Nitte Meenakshi Institute of Technology-NMIT, Bangalore

Introduction to Sustainable Engineering

UNIT-5
Energy Sources: Basic Concepts- Conventional and non-conventional, solar energy, fuelcells, wind
energy, small hydro plants, biofuels, energy derived from oceans, geothermal energy.

1. Conventional Energy
Conventional energy refers to energy sources that have been widely used for many years and are commonly
found in our everyday lives. These sources are also referred to as traditional or non-renewable energy
sources. They are called "non-renewable" because they are finite and cannot be replenished quickly enough
to keep pace with their consumption.

The primary types of conventional energy sources include:

Fossil Fuels: These are the most common conventional energy sources and include coal, oil (petroleum),
and natural gas. Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals that underwent
geological processes over millions of years. They are burned to produce energy in power plants, factories,
vehicles, and for various other purposes. However, burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases and other
pollutants, contributing to climate change and environmental degradation.

Nuclear Power: Nuclear power is generated through nuclear fission, where the nucleus of an atom is split,
releasing a tremendous amount of energy. This energy is used to heat water and produce steam, which drives
turbines to generate electricity. Although nuclear power does not emit greenhouse gases during the electricity
generation process, it poses significant challenges related to the management and disposal of radioactive
waste and concerns about nuclear accidents.

Conventional energy sources have been the backbone of global energy production for many years due to
their abundant availability and established infrastructure. However, their use has raised environmental
concerns, particularly regarding air pollution, global warming, and long-term sustainability. As a result,
there is a growing push towards renewable energy sources, which are considered more environmentally
friendly and sustainable in the long run. Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, hydroelectric,
geothermal, and biomass energy

2. Non-conventional Energy
Non-conventional energy, also known as renewable energy or alternative energy, refers to energy sources
that are considered more environmentally friendly, sustainable, and have a lower impact on the planet
compared to conventional energy sources. These sources are called "renewable" because they are naturally
replenished at a much faster rate than they are consumed, making them more sustainable in the long term.

Here are some examples of non-conventional energy sources:

Solar Energy: Solar power harnesses energy from the sun using photovoltaic (PV) cells or solar thermal
systems. PV cells convert sunlight directly into electricity, while solar thermal systems use sunlight to heat
water or other fluids to produce steam, which then drives turbines to generate electricity.

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Wind Energy: Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy of the wind and convert it into electricity. When the

wind blows, it causes the blades of the turbine to rotate, generating power through a generator.

Hydroelectric Energy: Hydroelectric power is generated by converting the energy of flowing or falling water
into electricity. Dams or waterfalls are used to control the water flow, which then drives turbines connected
to generators.

Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy utilizes heat from the Earth's core to generate electricity or provide
direct heating and cooling for buildings. Geothermal power plants use hot water or steam from beneath the
Earth's surface to drive turbines and produce electricity.

Biomass Energy: Biomass energy is derived from organic materials such as wood, agricultural residues, and
organic waste. It can be used to produce heat, electricity, or biofuels through processes like combustion,
gasification, or anaerobic digestion.

Tidal Energy: Tidal power harnesses the energy from ocean tides, which are caused by the gravitational pull
of the moon and the sun. Tidal turbines or barrages capture the movement of water during tidal changes to
generate electricity.

These non-conventional energy sources offer several advantages over conventional energy sources. They
produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions, reduce air pollution, and have a significantly lower impact on
the environment. Additionally, since they rely on natural resources that are continually replenished, they
provide a more sustainable energy solution for the future. As technology advances and economies of scale
improve, renewable energy sources are becoming increasingly competitive and integrated into global energy
systems.

3.Solar energy:-

Fig Solar energy

Solar energy is a type of renewable energy that harnesses the power of the sun to generate electricity or heat.
It is one of the most abundant and environmentally friendly sources of energy available to us. Solar energy
is captured through two main methods: photovoltaic (PV) systems and solar thermal systems.

