Resumo Astrofísica

[Resumo] Astrofı́sica
V. S. C. Santos
February 2023
1 The Continuous Spectrum Of Light

1.1 Stellar Parallax
• Parallax:
1
d= pc (1)
p”
Where 1pc = 2.062 × 105 AU = 3.0857 × 1016 m
And p = parallax angle.
Thus 1 parsec is the distance from which the radius of Earth’s orbit, 1AU ,
subtends an angle of 1”.
1.2 The Magnitude Scale

• Nearly all of the information astronomers have received about the universe
beyond our Solar System has come from the careful study of the light
emitted by stars, galaxies, and interstellar clouds of gas and dust.
• Apparent Magnitude m: based on human eye, which detects light log-
arithmically. Brighter stars have LESS magnitude.
• Luminosity:
”Brightness” of a star. Total amount of light energy of all wavelengths
emitted per unit time. Formula given by SB equation which we will see
later.
1
• Radiant Flux:
”Brightness” of a star measured by observer. Total amount of light energy
of all wavelengths that crosses a unit area oriented perpendicular to the
direction of the light’s travel per unit time. This is the inverse-square law
for light.
L
F = (2)
4πr2
• Absolute Magnitude M :
Apparent magnitude a star would have if it were 10 pc away.
• Relationship between magnitude and radiant flux:

F1
m1 − m2 = −2.5 log10 (3)
F2
• Distance Modulus (m − M ):
Since m depends on the observer’s distance and M ”depends” on a con-
stant distance, the quantity (m − M ) is a measurement of the observer’s
distance to the star.

d
m − M = 5 log1 0(d) − 5 = 5 log10 (4)
10pc
• Relationship between absolute magnitude and luminosity:

L
M = MSun − 2.5 log10 (5)
LSun
• At first glance, it may seem that astronomers must start with the measur-
able quantities F and m and then use the distance to the star (if known) to
determine the star’s intrinsic properties. However, if the star belongs to an
important class of objects known as pulsating variable stars, its intrinsic
luminosity L and absolute magnitude M can be determined without any
knowledge of its distance. The d equation then gives the distance to the
variable star. These stars act as beacons that illuminate the fundamental
distance scale of the Universe.
1.3 Blackbody Radiation

• Blackbody:
Object which absorbs all incident energy and reradiates it according to the
blackbody spectrum (different from reflecting the light); ideal emitter. The
energy it radiates is called blackbody radiation.
• Wien’s Displacement Law:
λmax T = 2.9 × 10−3 m · K (6)
2
Figure 1: Blackbody radiation spectrum.
• As the temperature of a blackbody increases, it emits more energy per

second at all wavelengths.
• Stefan-Boltzmann Equation:
L = AσT 4
Where A = area of emission. For a spherical star, A = 4πR2 and we have
L = 4πR2 σTe4 (7)
Where Te = effective temperature.
1.4 Colour Index

• Bolometric Magnitude: magnitude measured over all wavelengths, i.e.
what we learned before.
• In practice, detectors measure the radiant flux of a star only within a
certain wavelength region defined by the sensitivity of the detector.
• The colour of a star may be precisely determined by using filters that
transmit the star’s light only within certain narrow wavelength bands.
• UBV Filters:
In the standard UBV system, a star’s apparent magnitude is measured
through three filters:
– U : ultraviolet magnitude. Filter centered at 365nm with bandwidth
of 68nm.
– B: blue magnitude. Filter centered at 440nm with bandwidth of
98nm.
3
– V : visual magnitude. Filter centered at 550nm with bandwidth of
89nm.
• Colour index:
Difference between two colour magnitudes. (e.g. U − V , V − B)
– Because a colour index is the difference between two magnitudes, it

is independent of the star’s distance to the observer.
– Since stellar magnitudes decrease with brightness, a star with a smaller
B − V index is bluer than a star with a higher B − V index.
• Bolometric Correction:
BC = mbol − V = Mbol − MV (8)
1.5 Efeito do meio interestelar

