MODULE 3 – World of Regions
Lesson 1 – Global Divides
In the previous Module, you learn the structure of globalization, history tells
us that whatever system that the world is using in the contemporary world
are the products of interconnections among nations through alliances,
forming global networks and institutions. The world has been divided even
during the early times as East and West, it is further given emphasis during
the exploration, colonization and imperialism age. Before you go further,
answer the activity will test your prior knowledge. Don’t be scared because
this is not recorded
Defining Global North and Global South
Geographically speaking, the term North referring to the countries belonging
in the Northern hemisphere, which includes the Western countries America,
Europe and Africa, while on the other hand, South referring mostly to the
Asian countries. Sawe (2017) pointed out that in the contemporary world, the
global division use to categorize the countries level according to its socio-
economic and political stability and not just of it geographical location.
The International Monetary Fund and World Bank use mechanisms in
determining the level of development among countries, such as the GDP
income per capita, level of industrialization, and infrastructure and
technological advancement. Noneconomic factor such as Human Capital
Investment (HDI), which quantifies the country’s level in terms of quality of
education, literacy, and health are also use in determining the degree of
economic development (Majaski, 2019).
What is Global North in the Contemporary World?
Global North refers to countries that are politically and economically stable,
also referred as “rich” and “develop countries”, more economically develop
countries MEDC’s, this includes the members of Group of 8 or the “G8”
(United States, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom, Canada, and
Japan). But in 2014, Russia was indefinitely suspended from the group after
annexing Crimea, an autonomous public of Ukraine, G8 is now referred as G7.
(Liberto, 2020). What makes the Global North “rich” and “develop”? Genrally,
this countries have good economic standing, better quality living and quality
of life (Ferrer, 2018)
What is Global South in the Contemporary World?
Global South refer as the “underdevelop countries”, “developing” the “poor
side” and “Third World Countries Butler (2020). These are mainly under
develop agricultural countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Generally,
countries that suffer from high poverty, high child mortality, low economic
and educational development, and vulnerable to exploitation by large
corporations and industrialized nations, and they have high foreign debts
levels
When and How the Concept Begun?
The Rise of Colonialism
As early as 17th century, during the age of exploration and colonization, the
world was divided into West and East by Spain and Portugal. They compete
in exploring the world for the purpose of finding gold and silver, since this is
the means of measuring the wealth and power of a nation.
This competition led to the signing of Treaty of Tordesillas, were they divide
the exploration route to east and west. Spain explore most of the Asian
countries like the Philippines in which it was incidentally found, because
originally they are looking for the Moluccas Island.
In the 19th and 20th century Britain and France was the leading colonial
powers, they were able to rule the whole African continent. The purpose now
is not just to find gold and silver, but to conquest established political and
economic power. Britain established colonies in America, and Asia, they
founded the East India Company, Netherlands, Dutch East India Company,
where in they monopolize the trading and commerce in India.
The decline of Western Kingdoms, led to the global changes such as, the
decline of monarchial type of government system, abolition of monopoly in
trading. New world order emerged when America and Russia arose into
power, such as introducing a new political, governmental and economic
system, America pursuing democracy and capitalism, while on the other
hand, Russia pursued the socialism and communism.
After WWII, colonize countries were given freedom and establish its own
government and secure its sovereignty but they still dependent to powerful
nations like America in terms of economics and governance.
What is the Connection of Cold War in the Global Divides?
During this time, countries are being categorize according to its alignment
between Russia-East and the America- West. After the fall of Russia, they
were classified as Second World Country together with China. America now
was classified as First World Country together with European countries. This
categorization left out many countries which were poorer than First World
and Second World countries. This “poorer” countries were categorized now
as the Third World countries. In the contemporary world, global north
comprises of countries belongs to more economically developed countries
MEDC’s on the other hand global south comprises of countries belongs to
least develop countries LEDC’s. But there are exceptions like Australia, New
Zealand, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea,
CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBAL NORTH AND SOUTH
Why is that, as you go more on Southern part of the world it becomes poor
and less developed? And as you go Northern, becomes richer and developed?
There are theories that explains this situation of the world.
1. Functionalist Perspective of Inequality
• It is a belief that "inequality is not only inevitable but also
necessary for the smooth functioning of society.”
• Economic inequality, is the unequal distribution of income and
opportunity between different groups in society. It is a concern in
almost all countries around the world and often people are
trapped in poverty with little chance to climb up the social ladder
• Social inequality, is the issue pertaining to the lack of housing,
health care, education, employment opportunities, and status
2. Modernization theory
• Is used to explain the process of modernization within societies.
Refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern'
or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. (Talcott Parsons) Poverty is
fundamental human condition
