MODULE III

Section 1 The Global Divides: The North and the South

Since the process of globalization is uneven, it follows that there is an imbalance in the

Socio-economic and political categories of the world. The world is divided into north and

South, and first, second, and third.

The term Global South is a metaphor for interstate inequality and a product of Western

Imagination (Claudio, 2014). Historically, there had been divisions and labeling among the

Different nations of the world. Countries that were colonized by the Spaniards in the southern

Part of the American continent are collectively called Latin America.

By virtue of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, the newly discovered lands outside Europe were

Divided into two-the West belonging to the Crown of Castile (now part of Spain) and the East

Belonging to the Portuguese Empire.

There is also a split based on labor-the core, the semi-periphery, and the peripheries. From

These divisions, the Global South refers to the socio-economic and political divide primarily

Focused on the southern hemisphere of the 1569-designed Mercatorian map. It consists of

Africa, Latin America, and Asia including the Middle East.

These nation-states are deemed to be not aligned with nation-states located in the northern

Hemisphere that adhere to fair labor practices, rights, free trade, reduced tariffs, and policies on

Sustainable development. The Global South also connotes developing countries as opposed to

Rich, industrialized, and wealthy nations.

On the contrary, the Global North is the home of all members of the Group of Eight

Arguably, the term Third World ceased to exist when the Cold War ended. Historically, the world

Was once categorized based on the economic ideology of Western capitalism against the Soviet

Union’s socialism. As formal economies, capitalism sustains consumer choice, private property,

And economic freedom while socialism is characterized by state control of the means of

Production, distribution, and exchange Capitalist economies were considered First World

And socialist economies were referred to as Second World. Those that did not belong to

Either types of formal economies belong to the Third World.

The term Third World was initially used to refer to the former colonies of European countries.

To illustrate, India was considered a Third World country for it was a colony of the United
Kingdom. According to this categorization, the Philippines was classified as Third World.

Later, the category was used to refer to countries that were neither capitalist nor socialist. Since

Many countries were impoverished, the term was also used to refer to the poor world. These

Countries were considered to be non-industrialized and newly industrialized. They lacked the

Standard systems in banking, finance, and trade.

Hence, it is outdated to say that countries in Southeast Asia belong to the Third World for the

Term has ended its usage after the Cold War. These countries may be classified as the Global

South though some of their citizens experience the Global North within their territories.

(G8)-Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, Russia, and the United

States of America. It is also the abode of the four powerful permanent members of the United

Nations Security Council. It also refers to the developed countries in Asia, Australia, and New

Zealand. As stated by Claudio (2014), the Global South “continues to be imagined and

Re-imagined by those who dominate it even as movements from below reshape these

Constructions through resistance.

South is also found in developed countries. Economically poor families, underprivileged

Individuals, unfair labor practices, and suppression of human rights, and other violations of basic

Rights in Europe, Australia, US, and Canada are the pieces of evidence that people from

Developed countries also share similar experiences with people from developing countries.

By now, one can say that the terms Global South and Third World are conceptually the

Same. They both refer to conditions usually found in developing countries. But the term Third

World is the antecedent of Global South (Claudio, 2014).

MODULE III

Section 2: Asian Regionalism

China is the home of more than 1.4 billion people based on the 2018 population projection of

The United Nations. In fact, it is becoming one of the economic super giants of the world. After

The Second World War, Japan was able to adapt its policies to the dictates of the West and

Consequently incorporated itself into the global economy. On the other hand, Singapore has

Become one of the emerging centers of different cultures and has turned itself into a great

Cosmopolitan city-state. All these countries belong to the continent of Asia, a term that
Originated from the West, particularly from Ancient Greece.

Among all the continents, Asia has the biggest population of at least two-thirds of the world’s

Inhabitants. It is most probably because the continent comprises one-third of the world’s land

Mass. In terms of economy, emerging and developing Asian countries and the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations 5 or the ASEAN 5 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and

Thailand) had an average of 6.3% and 5.1% GDP growth, respectively, compared to the world

Average growth of 3.5% as of 2016 (Obiols, 2017). In 2016, China was the world’s leading

Exporter of goods valued at $1.99 trillion, followed by the United States with $1.45 trillion

(Dillinger, 2018).

Since the European Union is in its mature state of regionalism, the world is now focused on

Asia. Most countries want to have collaborations with East Aslan countries and the Association

Of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members because economic and political growth in these

Regions have started to shape up.

As a result, the United States strategically takes care of its allies in Asia to maintain and
Further enhance its supply of raw materials, human technological skills, and even its

Military force. At the same time, Europe keeps its strong relationship with Asian countries to

Expand its growing business in the field of medical science and research. It cannot be denied

That Asia is gaining worldwide attention.

What makes Asian nations stronger than ever is the establishment of collaborations and

Cooperation based on respect. For one, the ASEAN, as a regional bloc, pays full respect for

Sovereignty and independence of its members through consensus and consultation (Eliassen &

Arnadottir, 2012).

In this light, globalization, regionalization, and regionalism are compared. Also, exposure to

The different factors that bring about better homogenization of Asia and how member-states

Collectively and separately address the challenges they are facing are discussed.MODULE III

Section 2: Asian Regionalism

China is the home of more than 1.4 billion people based on the 2018 population projection of

The United Nations. In fact, it is becoming one of the economic super giants of the world. After

The Second World War, Japan was able to adapt its policies to the dictates of the West and
Consequently incorporated itself into the global economy. On the other hand, Singapore has

Become one of the emerging centers of different cultures and has turned itself into a great

Cosmopolitan city-state. All these countries belong to the continent of Asia, a term that

Originated from the West, particularly from Ancient Greece.

Among all the continents, Asia has the biggest population of at least two-thirds of the world’s

Inhabitants. It is most probably because the continent comprises one-third of the world’s land

Mass. In terms of economy, emerging and developing Asian countries and the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations 5 or the ASEAN 5 (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and

Thailand) had an average of 6.3% and 5.1% GDP growth, respectively, compared to the world

Average growth of 3.5% as of 2016 (Obiols, 2017). In 2016, China was the world’s leading

Exporter of goods valued at $1.99 trillion, followed by the United States with $1.45 trillion

(Dillinger, 2018).