• O espaço entre as estrelas não está vazio. É preenchido por gás, contami-
nado por poeira.
• Ao atravessar tal gás/poeira, a luz sofre absorção e dispersão, ficando
mais atenuada e avermelhada.
• Absorção seletiva: a poeira absorve e dispersa mais os c.d.o’s azuis ⇒
resulta no avermelhamento.
• A composição dos grãos da poeira é bastante parecida ao longo das direções
MAS há variações ⇒ daı́ extraı́mos a lei de extinção. Vamos ver como
isto afeta as medidas: magnitudes e cores.
• Magnitudes:
– m − M = 5 log d − 5. Temos que adicionar um termo de observação
A a m ⇒ torna m mais fraco:
m = M + 5 log d − 5 + A
– Para uma banda especı́fica:
mλ = Mλ + 5 log d − 5 + Aλ
• Cor:
(mλ1 − mλ2 ) = (Mλ1 − Mλ2 ) + (Aλ1 + Aλ2 )
– (mλ1 − mλ2 ) = cor aparente
– (Mλ1 − Mλ2 ) = cor absoluta
– sem o avermelhamento, a cor absoluta é igual à cor aparente (isto é,
a cor não depende da distância)
– Excesso de cor:
E(λ1 − λ2 ) = (mλ1 − mλ2 ) − (Mλ1 − Mλ2 ) = (Aλ1 + Aλ2 )
4
1.6 Perguntas
1. Porque é logarı́tmica a escala de magnitudes? Há outros tipos de medida
que encontramos na vida quotidiana e que também estejam numa escala
logarı́tmica? Explique.
R: A escala de magnitudes serve para quantificar o brilho das estrelas
como percebido pelo olho humano, que por sua vez detecta o brilho em
escala logarı́tmica. Exemplos de outras coisas em escala logarı́tmica:
• escala de pH
• escala de Richter
• entropia em termodinâmica
2. Que fatores podem ter feito com que a observação astronômica clássica
fosse realizada na região ”visı́vel” do espectro?
R: Primeiro, não se sabia da existência das cores invisı́veis. A atmosfera
absorve a luz advinda de fora, a depender do seu c.d.o., de acordo com o
seu espectro de absorção. A luz visı́vel é, obviamente, transmitida e não
absorvida.
3. Como é que quantificamos o conceito de cor?
R: No contexto de astronomia, utilizamos o ı́ndice de cor.
1.7 Problemas
1. A magnitude aparente do Sol é −26.8. Quão mais brilhante aparenta ser
o Sol que a estrela mais brilhante, que tem m = −1?
R:
f1
= 100(m2 −m1 )/5 ⇔
f2
fSol
⇔ = 100(−1+26.8)/5 ⇔
fEstrela
fSol
⇔ = 2.1 × 1010
fEstrela
2. • Qual é o módulo da distância do Sol?
R:
(m − M ) = 5 log(d) − 5 = 5 log(4.77 × 10−6 pc) − 5 = −31.6
• Qual é a sua magnitude absoluta?

R:
M = 31.6 + m = 4.8
5
3. • O espectro contı́nuo de uma estrela tem o pico em 400 nm. Qual é a
temperatura da estrela?
R:
λmax T = 2.9 ∗ 10−3 mK ⇔
2.9 × 10−3
T = = 7250K
400 × 10−9
• E se o pico estivesse a 450nm?
R:
T = 6444.4
Ou seja, quando aumentamos o comprimento de onda, diminui-se a
temperatura: c.d.o.’s mais baixos correspondem a fotões mais en-
ergéticos.
4. Se dobrarmos a temperatura de um corpo negro, quanto deverı́amos diminuir
a superfı́cie para manter a luminosidade constante?
R:
1
L = AσT 4 = cAσ(2T )4 = 16cAσT 4 ⇒ c =
16
Isto é, precisamos diminuir a área 16x.
5. Para uma estrela de raio R, cujo espectro é o de um corpo negro à temper-