• First countries to adopt modern technologies, attitudes, and
institutions will turn to be the most wealth and successful
• Countries that hold on to traditional views and process will fall
behind until modern corporations and novel technological
advancements eventually overtake traditional institutions.
3. Dependency Theory
• Can be defined as an explanation of the economic development
of a state in terms of external influences- political, economic, and
cultural- on national development policies (Raúl Prebisch)
• Colonial imperialism, Exploits other countries by excessive
exportation of resources, taking additional profits and controlling
through neo-colonialism
• Poverty is created as a result of capitalism, imperialism, and
colonialism
4. Neoliberalism Theory
• policy model—bridging politics, social studies, and economics—
that seeks to transfer control of economic factors to the private
 sector from the public sector. It tends towards free-market
capitalism and away from government spending, regulation, and
public ownership.
Furthermore, countries that have a high Human Development Index, GDP
income per capita, with technological advancement most likely offer a quality
of living among its people. The pursuit of happiness may vary among people,
it can be quantify according to the quality of life, such as material wealth,
good health, quality education, which are the result of good governance. The
Worlds Happiness Report in 2019, focuses on happiness and the community,
how happiness has evolve over the past dozen years, with a focus on the
technologies, social norms, conflicts and government policies that have
driven those changes.
The Top 10 happiest countries in the world are:
1. Finland 2. Denmark 3. Norway 4. Iceland 5. Netherlands 6.
Switzerland 7. Sweden 8. New Zealand 9. Canada 10.Austria
Lesson 2- ASIAN REGIONALISM
Defining Asian Regionalism
Regionalization refers to "societal integration and the often undirected
process of social and economic interaction." There is a regional concentration
of economic flows and countries respond economically and politically to
globalization in various ways.
Regionalism refers to the formal process of intergovernmental collaboration
between two or more states. It is a set of conscious activities carried out by
states within a region to cooperate while regionalization is a less conscious
process which is the outcome of these states policies. It is more on political
process characterized by economic policy cooperation among countries.
Combining these concepts, Asian regionalism is a product of societal
integration brought by the undirected process of social and economic
interaction. Asian regionalism focuses on economic interaction, whereby the
countries adopt the principle of free flow of goods and services which are
coordinated with foreign economic policies between countries. Long before
the colonization and emergence of globalization, they had developed
interaction between Asian regions, this manifest in early trading through
Barter System. Fine textiles, silk, gold and other metals are valuable products.
The Silk Road is another breakthrough in the development of trading and
commerce not just among Asian people but and to the rest of the world. This
is a trading route connecting East to West (Gregorio Zaide and Sonia Zaide,
2015).
Asian Regionalism
In the recent years, integration and development in Asian region has been the
center of discussion among Asian leaders. Geopolitics, economic alliances,
and forming international organizations at par with other regions in the world
are the key measure in forming regionalism among Asia countries. This also
contributed in forming a new global order.
What is the Foundation of Asian Regionalism?
We can understand the foundation Asian regionalism through historical
approach. The first phase was the First Asian Relations Conference in 1947
and 1949 India convened which. The primary aim of the conference was to
create political pressure for decolonization and to give a collective voice or
identity to the nationalist aspirations and newly independent countries of
Asia.
The chief point of this phase was the Asia-Africa conference in Bandung,
Indonesia in 1995. The purpose goes beyond decolonization to developing
rules of conduct in international affairs and exploring ideas and avenues for
economic cooperation. These conferences discuss matters in line with
political security and economics, but this also resulted to contest on
economic nationalism and economic liberalism as understood in
development countries to advance free trade (Acharya, 2012). At this point,
you can understand that slow Asian region forming cooperation to achieve a
specific goal.
The second phase of the development of Asian regionalism was the
formation of ASEAN and the Pacific community notion. Prior to this, United
States and Japan plays a vital role in forming regionalism, US sought to create
security and economic regionalism, Japan focus on economic, with security
being an indirect goal, a byproduct of economic cooperation.
The rising urgency of regionalism, motivated by globalization cooperation
among neighbouring countries, takes into its full take off when ASEAN was
formed. Just like the other regions in the world, Asia establish an international
organization that will support the welfare and development of the region.
The ASEAN Association of Southeast Asia Nations, under the banner of
cooperative peace and prosperity, its chief projects centre on economic
cooperation, the promotion of trade among ASEAN
The Post-Cold War motivated the third phase of the development of Asian
regionalism. ASEAN during this time remained the centre of regionalism, to
develop strong economic ties among nations, ASEAN Free Trade Area was
formed, and the establishment of ASEAN Regional Forum, this was the first
multilateral security organization, security is defined not in military or
collective defense, but as cooperative security measures aimed at developing
confidence and avoiding conflict among Asian nations and the rest of the
world.
What is Now the Standing of Asia as a Region? (Asia Pacific & South Asia:
Northeast Asia, SEA, Pacific Islands, South Asia)
• Diversity: most progressive: South K, Japan, and Singapore
• Poorest Countries: Cambodia, Laos, Nepal
• Most populated: China and India World’s smallest: Bhutan and