Since the European Union is in its mature state of regionalism, the world is now focused on

Asia. Most countries want to have collaborations with East Aslan countries and the Association
Of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members because economic and political growth in these

Regions have started to shape up.

As a result, the United States strategically takes care of its allies in Asia to maintain and

Further enhance its supply of raw materials, human technological skills, and even its

Military force. At the same time, Europe keeps its strong relationship with Asian countries to

Expand its growing business in the field of medical science and research. It cannot be denied

That Asia is gaining worldwide attention.

What makes Asian nations stronger than ever is the establishment of collaborations and

Cooperation based on respect. For one, the ASEAN, as a regional bloc, pays full respect for

Sovereignty and independence of its members through consensus and consultation (Eliassen &

Arnadottir, 2012).

In this light, globalization, regionalization, and regionalism are compared. Also, exposure to

The different factors that bring about better homogenization of Asia and how member-states

Collectively and separately address the challenges they are facing are discussed.

The terms regionalization and globalization are both related to integration. As defined in Module
1, globalization is the expansion and intensification of social relations and consciousness

Across world-time and world-space. Regionalization, on the other hand, is “the growth of

Societal integration within a region and to the often undirected processes of social and economic

Interaction” (Hurrel, 1995).

In terms of scope, it is very clear that globalization is borderless. It happens around the world

While regionalization happens only in a specific geographical region. Social and economic

Reciprocal actions of regionalization are undirected because of diversity.

This diversity comes in different levels of development (from the rich Singapore to the poor

Laos), politics (from democracy to dictatorship and everything in between), economics (from

Free markets to capitalism and more), and religion (Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,

Shintoism, and more) (Richter & West, 2014).

Commonly confused with regionalization, regionalism refers to regional concentration of

Economic flows while regionalization refers to a present among countries (Mansfield & Wilmer,

1993). Regionalism also political process by economic policy if cooperation and coordination are
Present among countries (Mansfield and Wilmer,1993.)

Regionalism also Module 3 A World of Regions pertains to the process of intergovernmental

Collaborations between two or more states (Eliassen & Arnadottir, 2012). Asian regionalism is

A new concept among the continental communities. New to cooperation and collaboration goals,

It has the 50-year-old ASEAN group and the failed East Asia Economic Group(EAEG).

The ASEAN community is comprised of three pillars-political security community, economic

Community, and socio-cultural community.

The political security community gives importance to human rights, drugs, foreign relations,

Defense, law, and transnational crimes. The association adheres to significant roles of

Monitoring-economic ministers, finance ministers, central bank governors, free trade area,

Investment area, agriculture and forestry, transport ministers, telecommunications and

Information technology ministers, science and technology, energy, minerals, tourism, free trade

Agreements with dialogue partners, and sectoral bodies in the arena of economic community. In

The socio-cultural community, there is an avenue for cooperation among the ministers

Responsible for culture and arts, sports, disaster management, education, environment, health,
Information, labor, rural development and poverty eradication, women, youth, and civil service

Matters.

ASEAN has also partnered with three East Asian countries-China, Japan, and South Korea. It

Is called the ASEAN +3. Its goal is to address the 1997 Asian financial crisis and help each

Other cope with the crisis. In this context, ASEAN has concretized regionalism in the Asian

Region.

Similar to the goal of ASEAN in achieving greater integration within the region, other countries

Form groups for various reasons. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), a free

Trade pact between Canada and the United States (now including Mexico), was created to help

Reduce trading costs, increase business investment, and help North America be more

Competitive in the global marketplace (NAFTA, 2018).

On the other hand, the European Union (EU) is a political and economic institution established

To ensure free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the EU’s single market

(EU, 2018a).
Moreover, there are some aspects that led to a greater Asian integration. First, integration has

Been market-driven. Within Asia, there are a variety of systems, institutions, procedures, social

Relations, and infrastructures that are put into place for countries to engage in exchange.

Emerging and developing economies in Japan, China, South Korea, and other Asian countries

Get the labor services of Filipino skilled workers. Southeast Asians market their goods within the

Region. Thailand exports its grocery products to 24-hour convenience stores. Vietnam and

Indonesia sell their bags and clothing to the region. It was only in recent years that teamwork

Among Asian governments has been exerted, though with a certain distance.

Second, formal institutions such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) were established.

Conceived in the 1960s, ADB promotes social and economic development in Asia. Composed

Of 67 members, 48 of which are from the Asia-Pacific region, the financial institution aids its

Members and partners by providing loans, technical assistance, grants, and equity investments.

Initially, ADB focused its assistance on food production and rural development to serve a

Predominantly agricultural region.

Third, economic grants and overseas development assistance are made available by better
Asian economies. For example, the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) aims to

Work on human security and quality growth. The agency targets to promote international

Cooperation and the development of the Japanese and global economy by supporting the

Socio-economic development, recovery, or economic stability of developing regions.

Fourth, production networks have expanded. Economies are mainly on comparative advantage

Through the regional division of labor. The Philippines’ major exports are electronic products and

Copper products to name a few. Indonesia sells palm oil, rubber, and natural gas within the

Region. South Korea produces machinery products and motor vehicles.

Fifth, cooperation among the ASEAN and East Asian countries ensued the ASEAN +3 Financial

Ministers’ Process that established two economic structures the Chiang Mai Initiative and the

Asian Bond Markets Initiative. The process aims to strengthen policy dialogue, coordination,

And collaboration on common financial, monetary, and fiscal issues.

Last, if EU is rules-based, ASEAN follows a consensus rule as a approach to decision making.

This process prevents collision of cultural and beliefs and economic policieSimilar to the goal of ASEAN
in achieving greater integration within the region, other countries
Form groups for various reasons. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), a free

Trade pact between Canada and the United States (now including Mexico), was created to help

Reduce trading costs, increase business investment, and help North America be more

Competitive in the global marketplace (NAFTA, 2018).

On the other hand, the European Union (EU) is a political and economic institution established

To ensure free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the EU’s single market

(EU, 2018a).

Moreover, there are some aspects that led to a greater Asian integration. First, integration has

Been market-driven. Within Asia, there are a variety of systems, institutions, procedures, social

Relations, and infrastructures that are put into place for countries to engage in exchange.