Photovoltaic (PV) Systems:

Photovoltaic systems, commonly known as solar panels, convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar
panels are made up of multiple solar cells, typically made from silicon, that generate electricity when
exposed to sunlight. When photons (particles of light) strike the solar cells, they release electrons, creating
an electric current. This direct current (DC) is then converted into alternating current (AC) using inverters,
making it suitable for use in homes, businesses, and the power grid.
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PV systems can be installed on rooftops, in solar farms, or integrated into various structures to harness solar
energy and reduce dependence on conventional energy sources, such as fossil fuels. The energy generated
by solar panels can be used to power homes, businesses, streetlights, and even vehicles when combined with
electric vehicle technology.

Solar Thermal Systems:

Solar thermal systems, also known as concentrated solar power (CSP) plants, use mirrors or lenses to
concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The concentrated sunlight heats a fluid (often a synthetic oil or molten
salt), which then produces steam to drive a turbine and generate electricity. Solar thermal systems are
commonly used in large-scale power plants to produce electricity on a utility scale.
Apart from electricity generation, solar energy can be utilized for various other purposes, including:

Solar Water Heating: Solar thermal systems can be used to heat water for residential, commercial, or
industrial applications, reducing the need for conventional water heaters.

Solar Cooking: Solar cookers use the sun's energy to cook food without the need for traditional fuels,
promoting sustainable cooking methods.

Solar Desalination: Solar energy can be used in desalination plants to convert seawater into fresh water
through the process of distillation, helping address water scarcity in certain regions.

Solar-Powered Vehicles: Solar panels can be integrated into electric vehicles or used to charge their batteries,
extending their range and reducing their carbon footprint.

The use of solar energy has seen significant growth in recent years, driven by advances in technology,
declining costs of solar panels, and increasing awareness of environmental issues. Solar energy plays a
crucial role in transitioning to a cleaner and more sustainable energy future, reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change.

1. Advantages of Solar Energy:

- Renewable and Sustainable: Solar energy is abundant and inexhaustible as it relies onthe continuous
radiation from the sun.

- Environmentally Friendly: Solar energy production has minimal impact on the environment,
producing no greenhouse gas emissions or air pollutants during operation.

- Cost Savings: Solar power can significantly reduce electricity bills, especially in areas with ample
sunlight, and can provide long-term cost stability as it reduces reliance on fossil fuels and utility rates.

- Remote Power Generation: Solar panels can be installed in remote areas without access to the power
grid, providing electricity to communities and facilities that are otherwise isolated.

2. Limitations of Solar Energy:

- Intermittent Availability: Solar power generation is dependent on sunlight, so it is intermittent and
varies with weather conditions and time of day. Energy storage systemsor grid connections are required
for reliable electricity supply.
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- Land and Space Requirements: Large-scale solar installations require significant land or roof space,
which may not be feasible in densely populated areas.
- Upfront Costs: The initial investment for installing solar panels and associated equipment can be high,
although costs have decreased over time. However, long-term savings on energy bills can offset these
costs.

3. Solar Energy Applications:

- Residential: Solar panels on rooftops can generate electricity for individual households,reducing reliance
on the grid and lowering electricity bills.

- Commercial and Industrial: Businesses and industries can install solar power systemsto offset their
energy consumption and reduce operating costs.

- Utility-Scale Projects: Large solar power plants generate electricity that can be supplied to the grid,
contributing to the overall energy mix.

The adoption and utilization of solar energy have been growing rapidly due to technological
advancements, declining costs, and increased awareness of the environmental benefits of renewable
energy sources.

4. Fuel cells:-

Fig Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is a tiny device that has two electrodes namely, a cathode and an anode. These electrodes result in
an electrochemical reaction inside the cell.
However, a fuel cell needs to have two important components to perform this reaction. These are:

An oxidizing agent and

Supply of fuel or an electrolyte.

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When these two are cut off, the cell will stop generating electric power. The electrolyte is very important
because it supports the movements of ions, to and from the electrodes.

Process of Fuel Cells

A fuel cell generates electricity via a chemical reaction by simply completing an electric circuit. The entire
process is completed in a few steps which are as follows:

At the anode, Hydrogen atoms are introduced. These atoms are known to carry a positive electric charge.
However, these atoms are stripped of their electrons at this stage. These negatively charged electrons move
and create a current through the wires.

At the cathode, Oxygen atoms are introduced. These atoms combine with the leftover electrons of the
hydrogen atoms. It can combine with it after it passes through the anode or at this stage itself. It all depends
on the type of cell.