Maldives
• As a region: 1/3 of the world's land mass 2/3 of the global
population Largest share of global GDP (35%); USA 23%; Europe 28%
Over 1/3 of world's exports Prevalence of poverty, HIV/AIDS,
gender inequality and other socio econ problems
Why Do We Need to Form Alliances? (Claudio, Lisandro and Patricio
Abinales, 2018)
I. Military Defense purposes North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) -Formed during cold war when several
Western European countries plus the United States agreed to
protect Europe against the threat of the Soviet Union
Response of Soviet Union:
WARSAW Pact- regional alliance created by Soviet Union -
comprise Eastern European Countries under Soviet
Domination
RESULT: Soviet imploded in December 1991, but NATO
remains in place
II. Pool Resources
This is to get better returns for their exports and expand
leverage against trading partners Sample Organization:
• Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC)- established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
and Venezuela to regulate the production and sale of oil.
III. Protect Independence from the Pressures of Super Power
Politics
Example: NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT- created by the
Presidents of Egypt, Ghana, India, Indonesia and Yugoslavia
in 1961. (120 members) the prime goals to pursue world peace
and international cooperation, human rights, national
sovereignty, racial equality, non- intervention and peaceful
conflict resolution.
IV. Economic Crisis Compels Countries to Come Together
Example: -Thai economy collapsed in 1996. Troubled
international banks demanded that the Thai government pay
back its loans. -Crisis spread to Asian countries. IMF tried to
reverse the crisis, but it was only after ASEAN countries along
with China, Japan and South Korea agreed to establish an
emergency fund to expect a crisis that the Asian economies
stabilized.
Example #2: ASEAN- formed as a coalition country which
were pro-American and supportive of the United States
intervention in Vietnam. After Vietnam War, it continued to
act as a military alliance to isolate Vietnam after it Invaded
Cambodia resulted to the beginning of Economic
Cooperation.
Asian regionalism change across time, from forming political regional
alliances to economic integration. Formation of the regional trading bloc, free
trade, and forming an international organization that will support the
development of each Asian country. The Post- Cold War resulted to the
formation of "new regionalism", those who shares the same values, norms,
institutions, and systems that exist outside of the traditional, established
mainstream institutions and systems. The key factors in the "new
regionalism" are the collaborative multi-level governance, innovation and
learning, integrated development, rural-urban interactions and placebased
development.
For example: ASEAN issued its Human Rights Declaration in 2009, but the
regional body left it to member countries to apply the declaration's principle
as they see fit. ASEAN PARLIAMENTARIANS FOR HUMANRIGHTS resulted to
non-governmental organizations and civil society groups pushing to prevent
discrimination, uphold political freedom, and promote democracy and human
rights throughout the region.
But despite of the positive impacts brought by the regionalism there are
certain instances where it encounters problems and conflicts. On the other
hand, before we proceed on identifying problems let’s first define the
difference between the new regionalism from state to state regionalism for
us to have a firm grasp of the lesson. Ready? Come on!
DIFFERENCE OF NEW REGIONALISM TO STATE-TO-STATE REGIONALISM
WHEN IT COME TO IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS (Claudio, Lisandro and Patricio
Abinales, 2018)
STATE TO STATE REGIONALISM
States treat poverty or environmental degredation as technical or economic
issues that can be resolved by refining existing programs of state agencies,
making minor changes in economic policies and creating new offices that
address these issues
NEW REGIONALISM
New Regionalism advocates such as NGO Global Forum see the issues as
reflections of flawed economic development and environmental models. By
flawed mean economic development plans that are market-based, profit
driven, and hardly concerned with social welfare, especially among the poor.
NEW CHALLENGES FOR NEW REGIONALISTS
1. Disagreements surface over issues like gender and religion Example: Pro-
choice NGOs breaking from religious civil society groups that side with the
Church, Muslim imams, or governments opposed to reproductive rights and
other pro-women policies
2. Some civil society groups are not welcoming to the new trend and set up
an obstacle after another. Example: Migrant Forum Asia and its ally, the
Coordination of Action Research on AIDS (CARAM), lobbied ASEAN
governments to defend migrant labor rights. Their program of action
however, slowed down once countries like Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand
refused to recognize the rights of undocumented migrant workers and the
rights of the families of migrants.
CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES
1. Resurgence of militant nationalism and populism Example:
A. The refusal to dismantle NATO after the collapse of the Soviet Union for
example, has become the basis of the anti-NATO rhetoric of Vladimir Putin in
Russia.
B. The relationship of United States- the alliance's core member- with NATO
has become problematic after Donald Trump demonized the organization as
simply leeching off American military power without giving anything in
return.
2. Continuing financial crisis of the region Example:
A. European Union. Continuing financial crisis of the region is forcing
countries like Greece to consider leaving the union to gain more flexibility in
their economic policy;
B. Anti-immigrant sentiment and a populist campaign against Europe have
already led to the United Kingdom voting to leave the European Union in a
move the media has termed “BREXIT”
3. Sacrificing sovereignty to maintain regional stability
Example: -Philippines and China
4. Differing visions of what regionalism should be for
Example: -Non-Western and developing societies have different view
regarding globalization, development and democracy -Singapore, China and