Emerging and developing economies in Japan, China, South Korea, and other Asian countries

Get the labor services of Filipino skilled workers. Southeast Asians market their goods within the

Region. Thailand exports its grocery products to 24-hour convenience stores. Vietnam and

Indonesia sell their bags and clothing to the region. It was only in recent years that teamwork
Among Asian governments has been exerted, though with a certain distance.

Second, formal institutions such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) were established.

Conceived in the 1960s, ADB promotes social and economic development in Asia. Composed

Of 67 members, 48 of which are from the Asia-Pacific region, the financial institution aids its

Members and partners by providing loans, technical assistance, grants, and equity investments.

Initially, ADB focused its assistance on food production and rural development to serve a

Predominantly agricultural region.

Third, economic grants and overseas development assistance are made available by better

Asian economies. For example, the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) aims to

Work on human security and quality growth. The agency targets to promote international

Cooperation and the development of the Japanese and global economy by supporting the

Socio-economic development, recovery, or economic stability of developing regions.

Fourth, production networks have expanded. Economies are mainly on comparative advantage

Through the regional division of labor. The Philippines’ major exports are electronic products and

Copper products to name a few. Indonesia sells palm oil, rubber, and natural gas within the
Region. South Korea produces machinery products and motor vehicles.

Fifth, cooperation among the ASEAN and East Asian countries ensued the ASEAN +3 Financial

Ministers’ Process that established two economic structures the Chiang Mai Initiative and the

Asian Bond Markets Initiative. The process aims to strengthen policy dialogue, coordination,

And collaboration on common financial, monetary, and fiscal issues.

Last, if EU is rules-based, ASEAN follows a consensus rule as a approach to decision making.

This process prevents collision of cultural and beliefs and economic policie

Understandably not easy to unite because of the region’s diversity of archipelagic lives. In facing

The challenges brought about by globalization, Asian countries have responded with regional

Alternatives as big group, small

Group, and local communities. As a big group, Asian countries established their own Asian

Development Bank (ADB) that is more focused on Asia and the Pacific as a reaction to global

Economic integration. Japan, the forerunner of the institution, believes that investments can be a

Factor to social development. Consequently, Japan is a major contributor to ADB. Asian nations
Work in the form of loans, grants, and information sharing on topics such as terrorism and

Regional security.

The establishment of the ASEAN is also another initial reaction to globalization. It fosters the

Spirit of regionalism and oneness of Asian nations. As a group, it sets out in the ASEAN

Declaration the following aims and purposes: 1) to accelerate economic growth, social and

Cultural development in the region; 2) to promote regional peace and stability; 3) to promote

Active collaboration and mutual assistance on progress, matters of common interest; 4) to

Provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities; 5) to collaborate

More effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries; 6) to expand trade,

Improve their transportation and communications facilities, and raise the living standards of their

People; 7) to promote Southeast Asian Studies; and 8) to maintain close and beneficial

Cooperation.

More so, Asian countries respond to globalization as a small group. Asian regionalism lacks

Institutions and bureaucratic bodies to serve the region unlike the European Union model of

Single market in goods and services. As a result, individual countries do bilateral or multilateral
Agreements. For example, the Philippines has standing bilateral agreements with China in

Trade, defense, infrastructure, transnational crimes, tourism, education, health, and many

Others. In fact, in the recent visit of current Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte to China,

Chinese leaders expressed their support for the president’s campaign against illegal drugs and

Terrorism, among others.

Another reaction comes from China, India, and Japan as important regional players. They

Initiate concrete dialogue in formulating visions, shared goals, and roadmaps for regional

Cooperation in Asia.

Reaction to globalization (and the West) also gave rise to terror groups, like the Islamic

State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) which has spread to the Muslim communities in Southern

Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. To combat global terrorism, these countries made use

Of their available resources to minimize and ultimately stop the effects on civilian-victims such as

Displacement and suffering. More so, they reached military multilateral agreements to address

This common problem. In 2017, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia had a trilateral security
Meeting wherein they agreed that they need to conduct joint navy patrols within their boundaries

To prevent the entry and exit of the terror group (Antiporta, 2017).understandably not easy to unite
because of the region’s diversity of archipelagic lives. In facing

The challenges brought about by globalization, Asian countries have responded with regional

Alternatives as big group, small

Group, and local communities. As a big group, Asian countries established their own Asian

Development Bank (ADB) that is more focused on Asia and the Pacific as a reaction to global

Economic integration. Japan, the forerunner of the institution, believes that investments can be a

Factor to social development. Consequently, Japan is a major contributor to ADB. Asian nations

Work in the form of loans, grants, and information sharing on topics such as terrorism and

Regional security.

The establishment of the ASEAN is also another initial reaction to globalization. It fosters the

Spirit of regionalism and oneness of Asian nations. As a group, it sets out in the ASEAN

Declaration the following aims and purposes: 1) to accelerate economic growth, social and

Cultural development in the region; 2) to promote regional peace and stability; 3) to promote
Active collaboration and mutual assistance on progress, matters of common interest; 4) to

Provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities; 5) to collaborate

More effectively for the greater utilization of their agriculture and industries; 6) to expand trade,

Improve their transportation and communications facilities, and raise the living standards of their

People; 7) to promote Southeast Asian Studies; and 8) to maintain close and beneficial

Cooperation.

More so, Asian countries respond to globalization as a small group. Asian regionalism lacks

Institutions and bureaucratic bodies to serve the region unlike the European Union model of

Single market in goods and services. As a result, individual countries do bilateral or multilateral

Agreements. For example, the Philippines has standing bilateral agreements with China in

Trade, defense, infrastructure, transnational crimes, tourism, education, health, and many

Others. In fact, in the recent visit of current Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte to China,

Chinese leaders expressed their support for the president’s campaign against illegal drugs and

Terrorism, among others.

Another reaction comes from China, India, and Japan as important regional players. They
Initiate concrete dialogue in formulating visions, shared goals, and roadmaps for regional

Cooperation in Asia.

Reaction to globalization (and the West) also gave rise to terror groups, like the Islamic

State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) which has spread to the Muslim communities in Southern

Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. To combat global terrorism, these countries made use

Of their available resources to minimize and ultimately stop the effects on civilian-victims such as

Displacement and suffering. More so, they reached military multilateral agreements to address

This common problem. In 2017, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia had a trilateral security

Meeting wherein they agreed that they need to conduct joint navy patrols within their boundaries

To prevent the entry and exit of the terror group (Antiporta, 2017).

