o ( n ame ) is my s i s t e r ' ;
t u k k a l) n a ma l O [ d O ] s i p r t t O r ' P i t t o r ( name ) i s a s k i l. l. e d carp e n t e r ' .
( 2 ) The predicator i s a noun or noun phra s e , the subj e c t a pronoun :
s u p i r m 6 t O r [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e is a chauffe u r ' ; h a u [ d O ] ' i t is a t r e e ' ;
p a r E d d E [ d O ] a u ' I am a s i n g e r ' .
( 3) The pre di cator i s a numeral , the subj e c t a noun or pronoun :
t o l u [ d O ] h o d a n a ' h i s h o r s e s are t hr e e ( he has t h r e e h o r s e s ) ' ;
=
5.2. C LAUS ES
5.2. 1 . Word O rd e r
5.2.2. C l a u s e Types
5.2.2. 1 . F a v o u�i�e T y p e4
Examp le s :
Declarat ive : m a r s l k k 6 1 a d O I b a n a g a n u p a r l ' h e g o e s to s c ho o Z e ve r y
day ' ; ma � a l 0 p p a I d d a h a n dO i n a t t a d i d a p u r ' o u r ( ex c l . ) m o t h e r i 8
cooking rice in the k i tchen ' .
Interrogative : r s E ma m E a k k O n b u k k u O n t u s O n ' who p u t t h i s b o o k
h e re ? ' ; p i s t a r d O i b a n a ma r E t O � 7 ' do e s he do ari t hme t i c c Z e v e r Zy ?
(= i s he g o o d a t ari t hm e ti c ? ) ' . From t he last examp le we s e e that a
y es- or-no que st ion has t he s ame word order as a de c l ara t i ve ; the
di f ference l i e s in intonat i on :
2 3 2 2 H
/ p l s d r d O i b a n a m a r E t O � / ' h e i s g o o d a t ari thme t i c '
2 3 2 3, 3+
/p i 5d r d O i b a n a m a r E t O � / ' i s he good at ari thme t i c ? ' .
118
Examp l e s :
Completives : t u O n a n ' to t h e marke t ' ( e . g . in answer t o the quest ion
119
5.3. S E NTE N C ES
1 . I NT R O D U C T I O N
2 . T EXT
Sl u l top n i s i j Onaha .
b L ow g u n o f Jonaha ( name )
S2 p a r j u j i l a l) i s d O s i j O n a h a , j a l a p a r j uj i d d d a l) , a l a i pe rj uj i
g amb1 e r addi c t Jonaha and gamb l e r wande r i n g b u t gamb l er
dIu.
lose
S3 asa , d a l) n a h O l a l) i b a n a rn a r u t a l) .
t h e r e fo r e n o t i n t e rmi t t e n t h e h a v e deb t
,
S4 s O I) O n ( rn a a d 6 1) s a h a I i p a r u t a l) a n n a , na rn a r g O a r
Like that exi s t o n c e his creditor h a v e n ame
a rn a d d O r a p .
Fa t h e r o f Punc h i n g
S5 n U l) l) a p1 ga h a l i d i t U l) g u a rna d d O r a p r
a l r ea dy how many t ime b e demanded b y Fa t h e r of Pun c h i n g t h a t
s i l) 1 r n a (, a l a i h O l an bagabaga dO dOhOt j adj i d i baEn
h i s c re d i t t h a t b u t only p romi s e and p l edge b e made b y
s i j Onaha .
Jonaha
121
122
s6 d i na s a da r i , d i tOpOt ama d d 6 r a p rn a m u s E 5 i j On a h a
at o n e day b e v i s i t e d b y Fa t h e r o f Punching again Jo naha
I
I
m a n U f) g u s i f) l r n a
demand h i s credi t tha t
I
S8 m a k k u l i f) rna i b a n a , d i d O k rn a t u s i j O n a h a , a l e I aE .
speak he b e said b y him to Jonaha I say c o u s i n
S9 n U f) f) a m a l e l e k k u sO d i ga ra r hO u t a f)m f .
