5.needs of Child 1 Physical Motor Development Infant and Toddler-1

CHILDREN: A CHRONOLOGIC AL APPROACH
Chapter 5
Physical Development in
Infants and Toddlers
Fifth Canadian Edition
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-1

5.1 Healthy Growth
5.2 The Developing

Nervous System
MODULES
5.3 Motor Development
5.4 Sensory and

Perceptual Processes

• Motor abilities
• Infant
• Toddlers
T O DAY:
I N FA N T A N D Self-care skills (toddlers)
TODDLERS
PHYSICAL
AND MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT Perceptual development (sight, hearing,
taste, smell, touch)
• Infant
• Toddlers

1. Create a table outlining the
important features of
physical growth in infants
MODULE 5.1 and toddlers and how they
HEALTHY GROWTH vary from child to child.
2. Recognize the differences
between average and
secular growth trends.
3. Describe how heredity,
LEARNING hormones, and nutrition
contribute to physical
OBJECTIVES growth.
4. Summarize how
malnutrition, disease, and
accidents affect infants’ and
toddlers’ physical growth.

Follows the cephalocaudal principle
Muscles become longer and thicker
FEATURES During the first year, a layer of fat is

OF HUMAN added
GROWTH
Epiphyses: Cartilage is replaced by bone
Canada uses the World Health

Organization growth charts found in
Table 5-1.

VARIATIONS
ON THE
AVERAGE
PROFILE
• Secular Growth Trends:

generational changes
in physical
development that are
related to
environment
• Average and normal
are not the same,
normal can vary
greatly.
• Tremendous variation
across individual and
culture — no “norm”
• Normative charts*
(milestones, indicators) Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-6
MECHANISMS
OF PHYSICAL
GROWTH
Table 5–2 Ages When Solid Foods Can Be Introduced in an Infant’s Diet
• Heredity influences adult Age (months) Food

height.
6–9 Rice cereal, then other cereals
• The pituitary gland secretes
a growth hormone. Strained vegetables, then
• Nutrition is particularly strained fruits
important during infancy
when growth is rapid.
• Breast milk is 7–9 Protein foods (cheese, yogurt,
recommended by the cooked beans, pureed meats)
Canadian Pediatrician
Society for babies up to
six months of age.
9–10 Finely chopped meat, toast,
• http://www.cps.ca/en/doc
uments/position/nutrition crackers
-healthy-term-infants-
overview 10–12 Egg yolk
SOURCE: Adapted from Whitney, Cataldo, & Rolfes, 1987, and CPS
• At 2 years of age, growth Nutrition Committee, 2006.
slows and children can
become “picky” eaters.

• Malnutrition
• specially damaging in infancy
• prevention: adequate diet and parent
education
• Diseases
CHALLENGES
• preventable through:
TO H E A LT H Y
G ROW T H • vaccines, improved health care, and
changing habits
• After 1 year of age children are more
likely to die from accidents.
• most common: motor vehicle
accidents
• drowning
• suffocation
5. Draw a nerve cell and
identify its major parts.
6. Discuss how the brain is
organized.
7. Identify when the brain is
MODULE 5.2 THE
DEVELOPING formed during prenatal
N E RVO U S S YS T E M development and when
different regions of the brain
begin to function.
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES

ORGANIZATION OF THE
MATURE BRAIN
• Neuron: basic unit of nervous system

• Dendrites: branch-like extensions of the
neuron allows for intercellular connections
• Synapse: a gap or space between neurons
• Cerebral hemispheres: right and left halves of
the cortex
• Frontal cortex: controls personality and
planning
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 10

THE DEVELOPING BRAIN
• Brain originates in the neural plate (group of

cells formed about 3 weeks after
conception)
• Brain regions specialize early
• Synaptic pruning (synapses begin to disappear,
ridding the brain of underutilized
connections)
• “Flexible” or neuroplastic brain organization

8. State how reflexes help infants
interact with the world.
9. Detail the component skills involved in
learning to walk, and at what age
infants typically master them.
10. Describe how infants learn to
MODULE 5.3 MOTOR coordinate the use of their hands and
DEVELOPMENT why most children begin to prefer to
use one hand.
LEARNING 11. Discuss how maturation and

experience influence children’s
OBJECTIVES acquisition of motor skills.

eg. moving
Locomotion about in the
world
MOTOR Fine motor eg. grasping, holding,

and manipulating
SKILLS skills objects
Gross eg. running,

throwing, and
motor skills jumping

THE NEWBORN CHILD

NEW BORN STATES
OF AROUSAL
• Rapid-eye-movement (REM)
sleep
• Non-rapid-eye-movement
(NREM)
sleep
• Drowsiness
• Quiet alertness
• Waking activity and crying
© Vasilyev Alexandr/Shutterstock
• Sleep time: what's happening in
your baby's brain?