The different reactions that take place involve:

At Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-

At Anode: 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-

The net result of these two reactions is 2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O.

Sometimes, however, the reaction can be too slow and in such a situation a catalyst is used. Usually,
platinum or palladium is used to expedite the reaction.

Types of Fuel Cells

There are different types of fuel cells available in the market, though the working process is pretty similar
in all. The various types of the fuel cell are:

1.PEM or Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells, which are also known as Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cells, have an operating temperature of 50 to 100 degrees Centigrade while
conducting protons. These cells consist of electrodes, bipolar plates, a polymer membrane, and a
catalyst.

2.Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells contain phosphoric acid as their electrolyte. The operating temperature of
these fuel cells is typically between 150 to 200 degrees Centigrade while they carry the positively charged
Hydrogen ions. It is the non-conductive nature of this electrolyte that forces the electrons to pass through
the cathode by completing an external circuit. However, the acidic nature corrodes the electrodes and
oxidizes during the process.

3.Solid Acid Fuel Cells work on either Cesium Hydrogen Sulfate, CsHSO4, or Cesium Dihydrogen
Phosphate, CsH2PO4. The molecular structure of the solid acid material works in a specific order at a
lower temperature. However, at a high temperature, conductivity can increase significantly due to the
phase transition.

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4.Alkaline Fuel Cells use an aqueous alkaline solution. This solution helps to saturate the permeable
milieu and helps in separating the electrodes. These cells operate at a temperature of 90 degrees
Centigrade and are very efficient in producing heat and water apart from electric power.

5.Solid Oxide Fuel Cells come with a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte like the Yttria-stabilized
Zirconia. These low-cost cells are also very efficient. However, it operates at a very high temperature.
The standard operating temperature of these cells can be 600°C and 1000°C at the two extremes of the
temperature scale.

6.Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are powered by natural gas or biogas and use Lithium Potassium
Carbonate salt as its electrolyte. It turns liquid at high temperatures to help the carbonate ions move.
These cells also have a very high operating temperature of more than 650°C. However, the electrolyte
corrodes the anode and cathode of the cells for its high operating temperature.

Applications

- Fuel cell technology is very useful and has a wide and varied range of applications. A few of them
include but are not limited to:

- Electric and eco-friendly vehicles

- Spaceships and space expeditions
- Electronic devices and
- Military applications.
- The byproducts of the fuel cells, in the form of heat and water, are also very useful. Also, in remote
areas, fuel cells are used as a primary electrical source or as a backup. It can also be used to power up cell
phones, other appliances, and even households.

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Advantages

There are lots of different advantages of using fuel cells. A few of them are:

1.These are more efficient in comparison to any regular combustion engine since they do not undergo a
double conversion process.

2.These cells save wasteful emissions of greenhouse gases. It not only conserves energy but creates heat
and water as its byproducts.

3.These cells are consistent and more stable, reliable, and convenient to use because the parts in them or
around them need minimal or no movement.

4.The working process involves atom separation and is very clean, ergonomic, and is very useful for
preserving natural resources.

5.These cells are very easy to combine with other technologies such as solar panels and turbines.

Most importantly, the fuel cells are extremely scalable in comparison to a traditional cell. Depending on
the need, these cells can generate electric power from a few watts to several megawatts.

Challenges and Limitations:

- Hydrogen Infrastructure: The widespread adoption of fuel cells is hindered by the limited
infrastructure for hydrogen production, distribution, and storage. Overcoming thischallenge requires
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significant investment and development of hydrogen infrastructure.

- Cost: The cost of fuel cells, particularly those based on precious metals such as platinum, remains
relatively high. Research efforts focus on reducing costs through the use of alternative catalyst materials
and manufacturing improvements.

- Durability and Lifespan: Fuel cells need to demonstrate long-term durability and reliability to be
competitive with other energy technologies. Enhancements in materials and cell design are being pursued
to address this challenge.

Fuel cells have a range of applications, including:

- Transportation: Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) offer an alternative to internal combustion engines, providing
zero-emission transportation with longer driving ranges compared to battery electric vehicles.

- Stationary Power Generation: Fuel cells can be used to provide electricity and heat for residential,
commercial, and industrial applications, acting as efficient and clean power sources.