a l r e ady t o o l o n g no t b e p a i d b y t h o u t ha t t h e y d e b t
S 1 0 j a l a n U f) f) a 1 6j a au pabegebege bagabaga sO mahap
and a l ready b e t i r e d I hear r e p e a t e d l y promi s e n o t s t opp i n g
5 I
,
an h6 .
from t h o u
Sl1 6 ppE , g a r a r u t a f) m u saOnna r i .
t h e r e fo r e pay t hy deb t now
S 1 2 m O I O sO f, d i aOmmu rna p o h u l po h u l h O n .
if n o t t h a t wi l l b e t as t e d b y t h e e t h i s my fi s t
S13 d i bOto hO dO a l an a , ubbaEn m a r l b b a f) gOar
b e known b y t h o u i t s r e a s o n ( h a s made ) have riva l name
amadd6 rap a u .
A maddorap I
S 1 4 d a d a n a u f) ma raman i a h a a u , a .l
I ,
sO ma r h a s O h O t a n d O p E au.
not a l re ady have t e knonymy I for n o t b e marr i e d s t i ll. I
S15 a l a i a I a n i g O s t O f) n i bOtOhOkku dO.
but b e c a u s e o f s tr e ng t h o f m y arm
S 1 6 a f) g O p O l a d O h u d O r a p h a I a k , d a f) n a b 6 i bE
if jus t b e p un c h e d b y me p er s o n n o t capab l e any more
,
h i r l mOn ni I b E r E f) 6 n n a ma t a n i a r i .
wi n b e h o p e d b y t h a t wi l l b e s e en b y him sun
3. F R E E T RA N S L AT I O N
Jonaha ' s Blow Gun
Jonaha was an i n v e t era t e gamb l er, who we n t gamb l i n g from o n e p l a c e
t o an o t h e r , b u t w h o a lways lo s t . T h e re fo r e he was con t in u o u s ly i n
deb t .
So i t was t h a t h e o n c e had a c r e d i t o r w h o s e name was A maddorap
( Fa t h e r of P u n c h i n g ) . Amaddo rap had a l ready deman ded his credi t
s e ve r a l t im e s , b u t Jonaha had o n l y made promi s e s and p l e dg e s . One day
Amaddorap again wen t to Jonaha to demand h i s credi t . T h i s time t h e r e
w a s n o l o n g e r a n y p a t i en c e o n h i s fac e . H e s p o k e and s a i d to Jo naha :
"I say , co u s i n . I t ' s a l re a dy t o o long t h a t y o u h a v e n o t p a i d y o u r
debts. And I am a l r eady t i red o f h e aring promi s e s and p l edges from y o u
a g a i n and agai n . The r e fo r e , pay y o ur d e b t now . If n o t , y o u are g o i n g
t o fe e l my fi s t . Y o u know t h e r e a s o n why I am ca l l e d Fa t h e r o f
123
4. ANALY S I S
d O i s a predicative part i c le ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) .
s i j O n a h a ' name ' ; ( se e S l ) .
p a r j u j i t a d d a � ' i t i n e ran t gamb Z e r ' i s a noun phrase . The head i s
p a r j U j i ( s ee ab o ve ) ; t he at tribute i s the noun t a d d a � 'wandering ' .
( The noun t a d d a � i s only found in attribut ive p o s i t ion or as a b a s e in
s e c ondary derivat i on s , e . g . in the intran s i t i ve verb m a r t a d d a � ' vi s i t
another p Zaae ' ) .
p a r j u j i t a l u ' Z o s e r gamb Z e r ' i s a noun phrase . The head i s p a r j u j i
( s ee above ) ; the attribute i s the intran s i t ive verb t a l u ' Z o s e ' .
S 3 . a s a , d a � n a h O l a � i b a n a ma r u t a � ' t h e refore h e a o n t i n u o u s Zy h a d
d e b t s ' is a c omplex sentence ( 5 . 3 . ) with attribute a s a ' s o ; t h e r e fore '
( a p ro - c l au se ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 5 . ) . The head c l ause c on s i s t s o f
d a � ' n o t ' , a negative predi cate part i c l e ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . and 5 . 2 . 1 . ) ;
n a h O l a � ' i n t e rmi t t e n t ' , the pre di c ator ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) ; n a i s a prepos
it ion that make s t he fol lowing predi cat i ve adj e c t ive emphat i c ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) :
h O l a � ' d i s t an t ; i n t e rmi t t en t ' ;
i b a n a ' he ' ( t hird person s i ngular pronoun ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) , t h e subj e c t ;
m a r u t a � ' ha v e a d e b t ' , the comp lement ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) ; it i s formed
from m a r - ' in t ran s i t ive verb format ive ' ; 4 . 6 . 4 . 2 . ) + noun bas e u t a �
' de b t ' .