INFANT CRYING
• Usually due to physical needs

• Common soothing techniques:
• Talking softly or playing rhythmic
• The Newborn
sounds
• Offering pacifier
• Massaging baby’s body
• Swaddling
Baby’s Capacities
© Jo Tunney/Shutterstock
• Lifting baby to shoulder and rocking or walking

• Taking baby for short car ride or walk in baby carriage; swinging baby in
cradle
• Letting baby cry for short period
(4 of 8)

The Newborn Baby’s Capacities (5 of 8)
NEWBORN SENSE OF TOUCH
• Well-developed at birth
• Stimulates early physical
growth and is vital for
emotional development
• Used to investigate their world
• Highly sensitive to pain; anesthetics, © Eleonora_os/Shutterstock
sugar solution, breast milk,

and touch ease pain

INFANT REFLEXES (1 OF 2)
• Preparation for world interaction

• Some reflexes are important to survival
• e.g., rooting and sucking
• Evoking interaction from caregivers
• Some protect the newborn

• e.g., blink and withdrawal
• Some are foundations for later motor behaviour
• e.g., stepping reflex
Tested to reveal health of baby’s nervous
• Baby Reflexes - Reactions - Behavior

INFANT REFLEXES (2 OF 2)
Table 5–3 Summary Table

Some Major Reflexes Found in Newborns
Name Response Significance
Babinski A baby’s toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked from Unknown
heel to toe.
Blink A baby’s eyes close in response to bright light or loud noise. Protects the eyes
Moro A baby throws its arms out and then inward (as if embracing) in May help a baby cling to its mother
response to loud noise or when its head falls.
Palmar A baby grasps an object placed in the palm of its hand. Precursor to voluntary walking
Rooting When a baby’s cheek is stroked, it turns its head toward the Helps a baby find the nipple
stroking and opens its mouth.
Stepping A baby who is held upright by an adult and is then moved forward Precursor to voluntary walking
begins to step rhythmically.
Sucking A baby sucks when an object is placed in its mouth. Permits feeding
Withdrawal A baby withdraws its foot when the sole is pricked with a pin. Protects a baby from unpleasant
stimulation

• Dynamic Systems Theory: motor
development involves many distinct
skills.
• This theory proposes that movement is
produced from the interaction of multiple
LOCOMOTION sub-systems within the person, task and
( 1 O F 2) environment (Thelen, 1989).
• Differentiation and integration of
component skills (posture and
balance, stepping, perceptual skill) is
necessary.
• Locomotion:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0j4K
8DEER8

LOCOMOTION:
POSTURE AND B ALANCE
Predictable pattern of development

(milestones)
• Raise head Differentiation and integration of
component skills
• Raise chest • To master walking, infants must
acquire distinct skills of :
• Sit up with support
• standing upright
• Sits alone steadily • maintaining balance,
• Stands with support (furniture, • stepping alternately, and
etc) • using perceptual information to
evaluate surface
• Creeps
• Walks when led
• Cultural practices affect
development
• cradle boards, direct training
• s.

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Baby
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Coordination of fingers
and thumb: allows fine
motor abilities (ex: using
pencils, self-care skills, etc)
TODDLER Coordinated walking and

running (18 months- 3
MOTOR years):
ABILITIES
Progressive integration of
toys and equipment in play
and self-care skills

FINE MOTOR SKILLS
• From Reflexes to Voluntary Actions

• Reaching and grasping
• Handedness

MATURATION, EXPERIENCE
AND MOTOR SKILL
• Maturation and experience influences motor skills

• Maturation is important
• studies of Hopi infants
• Experience matters, too
• African infants and training studies