Russia see democracy as an obstacle to the implementation and deepening
of economic globalization because constant public inquiry about economic
projects and lengthy debates slowdown implementation or lead to unclear
outcomes: DEMOCRACY=EFFICIENCY.
MODULE 4 – World of Ideas
Globalization have been a big player in our lives. In this unit the student will
be enlightened with the various driving forces of the globalization process
while focusing on the economic and political aspects. This will first track how
big institutions created a large-scale change historically. At the end of the
module, you are expected to have knowledge, understanding and analysis of
the role of globalization in the modern world and its effect on our lives.
Religion and Globalism
In your previous lesson, you learn the impact of globalization to media, how
media transforms into a powerful medium. This lesson will focus on the ideas
of globalization from the context of religion.
Globalization, as you know, refers to the interconnectedness among people
across world time and space. The fast pacing production of technology made
this interconnectedness possible. This resulted to the emergence of the
concept of cultural pluralism in which non dominant countries could share to
the world their unique culture and accepted by the dominant countries.
On the other hand, religion refers to the set of belief of people in the divine
creator which considers as holy and sacred (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).
People from early civilization, religious practices are already visible. For
example, in the ancient Sumerian religion who worships great god Marduk
who defeated Tiamat and the forces of chaos to create the world.
As defined by Haynes (2006), the concept of religion has two distinct
meanings. There are three ways of how social and individual of believers are
organized in spiritual sense. First is that it involves the idea of transcendence,
referring to supernatural realities. For example, talking to God. Second, It
relates with sacredness or holiness and system of practice and language . An
example of sacred is confession, baptism and more. Third, it concerns
ultimacy, on how it relates to people to the ultimate conditions of existence.
In the material sense, religious beliefs are capable of motivating individuals
and groups to collectively mobilize to achieve political goals and
consequences, suppress mass actions as tool of repression.
While religion takes advantage of communication and transportation
technology, it is at the same time the source of globalization’s greatest
resistance by acting as a haven for those standing in opposition to its power.
On the other hand, because globalization allows for daily contact, religion
enters a circle of conflict in which religions become “more self-conscious of
themselves as being world religions.
HISTORY OF THE MAJOR RELIGIONS
In an article by Preceden (2020), Judaism is an abrahamic belief based on the
teachings of Moses. The holy book of Judaism is the Torah. It is the oldest
religion of the group and starts around 4,000 years ago. A main figure from
Judaism is Moses who freed the Israelites from bondage. One particular
scene from Judaism is Moses with the Ten Commandments. It shows a older
long bearded and long haired standing upon a big jagged grey rock. He is
holding 2 stone tablets with older Roman numeral on it carved deeply in the
tablet.
Next is Hinduism, according to Hornak (2019) most scholars believe Hinduism
started somewhere between 2300 B.C. and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley, near
modern-day Pakistan. But many Hindus argue that their faith is timeless and
has always existed. Unlike other religions, Hinduism has no one founder but
is instead a fusion of various beliefs. Around 1500 B.C., the Indo-Aryan people
migrated to the Indus Valley, and their language and culture blended with
that of the indigenous people living in the region.
Confucianism. As stated by Clayton (2020), it was developed in China by
Master Kong in 551- 479 BC, who was given the name Confucius by Jesuit
missionaries who were visiting there. However, the fundamental principles of
Confucianism began before his birth, during the Zhou Dynasty.
At that time, the ideas of respect and the well-being of others were prevalent,
but there was also an emphasis on spiritual matters - specifically, the
goodness of the divine and the mandate to rule given to those in power.
These ideas were meant to unite the people, create stability and prevent
rebellion. Confucius believed his philosophy was also a route toward a civil
society. However, he shifted attention away from ruling authorities, the
divine or one's future after death, focusing instead on the importance of daily
life and human interactions. This new, refined version of the philosophy did
not completely take root until the next dynasty, the Han (140-87 BC). It is the
Confucianism that many people are familiar with today.
Aside from the above mentioned religion, we also have Buddhism. As
identified by Chu (2019) it is a faith founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the
Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million
followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the major world religions.
When Gautama passed away around 483 B.C., his followers began to organize
a religious movement. Buddha’s teachings became the foundation for what
would develop into Buddhism.
In the 3rd century B.C., Ashoka the Great, the Mauryan Indian emperor, made
Buddhism the state religion of India. Buddhist monasteries were built, and
missionary work was encouraged. Over the next few centuries, Buddhism
began to spread beyond India. The thoughts and philosophies of Buddhists
became diverse, with some followers interpreting ideas differently than
others. In the sixth century, the Huns invaded India and destroyed hundreds
of Buddhist monasteries, but the intruders were eventually driven out of the
country. Islam began to spread quickly in the region during the Middle Ages,
forcing Buddhism into the background.
Next in line is Christianity which is a religion based on the teaching of Jesus
Christ. The religion was started 2,000 years ago, when Jesus Christ was born.
Early Christians were persecuted for their faith by both Jewish and Roman
leaders.