S4. m a a d 6 � sah'a l i p a r u t a � a n n a , n a m a r g O a r a m a d d O r a p ' s o
i t w a s t h a t h e o n a e had a aredi t o r w h o was aa Z Z e d Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g '
i s an equat ional c laus e ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) . The predicator i s the pre p o s i t i onal
phras e ( 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . and 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) s O � O n ( ' Z i k e t h a t ' cons i s t ing of t he
prepo s i t i on s 6 � O n ' Z i k e ' + the demon s trat ive pronoun i ' t ha t ' ; ma i s
t he narrat ive predicat ive part i c l e ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; the s ub j e ct i s the
inc luded c lause a d 6 � s a h a l i p a r u t a � a n n a , n a m a r g O a r a m a d d O r a p 'he onae
had a aredi t o r w h o was aa Z Z ed Fa t h er o f Pun a h i n g ' . Thi s in c luded c lause
cons i s t s o f :
a d O � s a h a l i ' e x i s t o n a e ' , the pre d i c a t o r ; i t cons i s t s o f the
int ran s i t i ve verb a d O � an d the attribute s a h a l i ' o n a e ' , an adj un ct
forme d from s a - ( b ound form o f s a d a ' o n e ' ) + the measure noun h a l i
' t ime ( as in t hr e e t i m e s ) ' ;
p a r u t a � a n n a n a m a r g O a r a m a d d O r a p ' h i s ared i t o r who w a s aa Z Z e d
Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g ' , t he subj e c t ; i t i s a noun phrase with head
p a r u t a � a n n a ' hi s aredi t o r ' and att ribute the re s t ; p a r u t a � a n n a is made
up o f p a r - . . . - a n ( noun format ive of locat ion ; 4 . 6 . 3 . 3 . ) + u t a � ' deb t '
( p a r u t a � a n ' p e rs o n to whom o n e has a d e b t ' ) + - n a ' hi s ' ( third person
p o s s e s s ive suffix ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) ; n a i s the att ribut ive prep o s i t ion
( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) ; m a r g O a r ' ha ve n ame ' i s made up of m a r - ( intran s i t ive verb
format i ve ; 4 . 6 . 4 . 3 . ) + g O a r ' name ' ( noun ) ; a m a d d O r a p ' Fa t h e r o f
P u n a h i n g ' i s a t e knonymous proper noun make up o f a m a n - ' fa t h e r of '
125
1 . VOWEL LENGTH
133
1 34
S p e c t rogram No . l a :
Ut t erance s : I g :5 a r l I g :5 t a pl Is�1 It�pl
Durat i on of I � / : 13 . 6 12 . 2 14 . 3 8.4
Although the di fference in the durat i on of the I � I o f I g :5 a r l and
that of I g :5 t a p l is gre at e r t han the di fference be tween those of I g :5 a rl
and I s � / , t he f ir st t w o a r e grouped t ogether due t o their phonotac t i c
s imilari t y , i . e . o c currence i n me dial open s yllab le s , and the fact
t hat the difference is apparently caus e d by the di fferen c e in the
fol lowi ng phoneme s , name ly a vowel ve rsus a vo i ce l e s s stop . The mai n
di f feren ce b e t ween t h e I � I in 1 5� 1 on t h e one hand and t he I � I i n
I g :5 a r l a n d I g :5 t a p l o n t h e other hand i s t h e fact that as a rule I s � 1
w i l l b e fol lowe d b y a 1+1 , whi ch w i l l t end t o pro long i t , but neverthe
l e s s i t can b e short er t han the I � I of I g :5 t a p / , if the latt e r ge t s a
s t ronger s t re s s ( s e e Spe c t rogram No . 2 ) .