12. Describe the sensory abilities
of the newborn.
MODULE 5.4
13. State how well infants hear
SENSORY AND and how they use sounds to
PERCEPTUAL understand the world.
PROCESSES 14. State how accurate infants’
vision is and whether they
perceive colour and depth.
15. Summarize how infants
LEARNING integrate information from
different senses.
OBJECTIVES

• Newborns have a keen sense of smell.
• Pleasant and Unpleasant smells (turning
their head away from)
• Prefer the smell of their own mother
• Newborns have a highly developed sense of
taste.
• Newborns can distinguish:
• Sour, Bitter, Salty, Sweet, and Neutral tastes
• prefer Sweet and Salty (sucking
continuously and slowly experiment) ---»
biological cravings
SMELL, TASTE,
AND TOUCH • Newborns are sensitive to touch.
• Develops before birth
• Parental touching elicits:
• Smiles
• Gazes
• Attention
• Often used with other senses
• Infants DO feel pain
• Babies can feel pain.
• A fetus can hear at about 7 or 8 months
gestation.
• Auditory threshold: the quietest sound
that a person can hear.
• Prenatal studies suggest hearing develops
in utero
• Newborns distinguish:
• High and Low pitches
HEARING • Loud and Soft noises (prefer low and
soft)
• Approval and Disapproval (‘’very good!’’
VS ‘’No!’’)
• Infants use sounds to judge the distance and

location of objects.
• Generally prefer singing, mother’s (female)
voice, adult-to-child speech
• Crying when other children are crying
• Hearing Loss:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lzXPl6r
YTE

Newborns see objects between 7 and 15 inches
away
prefer patterns, human faces (same race, happy)
Within first six months

SEEING
can distinguish can track moving can scan features
colors objects smoothly of objects
Adult-like vision by age 1 year
development of depth perception (walking over a ‘’cliff’’), 6

months

VISUAL ACUITY
• Visual acuity (VA) commonly refers

to the clarity of vision. Visual acuity is
dependent on optical and neural factors,
i.e., (i) the sharpness of the retinal focus
within the eye, (ii) the health and
functioning of the retina, and (iii) the
sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of
the brain.
https://www.perkinselearning.org/videos/webcast/visual-acuity-
testing-part-2-acuity-cards-and-testing-procedures
9.21minutes, Visual Acuity Testing

SEEING
• Visual Acuity
• newborns and 1-
month-olds see at 6
metres what normal
adults see at 60 to 120
metres
• Infants perceive colours by
3 or 4 months.
• Infants master perceptual
constancies early.
• Many cues are used to
infer depth.
• Edges & motion are used
to perceive objects.

COLOUR
VISION
• Infants perceive
colours by 3 or 4
months.

P E R C E P T UA L
C O N S TA N C I E S
• Tracking : Ability
to follow a moving
object:
smoother/accurate
at about 6 months
• Scanning: look all

of feature of an
object: 3 months
approx.

I N FA NT ’S SC A NNING
O F FACE S
• Patterns of look:
• Long looking: fixed gaze for a
longer period of time, at birth,
should develop towards: short
looking pattern
• Short looking: Rapidly

screening different parts of an
object/situation. Ability to
process multiple
cues/information

Visual cliff
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WanGt1G6S
cA
Retinal disparity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rRP
U6pcJsk
DEPTH AND Texture gradient

DISTANCE
PERCEPTION
Relative size
Interposition

PERCEPTION AND USE
O F M OT I O N TO
PERCEIVE OBJECTS
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-
medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/sensory-
perception-topic/v/perceptual-organization

INT EGR AT ING SE NSO RY
INFO R MAT I O N
• By 1 month, babies can integrate sight

and touch.
• By 4 months, babies can integrate
sight and sound.
• By 4-7 months, babies can match facial
appearance with sound of voice.

https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=O2-x-dLb_KM
INFANT Skin-to-skin (kangaroo babies)

PERCEPTIONS
https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=2IYtFrgbDUo

• Adult-like abilities by 18 months, BUT
• Not always coordinated or focused
• Line of sight is low (toddlers are short)---»
placing play material at a low level
TODDLER
• Difficulty interpreting sounds
P E R C E P T UA L (identification games)
DEVELOPMENT
• Difficulty using touch to solve problems
(longer VS shorter)
• Influenced by taste and texture (prefer salty
substances, neutral to fat and sugar--»
Introducing healthy food

also time of
“Prime time” great
vulnerability
for neural (sensitive
period)
growth
Provide early stimulation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kc7nN-r5y2I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98ZAYrR70RM
P RO M O T I N G
I N FA N T A N D
TODDLER BRAIN
G ROW T H Fostering strong and
secure attachment
Reduce stress