- Portable and Backup Power: Fuel cells are used in portable devices like laptops and mobile phones, as
well as backup power systems for critical infrastructure and remote locations.

Fuel cell technology continues to advance, with ongoing research and development efforts focusing on
improving efficiency, durability, and reducing costs to enable broaderadoption in various sectors of the
economy.

5. Wind energy:-

Fig Wind energy

Wind energy is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the kinetic energy of the wind to generate
electricity. It is one of the fastest-growing and most environmentally friendly sources of power in the world.
Wind energy is primarily captured using wind turbines, which convert the rotational energy of the wind into
electrical energy through a generator.

Here's how wind energy works:

Wind Turbines: Wind turbines consist of a tower and rotor blades. The tower supports the rotor, which
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houses the blades. The height of the tower is essential to capture higher wind speeds, as wind speeds tend to
increase with altitude.

Wind Capture: When the wind blows, it causes the rotor blades to rotate. The shape and design of the blades
are carefully engineered to efficiently capture the wind's energy.

Energy Conversion: As the rotor blades spin, they turn a shaft connected to a generator inside the turbine's
nacelle (the housing atop the tower). The generator converts the mechanical energy of the rotating shaft into
electrical energy.

Electricity Transmission: The electricity generated by the wind turbine is typically in the form of alternating
current (AC). It is then transmitted through power lines to homes, businesses, and the power grid for
consumption.

Advantages of Wind Energy:

Renewable and Clean: Wind energy is a clean and sustainable source of power because it does not produce
greenhouse gas emissions or air pollutants during its operation, reducing the overall carbon footprint.

Abundant Resource: Wind is a vast and abundant resource globally, making wind energy potentially
accessible in many locations around the world.

Low Operating Costs: Once wind turbines are installed, their operating costs are relatively low compared to
conventional fossil fuel power plants, as wind is free, and no fuel is required for electricity generation.

Land Use and Co-Benefits: Wind farms can often be installed on land that has other uses, such as agricultural
or grazing land, allowing for dual land use.

Challenges of Wind Energy:

Intermittency: Wind energy is intermittent and variable; it depends on the availability and strength of the
wind. This variability requires integration with other energy sources or energy storage solutions to ensure a
stable and reliable power supply.

Visual and Environmental Impact: Wind turbines can have visual and environmental impacts, including
potential effects on wildlife, noise concerns, and the alteration of landscapes in certain locations.

Land and Infrastructure Requirements: Wind farms require significant land areas and proper infrastructure,
such as transmission lines, to transport electricity from remote locations to where it is needed.

Despite these challenges, wind energy continues to gain popularity due to its many advantages and
contributions to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and combatting climate change. As technology improves
and more efficient turbines are developed, wind energy is expected to play an increasingly significant role
in the global energy mix.

Applications of Wind Energy:

- Electricity Generation: Wind energy is primarily used to generate electricity, supplyingpower to homes,
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businesses, and industries. It can be integrated into the grid or used foroff-grid applications in remote
areas.

- Hybrid Systems: Wind energy can be combined with other renewable energy sources,such as solar
power or energy storage systems, to create hybrid energy systems that provide a more consistent and
reliable electricity supply.

- Pumping Water: In certain regions, wind turbines can be used to power water pumps,providing water
for irrigation or other purposes.

Wind energy has experienced significant growth in recent years due to advancements in turbine
technology, decreasing costs, and supportive government policies promoting renewable energy.
Continued innovation and investments aim to enhance the efficiency, reliability, and environmental
compatibility of wind energy systems to further expand their deployment and contribution to the global
energy mix.
6. Small hydro plants:

Small hydro plants, also known as micro-hydro or mini-hydro plants, are hydroelectric power systems that
generate electricity using the energy of flowing or falling water on a smaller scale. These plants typically
have a capacity of less than 10 megawatts (MW) andcan be installed in various settings, including rivers,
streams, or man-made channels. Hereare some key points about small hydro plants:
1. Working Principle: Small hydro plants utilize the potential energy of flowing or falling water to turn a
turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity. The amount of power generated depends on the
flow rate and the vertical drop (known as head) of the water.