Another thing that accoun t s for the greater lengt h o f 1 5� 1 i s , as
ob s erve d by P i ke ( 1 9 4 5 : 1 1 ) f o r American Engl i s h , the fac t that t he
en t i re pit ch con t our fal l s on it .
That the I � I in I t � p l i s much s hort er than the others i s obvious
from the s p e c t rogram .
Spe c t rogram No . lb i s a narrow band repre sentation of the above
ut t e ran ce s .
Spectrogram No . 2 : I s � + h u g :5 t a p l
Durat ion o f I � / : 9 . 9 1 1 . 4
S ee c omment above under Spe ctrogram No . la .
Spect rogram No . 3a : I g � t a p l Is�1 It�pl I t� s l
Duration o f I � / : 9.1 15 . 6 8. 4 9.5
Thi s demons t rat e s t he fact that the I � I in I b s l i s l onger than
that in I t � p / .
S p e c t rogram No . 3b : Narrow b and repre sentat ion o f No . 3 a .
Spec trogram No . 4 a : I g :5 t a p l Is�1 It�pl Ih�tl
Durat ion o f I � / : 11 . 0 17 . 1 9.5 8.4
The greater d i fference between I t � p l and I h � t l may be due t o the
more rap i d p i t c h fa l l in I h � t l ( see Spe c trogram No . 4 b ) .
Spe ctrogram No . 5a� / g :5 a r l Is�1 I t � pl I s� rI
Durat ion of I � / : 14 . 3 15 . 2 9.1 10 . 7
I l lus trat i on o f the greater length o f t he I � I in I s � r l than in I t � p / .
135
2. V O W E L F O RMA N T S
The first and se cond forman t s of the seven vowe ls are measured
from t he spect rograms No . 8 and No . 9 . The re s u l t s are a s fo l l ow s :
Spe c t rogram No . 8 : e e: a
First formant : 350 425 500 700
S e c on d fo rmant : 2250 2 100 1 82 5 1325
Spectrogram No . 9 : a ::> 0 u
First formant : 750 625 500 325
S e c ond formant : 1 3 2 5 875 825 825
T h e vowe l s are pronoun c e d with a pre c e d i ng I b - I , and these s y l l ab l e s
are pronoun c e d as t he first part s of :
Ib fsa beta b e r e: I) ba ral
and I b a r a bo t a b6 1 a b u t a r/ .
136
From these formant s a c hart i s made b elow whi c h s hows a stri king
r e s emblance t o the vowel chart on p . 1 2 .
V I AGRAM 6
VOWEL CHART
The vertical index is t he frequency of t he Second Formant .
The horiz ontal index i s t he frequency of the First Formant .
. u
. i
4 00
• e
�
600 •
;)
. a
800
3. J U N CT U R E S
Not much can b e c onc luded from these grams , but we s e e that / p+ /
i s longer t h an / p / . S e c ondly , that t he final / p / i s represented b y
a s o l i d b lank , whereas t h e medial / p/ i s ind i c a t e d by s ome s t r i a t i on s .
Thi s seems to sugge st that a final / p / i s more voi c e l e s s than a me dial
/ p / , or , that a medial / p / is not so s i lent . It is di fficult for the
wri t e r to make c on c lus ions ab out t h i s in view o f his very limi t e d
experience with spect rograms and insuffi c iency o f mat erial .
Corre sponding narrow band spectrograms are added t o b ot h , re s p e c t
i v e l y numbered 12a and 1 3a .
4. P I T C H CONTO URS
2 2 3 3
Spect rogram No . 1 6 : I d i j a b u + do + i b a n a I I I
Fundament a l s : 160 195 200
Ques t ion p i t c h contour with emphas i s o n l i b a n a / , s e e p . 3 6 .
2 3 3 3
S p ectrogram No . 1 7 : I d i j a b u + d o + i ba n a I I I
Fundamental s : 2 30 2 30
Pit ch contour with emphas i s on I - j a b u / , or i f t he answer given i s
rep e a t e d in the q ue st ion .