Other reactions to globalization came in the form of disengagement from globalization that

Transpired locally. Santi Suk village in Thailand created its own currency, called the bia, that was

Regulated by a central bank in a village. This homemade currency can only be used in

Participating villages, and cannot be exchanged for Thailand’s baht. This trend is a
Manifestation of self-sufficiency movements that emerged after the Asian financial crisis of

1997. Other forms of disengagement appeared in the formation of self-sufficiency groups,

Community-owned rice mills, and cooperative shops; the gathering of traditional herbal

Practitioners; and the preference for local products (Kimura, 2014).

To conclude, globalization and regionalization are the same because they refer to

Integration. Their difference lies in the scope. Globalization is worldwide, while regionalization

Focuses on a specific geographical region. As a response to world homogenization and division,

Regionalism that comes in various forms of regional alternatives to globalization spawned within

And among regions in Asia. Asian integration did not happen based only on one historical event

For there were different factors that led to this alliance.

MODULE IV

GLOBAL CULTURE AND MEDIA

Culture refers to the unified style of human knowledge, beliefs, and behavior from which people

Learn, and the ability to communicate knowledge to the next generations. Its development has

Been mainly influenced by the media.

Historically, media underwent five stages of development from the earliest forms to the complex

One. These stages affect globalization progressively (Lule, 2014).

It all started with oral communication. Language allowed humans to communicate and share

Information. Moreover, language became the most important tool for exploring the world and the

Different cultures. It helped people move and settle down. Oral communication led to markets,

Trade, and cross-continental trade routes.

The next stage is the invention of script. Distance became a hindrance to oral communication.

Script allowed humans to communicate over a larger space and for a much longer duration. It

Allowed the permanent codification of economic, cultural, religious, and political practice.

Knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors were written and made available for transmission to the next

Generation and to other nations and cultures.

Next followed the printing press. The introduction of the printing press allowed the continuous

Production, reproduction, and circulation of print materials. Written documents were mass

Produced which gave everyone access to information that was once available only to the rich,
Powerful, and religious. This period of media development affected globalization by transforming

Various institutions such as schools, markets, businesses, churches, governments, and armies,

Among others.

Another stage is the emergence of electronic media as characterized by its use of electricity.

Electronic media includes the telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television. The wide reach of

These media continues to open up new perspectives in the economic, political, and cultural

Processes of globalization. Radio was the avenue for global products to be advertised like

Marlboro and Coca-Cola. Television, the analogue type, was primarily used so countries could

Watch US Presidents’ delivery of speeches and UN Security Council meetings. Both radio and

Television became a medium to observe international events.

The last stage is the digital media which relies on digital codes. It can be created, modified,

And stored in any digital electronic device. Digitalized content is transmitted over the internet

And computer networks. In politics, candidates use this media to campaign and advance their

Platforms. In economics, it allows the advertisement of products and online business

Transactions.MODULE IV
GLOBAL CULTURE AND MEDIA

Culture refers to the unified style of human knowledge, beliefs, and behavior from which people

Learn, and the ability to communicate knowledge to the next generations. Its development has

Been mainly influenced by the media.

Historically, media underwent five stages of development from the earliest forms to the complex

One. These stages affect globalization progressively (Lule, 2014).

It all started with oral communication. Language allowed humans to communicate and share

Information. Moreover, language became the most important tool for exploring the world and the

Different cultures. It helped people move and settle down. Oral communication led to markets,

Trade, and cross-continental trade routes.

The next stage is the invention of script. Distance became a hindrance to oral communication.

Script allowed humans to communicate over a larger space and for a much longer duration. It

Allowed the permanent codification of economic, cultural, religious, and political practice.

Knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors were written and made available for transmission to the next
Generation and to other nations and cultures.

Next followed the printing press. The introduction of the printing press allowed the continuous

Production, reproduction, and circulation of print materials. Written documents were mass

Produced which gave everyone access to information that was once available only to the rich,

Powerful, and religious. This period of media development affected globalization by transforming

Various institutions such as schools, markets, businesses, churches, governments, and armies,

Among others.

Another stage is the emergence of electronic media as characterized by its use of electricity.

Electronic media includes the telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television. The wide reach of

These media continues to open up new perspectives in the economic, political, and cultural

Processes of globalization. Radio was the avenue for global products to be advertised like

Marlboro and Coca-Cola. Television, the analogue type, was primarily used so countries could

Watch US Presidents’ delivery of speeches and UN Security Council meetings. Both radio and

Television became a medium to observe international events.

The last stage is the digital media which relies on digital codes. It can be created, modified,
And stored in any digital electronic device. Digitalized content is transmitted over the internet

And computer networks. In politics, candidates use this media to campaign and advance their

Platforms. In economics, it allows the advertisement of products and online business

Transactions.

Media is a carrier of culture. It is a tool for the interaction of people with different cultures.

However, the real media is the people. Marketing people seek the world for their cultural

Products, and managers facilitate interactions of culture for profit. Others bring cultural

Exchanges of beauty and power. These interactions result in the integration of cultures. Pieterse

(2004) asserts that the only outcomes of the influence of globalization on culture are cultural

Differentialism, cultural convergence, and cultural hybridity.

Cultural differentialism views cultural difference as immutable. As the West and non-Western

Civilizations interact or are brought in contact through globalization, clash of civilizations such as

That of the West and Islam logically follows.

Cultural convergence suggests that globalization engenders a growing sameness of cultures.

However, the culture of powerful and progressive countries becomes culture. Take the example

Of K-pop culture. Some teenage Filipinos prefer to dress up like their South Korean idols.

Cultural hybridity suggests that globalization spawns an increasing and ongoing mixing of

Cultures. An example of this is the Chabacano, a Spanish-based creole language of the

Zamboanga City and of some parts of Cavite, which exemplifies hybridity in language prompted

By the merging of two cultures. This trend will further bring about new cultural forms, not only in

Language but also in food, fashion, arts, music, among others.