In 64 A.D., Emperor Nero blamed Christians for a fire that broke out in Rome.
Many were brutally tortured and killed during this time. Under Emperor
Domitian, Christianity was illegal. If a person confessed to being a Christian,
he or she was executed. Starting in 303 A.D., Christians faced the most severe
persecutions to date under the co-emperors Diocletian and Galerius. This
became known as the Great Persecution. When Roman Emperor Constantine
converted to Christianity, religious tolerance shifted in the Roman Empire.
During this time, there were several groups of Christians with different ideas
about how to interpret scripture and the role of the church.
In 313 A.D., Constantine lifted the ban on Christianity with the Edict of Milan.
He later tried to unify Christianity and resolve issues that divided the church
by establishing the Nicene Creed. Many scholars believe Constantine’s
conversion was a turning point in Christian history. In 380 A.D., Emperor
Theodosius I declared Catholicism the state religion of the Roman Empire. The
Pope, or Bishop of Rome, operated as the head of the Roman Catholic Church.
Catholics expressed a deep devotion for the Virgin Mary, recognized the
seven sacraments, and honored relics and sacred sites. When the Roman
Empire collapsed in 476 A.D., differences emerged among Eastern and
Western Christians.
In 1054 A.D., the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox church
split into two groups. Between about 1095 A.D. and 1230 A.D., the Crusades,
a series of holy wars, took place. In these battles, Christians fought against
Islamic rulers and their Muslim soldiers to reclaim holy land in the city of
Jerusalem. The Christians were successful in occupying Jerusalem during
some of the Crusades, but they were ultimately defeated.
After the Crusades, the Catholic Church’s power and wealth increased. In 1517,
a German monk named Martin Luther published 95 Theses which is a text that
criticized certain acts of the Pope and protested some of the practices and
priorities of the Roman Catholic church. Later, Luther publicly said that the
Bible didn’t give the Pope the sole right to read and interpret scripture.
Luther’s ideas triggered the Reformation which is a movement that aimed to
reform the Catholic church. As a result, Protestantism was created, and
different denominations of Christianity eventually began to form. (Studio
Three Dots, 2019).
Then Islam, based on an article by Ifansasti (2019), Islam is the second largest
religion in the world after Christianity, with about 1.8 billion Muslims
worldwide. Although its roots go back further, scholars typically date the
creation of Islam to the 7th century, making it the youngest of the major
world religions. Islam started in Mecca, in modern-day Saudi Arabia, during
the time of the prophet Muhammad’s life. Today, the faith is spreading rapidly
throughout the world. Islam is a monotheistic and abrahamic religion, they
believe that Muhammad was the last prophet of god. Muslims has many
beliefs for example they believe that god is one and incomparable and that
the purpose of existence is to love and serve god.
Lastly, according to Mcleod (2020), Sikhism, religion and philosophy founded
in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent in the late 15th century. Its
members are known as Sikhs. The Sikhs call their faith Gurmat (Punjabi: “the
Way of the Guru”).
According to Sikh tradition, Sikhism was established by Guru Nanak (1469–
1539) and subsequently led by a succession of nine other Gurus. All 10 human
Gurus, Sikhs believe, were inhabited by a single spirit. Upon the death of the
10th, Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the spirit of the eternal Guru
transferred itself to the sacred scripture of Sikhism, Guru Granth Sahib (“The
Granth as the Guru”), also known as the Adi Granth (“First Volume”), which
thereafter was regarded as the sole Guru. In the early 21st century there were
nearly 25 million Sikhs worldwide, the great majority of them living in the
Indian state of Punjab.
After your sharing, its time to continue with your journey in this lesson.
Religion and globalization persistently engage in a flexible relationship in
which the former relies on the latter in order to thrive and flourish while at
the same time challenging its globalization’s hybridizing effects.
Undoubtedly, religion is not immune from these changes and their
burgeoning effects brought about by globalization. However, religions still
have their respective homes in specific territorial spaces where they originally
appeared and where their respective shrines exist.
Secularization: The Consequences of Modernization (TOCQUEVILLE, 2020)
At the most abstract level of analysis, modernization leads to what Max
Weber called “the disenchantment of the world.” It calls into question all the
superhuman and supernatural forces, the gods and spirits, with which
nonindustrial cultures populate the universe and to which they attribute
responsibility for the phenomena of the natural and social worlds. In their
place it introduces as a competing cosmology the modern scientific
interpretation of nature by which only the laws and regularities discovered by
the scientific method are admitted as valid explanations of phenomena. If it
rains, or does not rain, it is not because the gods are angry but because of
atmospheric conditions, as measured by the barometer and photographed by
satellites.
In short, modernization involves a process of secularization that is, it
systematically challenges religious institutions, beliefs, and practices,
substituting for them those of reason and science. This process was first
observable in Christian Europe toward the end of the 17th century. (It is
possible that there is something inherently secularizing about Christianity, for
no other religion seems to give rise spontaneously to secular beliefs.) At any
rate, once invented in Europe, especially Protestant Europe, secularization
was carried as part of the “package” of industrialism that was exported to
the non-European world. Wherever modern European cultures have
impinged, they have diffused secularizing currents into traditional religions
and non-rational ideologies.
Although secularization is a general tendency or principle of development in
modern societies, this does not imply that religion is driven out altogether