2. Types of Small Hydro Plants: Small hydro plants can be categorized based on their designand installation:
- Run-of-River: Run-of-river plants divert a portion of the flowing water from a river orstream through
a turbine and then return it back to the watercourse downstream. They don't require large reservoirs and
can operate continuously as long as there is sufficient flow.

- Diversion: Diversion plants divert water from a river or stream using a canal or pipe toa powerhouse,
where it passes through a turbine before being returned to the watercourse. These plants often involve the
construction of a small weir or dam to channelthe water.

- Storage: Storage or impoundment plants store water in a reservoir created by a dam. The water is
released from the reservoir through penstocks to drive the turbines. This typeof plant allows for greater
control over the timing and amount of power generation.
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Advantages of Small Hydro Plants:

- Renewable and Clean Energy: Small hydro plants utilize the energy of flowing water, which is
continuously replenished by natural processes, making it a renewable energy source. They produce no
direct emissions or air pollutants during operation.

- Cost-Effective: Small hydro plants have relatively low operational and maintenance costs compared
to larger hydroelectric projects. Once installed, they can provide long- term, stable electricity generation.

- Local Power Generation: Small hydro plants can be developed on a smaller scale, allowing for
decentralized power generation and reducing transmission losses.

- Water Management: Small hydro plants can provide benefits such as flood control, irrigation, and
water supply in addition to electricity generation.

Considerations and Challenges:

- Environmental Impact: While small hydro plants generally have less environmental impact compared
to large-scale hydropower projects, they can still affect aquatic ecosystems, fish migration, and river flow
patterns. Proper environmental assessments and mitigation measures are important in their design and
operation.

- Permitting and Regulation: Developing small hydro plants requires obtaining permits and complying
with regulatory requirements, which can vary by jurisdiction. These processes may involve
environmental assessments, consultation with stakeholders, and adherence to design and safety standards.

- Technical Feasibility: Small hydro projects require a sufficient and reliable water sourcewith an adequate
flow rate and head. Site assessments and feasibility studies are necessary to determine the viability of a
potential small hydro plant location.

Applications of Small Hydro Plants:

- Remote Communities: Small hydro plants can provide electricity to remote communities that are not
connected to the main grid, reducing reliance on diesel generators and increasing access to clean energy.

- Agricultural and Industrial Use: Small hydro plants can be used to power agricultural or industrial
operations, providing a sustainable and reliable source of electricity.

- Distributed Generation: Small hydro plants can be integrated into the grid to contributeto local or regional
electricity supply, particularly in areas with suitable water resources.

Small hydro plants offer a renewable and locally available energy option, contributing to sustainable
development and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, their feasibility depends on various
factors such as water availability, environmental considerations, and economic viability, which need to be
carefully evaluated during the planning and implementation

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7. Biofuels:-

Biofuels are fuels produced from organic matter, such as plants, algae, and organic wastematerials. They
are considered renewable energy sources because the feedstock used toproduce biofuels can be replenished
through natural processes. Here are some key pointsabout biofuels:

Types of Biofuels:

- Ethanol: Ethanol is the most common biofuel and is primarily produced from crops such as corn,
sugarcane, or wheat. It can be blended with gasoline and used as an alternative fuel for vehicles.

- Biodiesel: Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled cooking oil.It can be
blended with diesel fuel or used as a pure fuel in diesel engines.

- Biogas: Biogas is produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic waste materials, such as
agricultural residues, food waste, or sewage. It primarily consists of methane andcan be used as a renewable
fuel for heating, electricity generation, or vehicle fuel.

Advantages of Biofuels:

- Renewable and Lower Carbon Emissions: Biofuels are derived from biomass, which canbe replenished
through natural processes, making them a renewable energy source. Theytypically have lower greenhouse
gas emissions compared to fossil fuels, contributing to mitigating climate change.

- Energy Security and Independence: Biofuels can reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels and
enhance energy security by utilizing locally available biomass resources.

- Rural Development and Job Creation: The production of biofuels can stimulate rural economies and
create job opportunities in agriculture, biomass processing, and fuel production.