These outcomes set the dynamics between local and global cultural production. Glocalization,

Coined from globalization and localization, is a rather new concept brought about by the

Increased frequency of contact among cultures. This reinforces the fact that local cultures are

Not weak, static, or fixed; they are built and understood anew each day in a globalized world

(Lule, 2014). Local cultures continue to accommodate and assimilate cultures of the world due

To globalization.

All in all, the five stages of development of media have greatly influenced the globalization of

Culture. From pamphlets to Instagram, Twitter, and SnapChat, media has produced and
Reproduced cultural products around the globe. Moreover, the increase in cultural interactions

Generated by media results in outcomes that exhibit the vigor of local cultures influenced by the

Global culture.Media is a carrier of culture. It is a tool for the interaction of people with different
cultures.

However, the real media is the people. Marketing people seek the world for their cultural

Products, and managers facilitate interactions of culture for profit. Others bring cultural

Exchanges of beauty and power. These interactions result in the integration of cultures. Pieterse

(2004) asserts that the only outcomes of the influence of globalization on culture are cultural

Differentialism, cultural convergence, and cultural hybridity.

Cultural differentialism views cultural difference as immutable. As the West and non-Western

Civilizations interact or are brought in contact through globalization, clash of civilizations such as

That of the West and Islam logically follows.

Cultural convergence suggests that globalization engenders a growing sameness of cultures.

However, the culture of powerful and progressive countries becomes culture. Take the example

Of K-pop culture. Some teenage Filipinos prefer to dress up like their South Korean idols.
Cultural hybridity suggests that globalization spawns an increasing and ongoing mixing of

Cultures. An example of this is the Chabacano, a Spanish-based creole language of the

Zamboanga City and of some parts of Cavite, which exemplifies hybridity in language prompted

By the merging of two cultures. This trend will further bring about new cultural forms, not only in

Language but also in food, fashion, arts, music, among others.

These outcomes set the dynamics between local and global cultural production. Glocalization,

Coined from globalization and localization, is a rather new concept brought about by the

Increased frequency of contact among cultures. This reinforces the fact that local cultures are

Not weak, static, or fixed; they are built and understood anew each day in a globalized world

(Lule, 2014). Local cultures continue to accommodate and assimilate cultures of the world due

To globalization.

All in all, the five stages of development of media have greatly influenced the globalization of

Culture. From pamphlets to Instagram, Twitter, and SnapChat, media has produced and

Reproduced cultural products around the globe. Moreover, the increase in cultural interactions
Generated by media results in outcomes that exhibit the vigor of local cultures influenced by the

Global culture.

Section 2: Globalization of Religion

Extracted from the book, The Contemporary World by Tumoroh C. Brazalote and Ryan M. Leonardo

Religion plays a vital role in the lives of Filipinos for their values are anchored on it. It has

Affected their attitudes, characters, and perspectives in life. This truth is not exclusive to

Filipinos. It is true to most of the former “Third World,” developing countries, and even the West.

Globalization can refer to the worldwide interconnectedness of all areas of contemporary social

Life. One of these areas is religion which entails a personal or organized system of religious

Beliefs and practices. On one end, globalization has affected religion in various ways. It paved

The way for the rise of religious nationalism, the turn of religion into public life, the proliferation of

International terrorism, and the increase of individual religiosity (Roudometof, 2014).

First, globalization gave rise to religious nationalism that came about after the Second World

War. Nationalism was closely associated with particular religious beliefs and affiliations. For

Example, in the Philippines, crafting the law is sometimes anchored on the lawmakers’ belief in
Christianity. In 2018, a National Bible Day was declared as a special working holiday.

Islam-ruled states in the Middle East, similarly, are influenced by practices of Islam.

Next, globalization led to the turn of religion into public life as a reaction to post-World War II

Modernism. The often forceful entrance of religious traditions, such as the Catholic liberation

Theology and Islamic fundamentalism, from private sphere into public life (Cassanova, 1994) is a

Good example of this. Religion goes beyond the administration of sacraments for Catholics and

Focuses more on the social concerns of the poor and the oppressed inside and outside the

Church.

Then, globalization affected the proliferation of international errorism. For one, religious

Extremism-a type of political violence anchored on the belief that a supreme being grants

Violence in the act glorifying one’s faith (Martin, 2017)-has become a central issue faced by the

Global community. Extremists believe that it is their duty to fulfill God’s will through violence. In

2017, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a known extremist group, triggered the locals of

Mindanao to launch the Marawi Siege for five months.

Finally, globalization prompted the increase of individual religiosity brought about by the

Individual’s need to rely on his or her beliefs and relationship with the supreme being. For some,

It is based on one’s frustration towards institutionalized religions. For others, they just do not

Want to belong to or engage in any organization.

Global migration also influences religion. Because of migration, globalization has forced the

Appearance of “religious traditions in places where these previously had been largely unknown

Or considered a minority” (Roudometof, 2014). This is called the deterritorialization of religion.

Deterritorialization is a cultural feature that blurs the lines between culture and place and thus

Transcends territorial boundaries. This is highly characteristic of migration amidst globalization.

To illustrate, the presence of Islam in Europe and of Catholicism-Christianity in Arab nationSection 2:

Globalization of Religion

Extracted from the book, The Contemporary World by Tumoroh C. Brazalote and Ryan M. Leonardo

Religion plays a vital role in the lives of Filipinos for their values are anchored on it. It has

Affected their attitudes, characters, and perspectives in life. This truth is not exclusive to

Filipinos. It is true to most of the former “Third World,” developing countries, and even the West.
Globalization can refer to the worldwide interconnectedness of all areas of contemporary social

Life. One of these areas is religion which entails a personal or organized system of religious

Beliefs and practices. On one end, globalization has affected religion in various ways. It paved

The way for the rise of religious nationalism, the turn of religion into public life, the proliferation of

International terrorism, and the increase of individual religiosity (Roudometof, 2014).

First, globalization gave rise to religious nationalism that came about after the Second World

War. Nationalism was closely associated with particular religious beliefs and affiliations. For

Example, in the Philippines, crafting the law is sometimes anchored on the lawmakers’ belief in

Christianity. In 2018, a National Bible Day was declared as a special working holiday.

Islam-ruled states in the Middle East, similarly, are influenced by practices of Islam.