from society. In fact, as one of the most modernized countries in the world,
the United States is also among the world’s most religious. Against a deep
background of tradition, modernization inevitably leaves many religious
practices in place and may even stimulate new ones. Religious rituals, such as
Christian baptism and church weddings, persist in all industrial societies; the
church may, as in England and Italy, continue to play an important moral and
social role. The majority of the population may hold traditional religious
beliefs alongside more scientific ones. There may even be, as in the United
States and in industrializing societies such as India, waves of religious
revivalism that involve large sections of the population.
Secularization is but one manifestation of a larger cultural process that
affects all modern societies, the process of rationalization. While this process
is epitomized by the rise of the scientific worldview, it encompasses many
more areas than are usually associated with science. It applies, for instance,
to the capitalist economy, with its rational organization of labour and its
rational calculation of profit and loss. It applies also to artistic developments,
such as the rational application of the geometry of perspective in painting and
the development of a rational system of notation and rational harmonic
principles in music.
For Max Weber, the most careful student of the process, it referred above all
to the establishment of a rational system of laws and administration in
modern society. It was in the system of bureaucracy, seen as the impersonal
and impartial rule of rationally constituted laws and formal procedures, that
Weber saw the highest development of the rational principle. Bureaucracy
meant a principled hostility to all traditional and “irrational” considerations
of person or place, kinship or culture. It expressed the triumph of the
scientific method and scientific expertise in social life. The trained official, said
Weber, is “the pillar both of the modern state and of the economic life of the
West.”
Rationalization is a process that operates at the highest, most general level
of social development. It would be surprising if its effects were to be found in
every nook and cranny of modern society. Everywhere one should expect to
find the persistence of nonrational and even antirational attitudes and
behavior. Superstition is one example; the occasional rise of personal,
charismatic leadership breaking through the rationalized routines of
bureaucracy is another. These should not be thought of simply as vestiges of
traditional society. They are also the expressions of essential needs,
emotional and cultural, that are in danger of being stifled in a scientific and
unillusioned environment.
Weber stressed another significant point. Rationalization does not connote
that the populations of modern societies are, as individuals, any more
reasonable or knowledgeable than those of nonindustrial societies. What it
means is that there is, in principle, scientifically validated knowledge available
to modern populations, by which they may, if they choose, enlighten
themselves about their world and govern their behaviour. In practice, as
Weber knew, such knowledge tends to be restricted to scientifically trained
elites. The mass of the population of a modern society might in their daily lives
be relatively more ignorant than the most uneducated peasants, for peasants
usually have a comprehensive and working knowledge of the tools they use
and the food they consume, whereas modern people may well use an
elevator without the slightest idea of its working principle or eat food
manufactured in ways and with materials of which they are totally unaware.
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND BELIEFS
Peter Beyer (1994), identified three key impacts of globalization on religion:
Particularism
Religion has increasingly used as an avenue for anti-globalization activity.
While one feature of globalization is a sort of cultural homogenization (the
creation of a single, global popular culture) religion is often seen as the
opposite of that: a symbol of how people are culturally different from one
another, rather than the same. This has contributed to a rise in
fundamentalism and is a feature of political conflict in many areas of the
world.
Universalism
There are also some evidences of the opposite trend. While small
fundamentalist groups might emphasize their difference from other people,
the major religions have increasingly focused on what unites them. Far from
the feared clash of civilizations, religious leaders emphasize shared values and
common concerns. Indeed, inter-faith dialogue through global
communication has helped to diffuse conflict between religions.
Marginalization
Beyer also notes that religion is increasingly marginalized in contemporary
society, playing less part in public life, although this may well be a rather
Eurocentric view and may be caused by other social changes rather than
globalization.
Another way in which globalization has impacted on religion is the way
religions have made use of global communications. Religious groups are able
to take advantage of modern technology to recruit new members, spread the
word and keep in contact with other members of the religion. While with
some of the more fundamentalist, antimodern, anti-global religious
organizations this can hold a certain irony, it is one of the ways in which
religion is much less linked to nationality than it once was. Furthermore, the
media plays the same important role in the dissemination of religious ideas.
In this respect, a lot of TV channels, radio stations and print media are
founded solely for advocating religions. Taking Islam as an example, we find
such T.V channels as Iqrae, Ennass, Majd, El Houda, Erahma, etc. as purely
religious channels created for the strengthening and the fortification of Islam.
Lesson 2- Global Media Culture
Conceptualizing Global Media Culture You can easily gain Information across
the world through different media platforms powered by technology.
Communication and information on Government economic alliances, issues
on global poverty, environmental problems, inequality, global security, and
even the day-to-day life of people are accessible with less or no censorship.