2 3 3 2 3 1
Spectro gram No . 1 8 : I d Tj a b u l I d Tj a b u H I
Fundamental s : 175 215 230 190 2 3 0 125
The fir s t one i s t he s ame t ype a s t h e one o n Spectrogram No . 1 7 ,
i . e . repeating t he answer in the que s t ion t o verify it or t o expre s s
mi l d s urpri s e . The se cond utteranc e i s the normal contour , here a s an
ans we r .
2 4 2 2 4 1
S p ect rogram No . 1 9 : I d T j a b u I Id T j a b u H I
Fundamental s : 2 3 5 300 2 3 5 2 3 5 312 . 5 1 6 0
The first c ontour i s one o f gre at doub t o r irony . The s e cond one
is an emphat i c answer to t h i s or in general . ( see p . 3 7 . )
5. PHONOTACT I CS
One feat ure d i s c u s s ed in the s e c t ion on Phonota c t i c s i s i l lu s t rat ed
here by a c ouple o f grams , namely , the phenomenon o f doub le c on s onant s .
The i r phonemi c s t atus has b e en demon s t rated on p . 4 4 by mean s o f
c ont ra st s . Here the c ontrast ing qualit i e s c an b e seen a s approximately
doub l e durat ion and t he shortening influence o f the doub le consonan t s
o n t h e pre c e ding vowe l s .
Spec t rogram No . 2 0 : I t u l l a l) l I p f ttul I p f t ul
,
' do o r ' Beven '
Duration in c s . o f
vowe l and fol lowing 6 . 1 13 . 6 8.4 6.8 3 . 8 19 . 7 6 . 8 10 . 3
med ial consonant
Spe c trogram No . 2 1 : I h a d d a 1) 1 I h a d a 1) 1
Durat ion in c s . 6 . 8 11 . 4 12 . 5 4 . 9
and I t :5 p p a l I t :5 p a l
Durat i on in c s . 6 . 1 13 . 6 12 . 2 8 . 4
l
For geographical names , see Map I .
141
142
f./7 = a
= u
=
e
= 0
The letters e an d 0 are formed by u s ing an addi t i onal mark or diacri t i c
with t he a ; for t h e e a hori zontal short line , called h a t a d i n g a n , i s
p l aced above i t to t h e l e ft ; and , for t h e 0 a c ro s s -l i ke mark , called
s i a l a , i s pl aced t o its right . A spec ial variety o f u can also b e made
by p lac ing a hook- l ike mark , cal led h a bo r u a n , to the right of t he a ,
t hus :
£/77 or 1./'7. = u .
A s p e c i al variety o f I can also be formed by pl acing a smal l c ircle ,
called h a u l i a n , t o t he right o f t he a , thus :
£/70= i.
The consonant s without any addi t i onal mark contain the pert inent
con s onant plus the vowe l a . To make a comb inat ion of a consonant and
another vowel a mark is superimp o s e d or j uxtaposed t o it , for example :
-0 r. a
-0 = n e ( 1 . e . n a plus h a t a d i n g a n )
00 n i ( i . e . n a plus h a u l i a n )
oX n o ( 1 . e . n a plus s i a l a )
-;; > n u ( i . e . n a plus h a b o r u a n )
When a small hori zontal line , called h a m i s a r a n , i s placed above
the character to i t s right , the velar nasal I � / , ort hographically n g ,
i s added t o the whole character , thu s :
U7 ang 0 nang =
(/70 i ng -0 0 n i ng
- -
r:ri eng -0 neng
l./7X ong 0 )( nong
u-Z ung cb n ung .
A s imp le consonan t symbol can be formed by p lacing an ob lique ac c ent ,
called p a n go l a t , t o the right o f t he charac t e r , thus :
-0 ' =
n
s o t hat (/7 -0 \ = a n
(/7 0'0\ = i n , et c .
and 0 0\ nan
o -o X \ non , etc .
143
--< da � ta
c
� ga 77 h a o r ka l
=
l
About the original allophonic distribut ion of Ihl and Ik/ , s ee Chapter I , S e ct i on 1 ,
page 4 .
2
Used only in Angkola-Batak , as this sound does not oc cur in Toba-Bat ak .
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