Challenges and Considerations:

Land Use and Food Security: Biofuel production competes with land resources that could be used for
food production. Balancing the use of crops for biofuels and food can be a challenge, and sustainable
practices and feedstock selection are important considerations to avoid negative impacts on food
security.
Environmental Impact: The production of certain biofuels can have environmental impacts, such as
deforestation, water use, and the potential for intensified agricultural practices. Sustainable sourcing and
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production methods, including the use of waste or non-food feedstocks, can help minimize these impacts.
Energy Efficiency: The energy input required for growing and processing biomass, as well as the
conversion processes, can impact the overall energy efficiency of biofuel production. Technological
advancements and process optimization are important for improving energy efficiency.

Second-Generation Biofuels: Second-generation biofuels aim to address some of the limitations and
challenges associated with first-generation biofuels. They are typically produced from non-food feedstocks,
such as agricultural residues, algae, or dedicated energy crops. Second-generation biofuels offer the potential
for higherenergy yields, reduced land use competition, and improved environmental sustainability.

Global Biofuel Policies: Many countries have implemented policies and regulationsto promote biofuel
production and use. These policies often include mandates or incentives for blending biofuels into
transportation fuels, tax incentives, research and development support, and sustainability criteria to ensure
responsible production practices.
Biofuels can contribute to diversifying the energy mix, reducing greenhouse gas emissions,and promoting
sustainable development. However, the sustainable production of biofuels, including feedstock selection,
land use practices, and environmental considerations, is crucial to ensure their positive impact and avoid
potential negative consequences.

8. Energy derived from oceans:-

Energy derived from oceans, also known as ocean energy or marine energy, refers to theutilization of the
various forms of energy present in the ocean to generate power. The ocean offers several potential sources
of renewable energy, including tidal energy, waveenergy, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), and
salinity gradient energy. Here are some key points about ocean energy:

1. Tidal Energy: Tidal energy harnesses the kinetic energy generated by the gravitational forces of the
moon and the sun on the Earth's tides. Tidal power plants use turbines to capture the energy from the ebb

and flow of the tides. They can be installed in areas withsignificant tidal range, such as estuaries or coastal
regions.

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2. Wave Energy: Wave energy exploits the motion of ocean waves to generate electricity.Wave energy
converters (WECs) are devices that capture the energy from the up-and- down or back-and-forth motion
of waves. WECs can be deployed near coastlines or offshore, depending on the specific wave
characteristics and project requirements.

Wave Energy:

3. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): OTEC harnesses the temperature differencebetween
warm surface water and cold deep water to produce power. OTEC systems use aheat engine to convert
thermal energy into electricity. The warm surface water vaporizesa working fluid, which drives a turbine.

Cold water from the deep ocean then condenses the vapor back into a liquid, completing the cycle.

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Fig. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Advantages of Ocean Energy:

- Renewable and Predictable: Ocean energy sources are driven by natural forces, such as tides, waves,
and temperature differences, which are consistently available and predictable in coastal areas.

- High Energy Density: The energy density of ocean resources, such as tides and waves,is relatively high
compared to other renewable energy sources, providing the potential forsignificant power generation.

- Carbon-Free and Environmentally Friendly: Ocean energy systems produce no direct emissions of
greenhouse gases during operation, contributing to reduced carbon emissions and environmental impact.

- Long Lifespan: Ocean energy technologies have the potential for long lifespans, with minimal
maintenance requirements once deployed.
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4. Challenges and Considerations:

- Technological Development: Ocean energy technologies are still in the early stages ofdevelopment
and require further advancements to improve efficiency, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.

- Environmental Impact: The deployment of ocean energy devices can have potential impacts on marine
ecosystems, including noise disturbance, habitat alteration, and interactions with marine species. Proper
environmental assessments and mitigationmeasures are crucial to minimize these impacts.

- Site Selection and Infrastructure: Identifying suitable sites for ocean energy projects is essential,
considering factors such as resource availability, seabed conditions, coastal infrastructure, and grid
connection options.

- Economic Viability: The high initial capital costs and potential challenges in grid integration and
maintenance can pose economic barriers to the widespread deployment of ocean energy systems.
Continued research, innovation, and supportive policies are necessary to drive cost reductions and improve
the economic viability of ocean energy technologies.
Ocean energy has the potential to contribute to the global energy transition and diversifythe renewable
energy mix. Ongoing research and development efforts aim to overcome technical and economic
challenges, enabling the commercial deployment of ocean energy technologies while ensuring their
environmental sustainability.
5. Salinity Gradient Energy: Salinity gradient energy, also known as osmotic or reverse electrodialysis
power, utilizes the difference in salt concentration between seawater andfreshwater to generate electricity.
By employing membranes and ion-exchange processes,osmotic power systems can convert the osmotic
pressure resulting from the salinity gradient into usable power.