Next, globalization led to the turn of religion into public life as a reaction to post-World War II

Modernism. The often forceful entrance of religious traditions, such as the Catholic liberation

Theology and Islamic fundamentalism, from private sphere into public life (Cassanova, 1994) is a

Good example of this. Religion goes beyond the administration of sacraments for Catholics and

Focuses more on the social concerns of the poor and the oppressed inside and outside the
Church.

Then, globalization affected the proliferation of international errorism. For one, religious

Extremism-a type of political violence anchored on the belief that a supreme being grants

Violence in the act glorifying one’s faith (Martin, 2017)-has become a central issue faced by the

Global community. Extremists believe that it is their duty to fulfill God’s will through violence. In

2017, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a known extremist group, triggered the locals of

Mindanao to launch the Marawi Siege for five months.

Finally, globalization prompted the increase of individual religiosity brought about by the

Individual’s need to rely on his or her beliefs and relationship with the supreme being. For some,

It is based on one’s frustration towards institutionalized religions. For others, they just do not

Want to belong to or engage in any organization.

Global migration also influences religion. Because of migration, globalization has forced the

Appearance of “religious traditions in places where these previously had been largely unknown

Or considered a minority” (Roudometof, 2014). This is called the deterritorialization of religion.

Deterritorialization is a cultural feature that blurs the lines between culture and place and thus

Transcends territorial boundaries. This is highly characteristic of migration amidst globalization.

To illustrate, the presence of Islam in Europe and of Catholicism-Christianity in Arab nation

To the influx of overseas workers coming from different parts of the world carrying their own faith

And belief systems is a form of deterritorialization.

These workers, however, create a sense of attachment or criticism towards the religious

Tradition in their home state. For instance, the overseas movement of Indians has created a

Network of finances and religious identifications, whereby the problem of cultural reproduction of

Hindus abroad is linked the politics of Hindu fundamentalism in India (Appadurni, 1990).

Global migration also resulted in what Campbell (2007) called the Easternization of the West.

The West, which is the starting point for the spread of world religions, is now the recipient of a

New system of beliefs from the East. There is also a rise in the number of believers of Asian

Religions like Zoroastrianism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.

On the other end, religion is influenced by global trends and impulses and is forced to respond

To newfound situations (Roudometof, 2014). One good example is use of social media as a tool
For evangelization. American Evangelists Joel Scott Osteen and Kirk Thomas Cameron make se

Of Facebook and other social media platforms to spread their beliefs. Such, they made a global

And borderless reach. Another example is the all for ecumenism among Christian churches to

Have closer relationships d better recognition. In 2006, the Catholic-Orthodox dialogue

Transpired.

The interaction of religion and culture resulted in a global-local religion. It is a global religion with

A local mix. Roudometof (2014) developed a model of four distinct glocalization-indigenization

Vernacularization, nationalization, and transnationalization.

1. Vernacularization refers to the blending of universal religions with local languages. For

Instance, Arabic is used as Islam’s sacred language even outside the Arab world, while Greek

And Latin remains to be the primary languages of Christianity. This vernacularization of religion

Also results in the creation of new branches of religion such as that of Orthodox Christianity

Which stems from Christianity.

2. Indigenization transforms a universal religion to suit the specifics of a particular ethnic group.
An example is the practice of Islam by various ethnic groups in the Zamboanga peninsula.

Another example is the blending of African traditional forms of religiosity and Christianity in

Brazil and the Caribbean.

3. Nationalization constructs a link between the nation and church. Religious institutions relate

To national identities and the realities of that nation. Being part of the nation means belonging to

Its national church. The Philippine Independent Church, an independent Christian denomination,

Is an example of a national church in the Philippines. People also tend to add national modifiers

To their religious identification (e.g., Greek Orthodox Christianity).to the influx of overseas workers
coming from different parts of the world carrying their own faith

And belief systems is a form of deterritorialization.

These workers, however, create a sense of attachment or criticism towards the religious

Tradition in their home state. For instance, the overseas movement of Indians has created a

Network of finances and religious identifications, whereby the problem of cultural reproduction of

Hindus abroad is linked the politics of Hindu fundamentalism in India (Appadurni, 1990).

Global migration also resulted in what Campbell (2007) called the Easternization of the West.
The West, which is the starting point for the spread of world religions, is now the recipient of a

New system of beliefs from the East. There is also a rise in the number of believers of Asian

Religions like Zoroastrianism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.

On the other end, religion is influenced by global trends and impulses and is forced to respond

To newfound situations (Roudometof, 2014). One good example is use of social media as a tool

For evangelization. American Evangelists Joel Scott Osteen and Kirk Thomas Cameron make se

Of Facebook and other social media platforms to spread their beliefs. Such, they made a global

And borderless reach. Another example is the all for ecumenism among Christian churches to

Have closer relationships d better recognition. In 2006, the Catholic-Orthodox dialogue

Transpired.

The interaction of religion and culture resulted in a global-local religion. It is a global religion with

A local mix. Roudometof (2014) developed a model of four distinct glocalization-indigenization

Vernacularization, nationalization, and transnationalization.

1. Vernacularization refers to the blending of universal religions with local languages. For
Instance, Arabic is used as Islam’s sacred language even outside the Arab world, while Greek

And Latin remains to be the primary languages of Christianity. This vernacularization of religion

Also results in the creation of new branches of religion such as that of Orthodox Christianity

Which stems from Christianity.

2. Indigenization transforms a universal religion to suit the specifics of a particular ethnic group.

An example is the practice of Islam by various ethnic groups in the Zamboanga peninsula.

Another example is the blending of African traditional forms of religiosity and Christianity in

Brazil and the Caribbean.

3. Nationalization constructs a link between the nation and church. Religious institutions relate

To national identities and the realities of that nation. Being part of the nation means belonging to

Its national church. The Philippine Independent Church, an independent Christian denomination,

Is an example of a national church in the Philippines. People also tend to add national modifiers

To their religious identification (e.g., Greek Orthodox Christianity).

4. Transnationalization has complemented religious nationalization by focusing groups on

Identifying specific religious traditions of real or imagined national homelands. Iglesia ni Cristo is

One good example of this. This Christian organization is national in scope but it has an

International reach that is easily identified as Filipino in its roots and central authority.