The UN Declaration of Human Rights, the freedom to information is an
integral part of the fundamental right of freedom of expression.
Media was defined as various means of communication. This is through print
materials like newspaper, magazine, television, radio and social media. The
collection of these forms of media that use for communication is what we call
the mass media. (https://techterms.com/definition/media)
Mass Media helps in communicating government’s program and policies,
issues concerning poverty, security, etc. In the Philippines, giant television
networks like ABS-CBN and GMA are the means of informing the public and
the rest of the world. International news agencies like Reuters, CNN, CBS, etc.
are the source of information as to the happenings around the globe.
Now that we have clearly defined media, we also have to trace how it started.
Ready? Come on! How does this Media Started?
The intensification of interconnectedness among people across world time,
as motivated by globalization, resulted to the change of perception of people
on media and its impact on the global way of life, system, and processes such
as global media cultures. In which this refers to the mass communication on
a global level, letting people across the world to share and access
information.
Kirillova (2016) describes the primitive culture of a people as synthetic or
differentiated in form. In 2000 BCE. When the Mesopotamian cuneiform
writing and hieroglyphs of Egypt was invented, the life of people change
specifically in acquiring information. The government, religion, education
systems and day-to-day life of people are scripted into text and can be read
and preserve.
The early Greek and Roman people also contributed to the development of
means of communication and information which became the basis for Latin
and Slavic alphabets. Books like Iliad and Odyssey in which the political,
religious, economics and society of the early Greeks was described. The
freedom of expression during this time was clear among the Athenians, it
manifested in their arts, music, literature, philosophy, and public speaking and
debate were encouraged.
During the Medieval period, the culture of people center on religion. Church
has an enormous influence in people’s lives like the monasteries became the
center of source of information, they limited freedom to information during
this time, they even prohibit and self-expression and religious rights. (Zaide,
2015)
Renaissance period introduces a new way culture, this period marked the
rebirth of people’s interest in acquiring new learning. Richest and wisest
people focused again on arts, music, education where they build libraries in
parts of Europe like in Milan, Florence and Venice. Communication and
information also flourished because of the interconnection of people from a
different part of the world through trading and commerce. Renaissance
resulted to the awakening of people’s idea on freedom eventually leads to
the revolution of the colonized places. (Zaide, 2015)
The Age of Enlightenment further expands the idea and way of thinking of
people, the rise of philosophers give another way of resolving problems of
the society. Philosophers like Rene Descartes, John Locke. Jean-Jacques
Rousseau believed that science and reason could solve major problems facing
society. Issues on government economic, education and culture were being
challenge through the “new ideas” “new way of thinking” that they
introduced.
The Industrial Revolution and French Revolution proved that scientific and
cultural ideas were the motivating force in social development. The rise of the
money-lending class, bourgeoisie, help in promoting culture by patronizing
energetic people of all backgrounds. The emergence of the “new class”
powered by their money, forced their own utilitarian ideals in the society and
this led to introducing “new culture” “mass culture” referring to mass media.
In the contemporary world, advance technology, invention of television,
radio, cellphones and computers, help in the emergence of mass culture and
change the global social norms. Information is sinking into one global
perspective and making the people live in a global community.
The Creation of Global Media Culture
To further widen your knowledge about global media culture, you will now
proceed to the indepth discussion on media, focusing on the creation of
global media and its impact to global community.
The concept of global culture is driven by the emergence of mass media. The
media plays an important role in the development of global media culture.
They provide an extensive transnational and transmission of cultural products
and they contribute to the formation of communicative networks and social
economics, and even political structure. The fast production of technology
creates a continuous cultural change across the world, such as cellphones,
tablets, and android television, data internet, which makes the information
accessible.
The emergence of “new media” or the so-called digital media (Southern
University Online Learning, 2020) social media has shrink the world into a
global community. International organization like United Nations use social
media to inform the people about the development of COVID 19. In the
Philippines, television networks like PTV, GMA and ABS-CBN stream via social
media.
Another online source of information is the twitter, President of US Donald
Trump is active in posting the happenings in US government. This is a free
speech online for global media where you can post your personal, societal,
and government sentiments.
You Tube and Instagram, where you can follow people from different parts
of the world, enable to share their lifestyle, societal events, government, and
you can even tour places any time because social media makes them available
to you.
Have you seen the fist fight in Taiwan Parliament? Hong Kong riot? What
about black American and their sentiments? Or are you updated in the lives of
British Royal family? Beautiful places in New Zealand, Ireland or even the
Iceberg in North Pole? They make all these possible because of the “new
media”. In the contemporary world, this is the major force in accelerating
trend of globalization. This brought society into the top level of
interconnectedness that made global societal transformation possible.