• Plasticity: Capacity or change: a
developmental state that has the
potential to be shaped by experience
BRAIN
• Early experiences have a dramatic role in
PLASTICITY AND
T H E RO L E O F the development of the brain and central
EXPERIENCE nervous system:
• Use or lose it perspective: Degeneration of
unused neurons
• Sensitive period
• Blind chimpanzee experiment

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
• How to detect? May blink often, show sensitivity to

sunlight, move head without fixing eye gaze, closing
one eye when viewing objects , excessive blinking or
rubbing eyes
• When?: usually grasping stage
• Accommodations:
• enlarged motor play area (safely exploring without
adults)
• auditory toys (easier to find and play)
• identification patches (tactile objects,
identification)

HEARING IMPAIRMENT
• How to detect?
• Failure to respond
• Favoring one ear; turning head
• Abnormal or Decreased vocalization
• Sudden smile or look of surprise when adult who has been speaking
picks them up
• Difficulty discriminating early words
• Tugging or Pulling ears
• Discharges from ear canal

HEARING IMPAIRMENT
• Adaptations:
• Visual and tactile cues (toys
for variety of senses)
• Total communication system
(manual signals with spoken
words)
• Assistive devices
• Acoustical adaptations (rugs,
carpeting)

I N FA N T S A N D T O D D L E R S W I T H
P E R C E P T UA L - M O T O R
CHALLENGES: OTHER
CONDITIONS
• Down Syndrome
• Motor delays
• Perceptual limitations (e.g., cataracts)
• Cerebral Palsy
• Motor impairment
• Loss of vision and/or hearing
• Early interventions are critical!

INFANT AND TODDLER
OBESITY
• Currently defined by Body Mass Index (BMI)

• compared to other children of same age and gender
• Associated with: poverty and genetics (storing fat)
• Prevention: Breastfeeding is an effective way to reduce risk (solid
food at 17 weeks)

CONCLUSIONS
• Nutrition is important for physical growth in children.

• The brain and nervous system develop throughout childhood
through synaptic pruning and myelination.
• Infants are born with many reflexes while their locomotor skills
progress through a series of milestones and reflect maturation and
experience.
• Soon after birth, infants coordinate information from different
senses (vision, hearing, smell, touch).
• Infants recognize by sight an object they have touched before and
integrate what they hear with what they see.

5.needs of Child 1 Physical Motor Development Infant and Toddler-1

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CHILDREN: A CHRONOLOGIC AL APPROACH

Fifth Canadian Edition

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-1

5.2 The Developing

5.4 Sensory and

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-2

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-3

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-4

Muscles become longer and thicker

FEATURES During the first year, a layer of fat is

Canada uses the World Health

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-5

• Secular Growth Trends:

• Heredity influences adult Age (months) Food

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-7

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5-9

• Neuron: basic unit of nervous system

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 10

• Brain originates in the neural plate (group of

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 11

LEARNING 11. Discuss how maturation and

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 12

MOTOR Fine motor eg. grasping, holding,

SKILLS skills objects

Gross eg. running,

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 13

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 14

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 15

• Usually due to physical needs

• Lifting baby to shoulder and rocking or walking

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 16

sugar solution, breast milk,

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 17

• Preparation for world interaction

• Some protect the newborn

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 18

Table 5–3 Summary Table

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 19

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 20

Predictable pattern of development

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 21

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 22

TODDLER Coordinated walking and

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 24

• From Reflexes to Voluntary Actions

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 25

• Maturation and experience influences motor skills

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 26

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 27

• Infants use sounds to judge the distance and

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 29

prefer patterns, human faces (same race, happy)

Within first six months

Adult-like vision by age 1 year

development of depth perception (walking over a ‘’cliff’’), 6

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 30

• Visual acuity (VA) commonly refers

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 31

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 32

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 33

• Scanning: look all

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Canada Inc. 5 - 34

• Short looking: Rapidly