9. Geothermal energy:-

Fig Geothermal energy

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Geothermal energy is a form of renewable energy that utilizes the heat stored within theEarth’s interior to
generate power or provide heating and cooling. It involves tapping intothe natural heat energy found

beneath the Earth’s surface. Here are some key points about geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is heat that is generated within the Earth. (Geo means “earth,” and thermal means
“heat” in Greek.) It is a renewable resource that can be harvested for human use. About 2,900 kilometers
(1,800 miles) below the Earth's crust, or surface, is the hottest part of our planet

1. Geothermal Heat Sources: The Earth’s heat energy originates from two primary sources:
- Radiogenic Heat: This heat is generated by the natural radioactive decay of elements,such as uranium,
thorium, and potassium, present in the Earth’s crust and mantle.

- Residual Heat from Planetary Formation: The heat trapped during the formation of theEarth and the
slow cooling of the planet’s core contribute to the geothermal heat.

2. Geothermal Power Generation: Geothermal power plants extract heat from the Earthand convert it into
electricity through various technologies:

- Dry Steam Plants: These plants use steam directly from underground wells to drive turbines and
generate electricity.

- Flash Steam Plants: These plants use high-pressure hot water from underground reservoirs. As the
water is released to lower pressure, it flashes into steam, which drivesthe turbines.

- Binary Cycle Plants: These plants use lower temperature geothermal resources by transferring the heat
to a secondary fluid with a lower boiling point (such as isobutane or pentane). The secondary fluid
vaporizes and drives the turbines.
- Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS): EGS involve creating artificial reservoirs by injecting water
into hot rock formations and then extracting the heated water for powergeneration.

3. Geothermal Heating and Cooling: Geothermal energy can also be used directly for heating and cooling
purposes. Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs) circulate a fluid through a series of pipes buried
underground to extract heat in winter for heating or reject heat in summer for cooling. This method is
commonly used for residential and commercialbuildings.

4. Advantages of Geothermal Energy:

- Renewable and Clean: Geothermal energy is derived from the Earth’s natural heat, which is
continuously replenished. It produces very low emissions, contributing to reduced greenhouse gas
emissions and air pollution.

- Baseload Power: Geothermal power plants can operate continuously and provide a stable, baseload
power supply, unlike some other intermittent renewable energy sourceslike solar or wind.
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 Nitte Meenakshi Institute of Technology-NMIT, Bangalore

- Energy Independence and Security: Geothermal resources are found worldwide and provide a reliable
and locally available source of energy, reducing dependence on imported fuels.

- Longevity and Durability: Geothermal power plants have long operational lifespans, typically
exceeding 30 years, with low maintenance requirements. Geothermal heating and cooling systems also
have long lifespans and require less maintenance than traditionalHVAC systems.

5. Challenges and Considerations:

- Resource Availability: Geothermal energy resources are not uniformly distributed globally. They are
typically concentrated in regions with active tectonic activity or volcanicactivity. Identifying and assessing
suitable geothermal resources is necessary for successful project development.

- High Initial Costs: The exploration, drilling, and development of geothermal resourcescan involve
high upfront costs. However, once a geothermal power plant is operational, the fuel costs are minimal,
resulting in long-term cost advantages.

- Environmental Considerations: Geothermal projects can have some environmental impacts, including
the release of gases and fluids during drilling and the potential for induced seismicity. Proper project
design, monitoring, and mitigation measures areessential to minimize these impacts.

- Technical Challenges: Some geothermal technologies, such as EGS, are still in the early stages of
development and face technical challenges related to reservoir engineering, drilling techniques, and heat
extraction efficiency.

Geothermal energy offers a reliable and sustainable source of power generation and heating/cooling.
Ongoing research and advancements aim to expand the utilization of geothermal resources, improve
efficiency, reduce costs.

Shruthi B S Asst. Prof. Department of Civil Engineering 18