The globalization of religion brought two opposing results. Starting from the late 20 th century,

Religion has been a source of global conflict and peace. Reading international news stories from

The global mass media giants, one can readily observe that religion plays a role in global

Conflict. In Britain, Muslims were linked to the jihadist attack in June 2017 on the London Bridge.

Jewish extremists in Israel were accused of targeting and beating Palestinians also in June

2017. The American-based organization New Christian Right questioned the teaching of

Evolution in schools in the same year. All these are because of one’s understanding and

Interpretation of institutionalized beliefs and traditions of religion.

Despite these events, it is unjust to point at religion as the sole cause of global conflicts.

Religions were primarily established to put God’s will in fruition.

However, persons responsible for the conflicts used their religious doctrines, dogmas, and even

Sacred verses to morally justify their evil actions. Juergensmeyer (2014) claims that the conflicts
Are about identity and economics and privilege and power. Osama bin Laden’s attack on the

World Trade Center in 2001 was triggered by the American exploitation of the oil reserves of the

Middle East, but the jihadist warriors carried out the attack for they were willing to be martyred in

The name of Allah.

The Marawi City siege, in which the ISIS-Maute group alliance was responsible, was the small

Group’s quest for Bangsamoro identity and power over its exclusive jurisdiction. Also, Hindu

Nationalism sparked the Saffron terror in India.

The main point here is not the global conflicts, but the role of religion in these conflicts.

Extremists believe that radical measures are necessary in achieving the will of God. If they act

Moderately, this means they abandon the supreme being’s will. Fundamentalists believe that

Men ought to return to the very passages of the sacred books to legitimize their actions.

Nationalists tie their traditions with their nation or homeland. Any threat is a threat to their

Identity, power, privilege, and rights.

Juergensmeyer (2014) also believes that there are five stages of global religious rebellion
Against the secular state-Le, revolt against secularism, wherein localized uprisings go up

Against the state’s less moral authority to govern; internationalization of religious rebellion,

Wherein the warfare comes between the religious and secular politics; invention of global

Enemies, wherein anti-American and anti-European sentiments are growing: global war, wherein

There is an expansion of range and depth of conflict between the secular and religious forces;

And religious dimensions of post-Arab spring, wherein the jihadist strategy is proven to be not

The to end the struggle, but with the use of nonviolent means as demonstrated in the Tahrir

Square in Egypt.4. Transnationalization has complemented religious nationalization by focusing groups

on

Identifying specific religious traditions of real or imagined national homelands. Iglesia ni Cristo is

One good example of this. This Christian organization is national in scope but it has an

International reach that is easily identified as Filipino in its roots and central authority.

The globalization of religion brought two opposing results. Starting from the late 20 th century,

Religion has been a source of global conflict and peace. Reading international news stories from

The global mass media giants, one can readily observe that religion plays a role in global
Conflict. In Britain, Muslims were linked to the jihadist attack in June 2017 on the London Bridge.

Jewish extremists in Israel were accused of targeting and beating Palestinians also in June

2017. The American-based organization New Christian Right questioned the teaching of

Evolution in schools in the same year. All these are because of one’s understanding and

Interpretation of institutionalized beliefs and traditions of religion.

Despite these events, it is unjust to point at religion as the sole cause of global conflicts.

Religions were primarily established to put God’s will in fruition.

However, persons responsible for the conflicts used their religious doctrines, dogmas, and even

Sacred verses to morally justify their evil actions. Juergensmeyer (2014) claims that the conflicts

Are about identity and economics and privilege and power. Osama bin Laden’s attack on the

World Trade Center in 2001 was triggered by the American exploitation of the oil reserves of the

Middle East, but the jihadist warriors carried out the attack for they were willing to be martyred in

The name of Allah.

The Marawi City siege, in which the ISIS-Maute group alliance was responsible, was the small

Group’s quest for Bangsamoro identity and power over its exclusive jurisdiction. Also, Hindu
Nationalism sparked the Saffron terror in India.

The main point here is not the global conflicts, but the role of religion in these conflicts.

Extremists believe that radical measures are necessary in achieving the will of God. If they act

Moderately, this means they abandon the supreme being’s will. Fundamentalists believe that

Men ought to return to the very passages of the sacred books to legitimize their actions.

Nationalists tie their traditions with their nation or homeland. Any threat is a threat to their

Identity, power, privilege, and rights.

Juergensmeyer (2014) also believes that there are five stages of global religious rebellion

Against the secular state-Le, revolt against secularism, wherein localized uprisings go up

Against the state’s less moral authority to govern; internationalization of religious rebellion,

Wherein the warfare comes between the religious and secular politics; invention of global

Enemies, wherein anti-American and anti-European sentiments are growing: global war, wherein

There is an expansion of range and depth of conflict between the secular and religious forces;

And religious dimensions of post-Arab spring, wherein the jihadist strategy is proven to be not
The to end the struggle, but with the use of nonviolent means as demonstrated in the Tahrir

Square in Egypt.

Conversely, religion is also a source of peace. It plays a vital role in man’s search for world

Peace. The teachings of great religions on moral principles and values are necessary tools for

The abatement of avarice, abhorrence, and illusions that are the root causes of conflicts.

Religion touches the inner self of humans and encourages them to improve themselves and

Society. Though not famous among the recent international news stories, religious peacemakers

Do their task concerning humanitarian assistance and faith-centered intervention.

Human assistance helps achieve peace by advancing poverty reduction and putting attention to

Economic equality. World Vision, for example, is a Christian humanitarian organization helping

Children, families, and communities overcome poverty and injustice. Also, faith-centered

Mediation is driven by the search for peace. In 2014, Pope Francis had an important role in the

US-Cuba deal that ended the long conflict between the two nation-states.

In many ways, religion is affected by globalization. At the same time, it has contributed to the

Rise of global conflicts and the achievement of world peace. Conflicts are caused by different
Interpretations of the religious sacred texts applied in the secular world in the guise of economic

And political clashes or vice versa.

Either individualized or institutionalized, religion is one of the actors of cultural globalization.Conversely,

religion is also a source of peace. It plays a vital role in man’s search for world

Peace. The teachings of great religions on moral principles and values are necessary tools for

The abatement of avarice, abhorrence, and illusions that are the root causes of conflicts.