atura T , deduza uma expressão para a correção bolométrica (a correção
bolométrica, BC, é o valor que se soma à magnitude na banda visual, V,
para obter a magnitude bolométrica ou total). Considere que o filtro V é
retangular com transmissão de 100% na região visı́vel e 0% fora.
R:
6. Qual é o erro na determinação da distância introduzido por um erro de 0.05
magnitudes na medição da magnitude aparente de uma estrela? Suponha
que conhece o valor exacto da magnitude absoluta.
R: m−M
m − M = 5 log10 d − 5 ⇔ d = 10( 5 +1)
s 2
∂d
∆d = ∆m
∂m
∆d = 0.1d × ln(10) = 0.23d
∆d
× 100 = 2.3%
d
2 Spectral Lines
Do capı́tulo 3 do Kutner, e do capı́tulo 5 de Caroll e Ostlie, ”The Interaction of
Light and Matter”.
6
• If white light only passes through a prism, colours overlap and we don’t
see a clear spectrum. If we let the light pass through a slit first, however,
then the light is spread out (wave characteristic) and we can see a clear
spectrum. If a colour is missing from the white light, it will show as a gap
on the spectrum.
• Every element produces its own pattern of spectral lines and thus may be
identified by its unique spectral line ”fingerprint”.
• Kirchhoff ’s Laws:
– A hot, dense gas or a hot solid produces a continuous spectrum with
no spectral lines. This is the continuous spectrum of blackbody radi-
ation emitted at any temperature above absolute zero and described
by the Planck functions Bλ (T ) and Bν (T ).
– A hot, diffuse gas produces bright spectral lines (emission lines).
Emission lines are produced when an electron makes a downward
transition from a higher to a lower orbit. The energy lost by the
electron is carried away by a single photon.
– A cool, diffuse gas in front of a source of a continuous spectrum
produces dark spectral lines (absorption lines) in the continuous
spectrum. Absorption lines are produced when an electron makes
a transition from a lower orbit to a higher orbit. If an incident
photon in the continuous spectrum has exactly the right amount of
energy, equal to the difference in energy between the electron orbits,
the photon is absorbed by the electron, which makes the upward
transition.
• Rydberg Formula:
Since electrons can only absorve/emit photons in certain quantised wave-
lengths, we relate the transition levels and wavelength using this formula.
!
1 1 1
=R − 2 (9)
λ n2f ni
7
• In a star, we are not talking about the radiation from a single hydrogen
atom, but from a large number of them. However, having a lot of hydrogen
does not mean a star will have strong Hα absorption in the spectrum we
see from it. In order for absorption to take place, a significant number of
atoms must be ready to absorb a photon, with n ≥ 2. If all the hydrogen
is in n = 1 there will be no H absorption.
• Population: number of atoms per unit volume in a given state.
• Excitation Process: process that alter populations, like photon emis-
sion/absorption and collisions between atoms.
• Collisions: when two atoms collide, atom 1 is in state i and atom 2 is
in state j (we’re really referring to the electrons here by the way). In the
process, the kinetic energy of atom 2 changes by Ej − Ei .
• Collision excitation rates depend on the temperature of the gas, because

higher temperature = faster atoms.
8
• Average Kinetic Energy per atom:
3
K= kT (10)
2
• Boltzmann Distribution: determines the ratios between populations.

nj gj
= e−(Ef −Ei )/kT (11)
ni gi
Where ni ,nj = population densities, and gi , gj = 2n2 statistical weights.
They are needed because certain energy levels are actually groupings of
sublevels that have the same energy. The statistical weight of a level is just
a count of its number of sublevels, which are combinations of the quantum
numbers n, l, m, s.
Figure 2: Boltzmann distribution for the ratio between two populations as a

function of temperature.
• If we know the temperature in the atmosphere of a star, we can use the

Boltzmann equation to predict how many atoms will be in each state,
i, and thus predict the strengths of various spectral lines. However, the
Boltzmann equation does not take ionisation into account.
• Ionization: If the temperature is too high, some of the colliding particles
will have kinetic energies greater than the ionisation energy of the atom-
electron system, separating the electron. Once a hydrogen atom is ionised,
meaning it now doesn’t have the electron, it can no longer participate in
line emission or absorption.
• Still, when the gas is ionised, electrons and positive ions will sometimes
collide and recombine.
• Ionization equilibrium: when rate of ionization = rate of recombination
⇒ Saha equation tells us the relative abundances of various ions.
9
• Saha Equation:
3/2
ne n(Xr+1 ) 2gr 2πmr kT
= eEi /kT (12)
n(Xr ) gr+1 h2
Where
– ne = electron density
– n(Xr ) and n(Xr+1 ) are the densities of the r and r + 1 ionization
states, respectively, of element X
– Ei = ionization energy
– gr and gr+1 are the statistical weights of the ground electronic states
of Xr and Xr+1 .
• The roman numeral I is used to designate the neutral species, II the singly
ionized species, III the doubly ionized species, and so on. For example,
neutral hydrogen is H(I), ionized hydrogen (H + ) is H(II), doubly ionized
carbon is C(III).
• Strength of spectral lines:
We are now in a position to determine the strengths of the various absorp-
tion lines in stars. We will take Hα as an example to see the combined
effects of excitation and ionisation.
– At low temperatures, essentially all H is neutral and most of it is in
the ground state. Since little H will be in n = 2, there will be few
chances for Hα absorption, and the Hα line will be weak.
– At moderate temperatures, most hydrogen is still neutral, but a rea-
sonable amount will be in n = 2. As the temperature increases, the
Hα line gets stronger.
– At very high temperatures, the hydrogen becomes ionised. Since
there is less neutral hydrogen, there are less electrons making Hα
absorption and the line gets weaker.
We can apply a similar analysis to other elements. The details will differ
because of different energy level structures and different ionization ener-
gies. It should be noted that, after H and He, the abundances of elements
fall off drastically.
2.1 The Hertzprung-Russel diagram