Globalization and Global Media Culture

The emergence of globalization strengthen the concept of global media

culture. This creates the idea that the culture is molded by Westerners,
powered by mass media. Do you have I-phone? I-Pod? Mac book? Are you
eating in McDonald? Are you watching MTV? CNN? Or perhaps Netflix? They
are being use and purchased worldwide and these are all American products.
Are you patronizing Nestle, Adidas, Nokia, Spotify, Rolex, H&M, and Sephora? In January 2019, it was reported that Philippines topped social media users
These are all European products, just like America, they are available worldwide. See figure below. (abs-cbn news, 2019)
worldwide. (Slauer, 2018). So, what these means? These created the idea of
cultural imperialism.

What is Cultural Imperialism?

As stated by Tobin (2020) and (Tomlinson, 2012), they define cultural

imperialism as imposition by one usually politically, economically, culturally
dominant community to non dominant community. In this manner, there is
enforced adaption of culture and habit resulted to homogeneity but this time,
motivated by western mass media and not of the use of military power. In the
case of the Philippines, colonial mentality strengthen this dominance of
westerners.

Moreover, Sreberny (2001) mentioned in an article on Media Imperialism,

cultural imperialism tend to see culture as singular, cited example American
television impacted on Iran. There is increased in loosening of the hyphen in
the nation-state and thus the “national culture” is better seen as a site of
contest. Sreberny (2001) pointed out that issue on media imperialism is also
happening in different parts of the world and resulted to conflicts among
nations.

Critiques on cultural imperialism resulted to the emergence of cultural

pluralism. Singh (2006) describes cultural pluralism as equal legal status,
enjoy minimum status of equality in educational, economic and political
opportunity, these will restraint the politically, and economically dominant
countries in intervening and giving the non-dominant countries to be heard
and propose solutions on global problems.

Is there also imperialism in mass media? Yes! Domination

of US in global media markets, which refers to television, film, news

broadcasting like CNN, Reuters etc. resulted to the idea that the largest mass
media company are from America, hence, resulted to the idea of cultural
homogeneity. (encyclopedia.com, 2020)

Globalization challenge the concept of cultural imperialism in the context of

digital media. Western mass media have been viewed as biased in probating
culture because they are in favor of industrialized countries, hence influenced
the politics, economics, society and culture of the developing and under
developing countries. (Kraidy, 2002)

Worlds culture impacted the world society, conflicts arises on the economic
and cultural domination of Western countries less develop countries in Africa
and Asia. The formation of international organization like United Nations
becomes the platform for less develop countries and called for the
restructuring of New World Economic Order and New World Information
Order. Former colonies pursued the principle of world cultural equality. (J.
Boli , F.J Lenchner, 2001)

Digital media change the phase in acquiring information, the use of social
media platforms, the access to internet, and the fast production of cellphones
and alike, becomes the medium of enforcement that affects the lives of
people around the globe. The First quarter of year 2020, statistics reveals that
there are 4.57 billion people were active internet users, encompassing 59
percent of the world’s population. China, India, and United States ranked
ahead all other countries in terms of internet users. Among the media
platforms, Facebook ranked first, with 1 billion registered active accounts.
This leading platform are available in multiple languages and enable the users
to connect across geographical, political and economic borders. (Clement,
2020)

In the Philippines, data shows that ages 18-24 makes up the largest proportion
of social media users. See figure below.

Social Media Users in terms of Age (talkwalker, 2019)