Religion touches the inner self of humans and encourages them to improve themselves and

Society. Though not famous among the recent international news stories, religious peacemakers

Do their task concerning humanitarian assistance and faith-centered intervention.

Human assistance helps achieve peace by advancing poverty reduction and putting attention to

Economic equality. World Vision, for example, is a Christian humanitarian organization helping

Children, families, and communities overcome poverty and injustice. Also, faith-centered

Mediation is driven by the search for peace. In 2014, Pope Francis had an important role in the

US-Cuba deal that ended the long conflict between the two nation-states.

In many ways, religion is affected by globalization. At the same time, it has contributed to the
Rise of global conflicts and the achievement of world peace. Conflicts are caused by different

Interpretations of the religious sacred texts applied in the secular world in the guise of economic

and political clashes or vice versa.

Either individualized or institutionalized, religion is one of the actors of cultural globalization.

Today, global governance makes world affairs systematic, secured, and formulaic. Weiss &

Thakur (2014) describe global governance as the totality of norms, laws, policies, and bodies

That define, comprise, and facilitate transnational relations between citizens, states, cultures,

Intergovernmental, and non-governmental organizations. Rules and norms put everything in

Order. Though global governance is rule-based, it has no central authority. However, there are

Systems for international relationships that bind the states, people, and society together.

Since the United Nations (UN) has the most number of members among the established global

Systems, this section discusses its organs, roles, and functions. The UN is composed of six

Organs. The General Assembly is the central deliberative and the only organ where all

Member-states have equal representation in discussion and consideration, and policymaking.

Organ The Security Council is the organ which has the commitment to preserve peace and
Security. The Economic and Social Council is the main body for cooperation, policy review,

Policy dialogue, and advice on social issues. Economic, and environmental issues. The

Trusteeship Council is the organ tasked to administer international oversight for 11 trust

Territories and to sure that adequate procedures are taken for independence and The

International Court of Justice is UN’s prime judicial organ. The Secretariat is the organ tasked

To execute the daily activities as assigned by the five other

The United Nations was established after the Second World War with one central mission-to

Maintain international peace and security. Currently, with the world being faced with

Numerous issues that threaten peace, UN serves as an actor in confronting these. In 1948, UN

Was responsible for bringing human rights into the realm of international law through the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights. UN is also a space for its members to manifest their

Perspectives through its core organs and committees. The organization has become an

Instrument for governments to identify spaces of agreement and resolve problems collectively

By enabling the exchange of opinions between and among its members and by hosting
Consultations.

Aside from maintaining international peace and security and protecting human rights, UN also

Carries the functions of delivering humanitarian aid, promoting sustainable development,

And upholding international law.

The organization utilizes good offices, diplomacy, and mediation. It does peacekeeping

Processes in countries with domestic conflicts and peace-building tasks in countries freed from

Conflict, lessening the risk of reversing into conflict and setting the groundwork for sustainable

Peace and development. It agrees on the global battle against terrorism and works for the

Removal of nuclear weapons and other instruments of mass destruction. All of these are

Executed to maintain international peace and security.

In order to protect human rights, the UN scrutinizes situations and issues reported to them and

Oversees the exercise of international human rights agreements. It takes responsibility for

Reviewing, monitoring, reporting, and commending human rights from a country-based

Perspective. It approaches human rights energy within the UN development system and boosts

Awareness of the reasons and acts of genocides, warns relevant players where there is a
Danger of genocide, promotes, and mobilizes for relevant action. Ultimately, it governs the

Conceptual, institutional, political, and operational advancement of the Responsibility to Protect.

UN

In delivering humanitarian ald, UN is responsible for coordinating responses to emergencies

And supports rapid humanitarian response for people affected by natural disasters and armed

Conflict.

The Millennium Development Goals was set to promote sustainable development. In 2015, this

Was changed into the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These goals are the blueprint to

Achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. This collection of 17 global goals covers

Social and economic issues including poverty, hunger, health, education, global warming,

Gender equality, water sanitation, energy urbanization, environment, and social justice.

In order for international laws to be upheld, the UN settles legal disputes referred to it by the

Member-states. It also accords advisory opinions on questions that are of legal nature submitted

By legitimate UN organs and particular agencies.

The Security Council’s veto power over resolutions is one of the challenges that UN has been

Facing since the organization’s foundation. For example, the UN resolution in December 2017

That required US President Donald Trump to withdraw the recognition of Jerusalem as the

Capital city of Israel was vetoed by the United States in the Security Council. In effect the

Resolution was not passed. Some states refuse to adopt resolutions and statements especially

Since the membership is on voluntary basis.

Furthermore, Weiss and Thakur (2014), in their article titled, The United Nations Meets the

Twenty-first Century: Confronting the Challenges of Global Governance, identify

Challenges confronting UN based on knowledge, norms, policy, institutions, and

Compliance:

1. In terms of knowledge, UN, is underappreciated regarding how its convening capacity and

Mobilizing power are utilized to help funnel and consolidate knowledge from outside and ensure

Its discussion and dissemination among governments.

2. The contrasting moral structures of social behavior in different member-states complicate the

Formulation of a normative standard that can be applicable to all.

 3. In formulating propositions, problems occur when only the member-states are heard. UN

Belittle the helping hand of non governmental organizations (NGOs) and the global public

Opinion. Sometimes, recommendations are not executed.

4. Institutions can also be places where ideas are cornered and left behind. The modality and

Processes for enforcing compliance with international norms and laws are not present. In fact,

Some UN staff members violate, cheat, and challenge them.

Despite the establishment of global norms and international laws that nation-states should

Follow, the nation-states are still relevant for there will be no intergovernmental organization

without them. Also, international and multinational agreements are designed by the states and

propelled by the initiatives that they undertake. As Bertucci & Alberto (2018) affirm, the

sovereignty of nation-states in the midst of globalization has not been diminished for the

cooperation and converted action among nation-states represent the greater exercise of their

sovereignty. Furthermore, the nation-states remain to be active agents of local and transnational

realms of concern.
To conclude, contemporary global governance defines the political scope of globalization.

Cooperation among nation-states is the only way to reform and advance the roles and functions

of interstate relationships despite real challenges being faced by the United Nations.