• HR diagrams put some measure of luminosity as a function of some mea-
sure of temperature, in order to visualise trends relating these quantities.
10
Figure 3: HR diagram.
• Stars are only in certain places of the diagram. This tells us that arbitrary
combinations of luminosity and temperature are not allowed. Remember,
for a given temperature, the luminosity depends only on the radius of the
star, so the HR diagram tells us that arbitrary combinations of radius and
temperature are not allowed.
• Main Sequence: The narrow band where most stars are found. The
significance of this sequence is that, since most stars of the same tempera-
ture have the same luminosity (the sequence is kinda vertical), and hence
essentially the same size.
• This close relationship between size and temperature must be a result
of the laws of physics as applied to stars. It gives us hope that we can
understand stellar structure by applying the known laws. It also gives us
a crucial test: any theory of stellar structure must predict the existence
of the main sequence.
• Giants: Stars that appear above the main sequence, meaning they are
more luminous, and thus larger, than other stars of the same temperature
(by L = AσT 4 that means they have larger A, i.e. larger in size. So, if
two stars have the same temperature but one appears more luminous, it
must be larger). Divided between subgiants, giants and supergiants.
• Dwarfs: Stars in the main sequence.
• White Dwarfs: Stars below the main sequence. Really tiny. Called white
because most are in the middle spectral types, i.e. appear white.
11
• Luminosity Class: keeps track of the size of a star (L = AσT 4 ).
– Main sequence: V
– Subgiants: IV
– Giants: III
– Between Giant/Supergiant: II
– Supergiant: Ia (really big), Ib (really f****** big)
2.2 Para Refletir

1. Por que razão as linhas dos espectros têm aspecto de linha? (ou seja, são
finas)
R:
As linhas são devido à transição de um eletrão entre dois nı́veis de energia,
de acordo com E1 − E2 = hν = h λc . Isto é, a cada transição há um
correspondente comprimento de onda. Mas um comprimento de onda
bem definido (monocromático) implicaria uma largura nula da risca. Na
realidade, as riscas espectrais nunca são monocromáticas, mas apresentam
uma largura natural devido a incerteza da energia. Além disso, existem
diversos efeitos de alargamento que podem aumentar a largura da risca,
como:
• alargamento por colisão;
• alargamento por efeito doppler;
• alargamento instrumental;
• alargamento devido à campos externos;
• alargamento devido à estrutura superfina;
Por último, com equipamentos de mais alta resolução, vê-se que as riscas
podem apresentar estruturas mais complexas em seu ”interior”.
2. Considere um átomo de carbono com 5 dos seus 6 eletrões a ocuparem
os estados de energia mais baixos e um eletrão a ocupar um estado de
energia elevado. Porque podem ser os estados de energia desse eletrão
semelhantes ao do eletrão do átomo de hidrogênio?
R:
Se um dos eletrões estiver num nı́vel muito elevado (n > 10) e os outros es-
tiverem num nı́vel baixo, estes últimos causam efeito de blindagem, tal que
o átomo se comporta como se só tivesse 1 elétron, como um hidrogenóide.
A átomos neste estado, chamamos de átomo de Rydberg.
3. Explique porque o aumento da temperatura aumenta a taxa de colisão
entre átomos.
R:
Ec = 23 kTc ⇒ Tc ∝ Ec . Isto é, maior temperatura implica mais energia
disponı́vel para colisões.
12
4. Por que não vemos riscas de absorção de hélio em estrelas como o Sol?
R:
2.3 Problemas
1. Calcule o comprimento de onda da transição Hβ.
R:
Hβ: 4 → 2 " #
1 1 1
= RH − 2 ⇔
λ n2i nf
λ = 486.3nm
2. Qual a energia necessária para ionizar hidrogênio no estado n = 2? A que

temperatura corresponde uma energia média igual a essa energia?
R:
2
Energia de ionização En = −13.6 Zn2
1
Ef − Ei = 0 − (−13.6eV) = −3.4eV
4
Isto é, é necessário 3.4 eV para arrancar o eletrão do átomo.
3
Ec = kB T ⇔ T = 26280.19K
2
3. Para um gás H neutro, qual é a temperatura à qual o número de átomos

no primeiro estado excitado é apenas 1% do número de átomos no estado
fundamental? E a que temperatura é 10%?
R:
A proporção entre populações em nı́veis energéticos diferentes é dada pela
Equação de Boltzmann:
nj gj
= e−[(Ej −Ei )/kTc ]
ni gi
Logo,
Ej − Ei
Tc = − ⇔
n g
ln nji gji k
Temos
• nj /ni = 1/100 = 0.01

• −(Ej − Ei ) = −(−3.4 + 13.6) × 1.6 × 10−19 J
• g = 2n2 ⇒ gj /gi = 1/4
13
Então
T = 19720K
Para nj /ni = 10/100 = 0.1, teria-se
T = 32030K
4. De acordo com a equação de Boltzmann, quando T → ∞, como se dis-

tribuem as populações dos diferentes nı́veis de energia? Será esse o resul-
tado? Por quê?
R:
nj gj
Tc → ∞ ⇒ =
ni gi
Isto é, a proporção de populações fica igual à proporção do peso estatı́stico,
ou seja, do número de estados para um determinado nı́vel. Na reali-
dade, isto não acontece. O fato é que a altas temperaturas, os elétrons
conseguem soltar-se dos átomos ⇔ começa a occorrer ionização, mas a
equação de Boltzmann não leva a ionização em conta. É necessário uti-
lizar também a equação de Saha.
5. Use a equação de Saha para determinar a fração de átomos de hidrogênio
que estão ionizados no centro do Sol. A temperatura é de 15.7 × 106 K, e
a densidade eletrões é de 6.1 × 1031 m−3 (use Z1=2). O resultado obtido
está de acordo com que quase todo hidrogênio no centro está ionizado?
Discuta qualquer discrepância.
a R:
A equação de Saha governa as abundâncias relativas dos vários iões de um
gás em equilı́brio térmico e de ionização:
3/2
ne n(Xr+1 ) 2gr+1 2πme kTc
= e−Ei /kTc
n(Xr ) gr h2
Temos que
• T = 15.7 × 10−6 K
• ne = 6.1 × 1031 m−3
• gr = 2 ⇒ número de estados no nı́vel fundamental
• gr+1 = 1 ⇒ número de estados para o átomo ionizado?
• Ei = −13.6eV
Substituindo na equação, obtemos
n(Xr+1 )
≈ 2.4392
n(Xr )
Mas queremos a fração de átomos ionizados em relação a todos os átomos
considerados n(Xn(X r+1 )
r )+n(Xr+1 )
, não a proporção entre ionizados e neutros
n(Xr+1 )
n(Xr ) . Com álgebra simples chega-se a
n(Xr+1 )
≈ 0.709 ⇒ 70.9%
n(Xr ) + n(Xr+1 )
14
6. Calcule a razão entre os raios de estrelas M0Ia e M0V.
R:
7. Num aglomerado estelar em Orion, a 500pc, identificamos uma estrela cujo

espectro indica ser do tipo A0, mas não conseguimos identificar a classe
de luminosidade. Se a magnitude aparente for de +9, qual é a classe? E
se a magnitude aparente for de +4? R:
Utilizamos a fórmula do módulo da distância.
m − M = 5 log10 d − 5 ⇔ M ≈ 0.505
Depois utilizamos a relação entre magnitude e luminosidade, com o Sol

como referência
L
M − MSol = −2.5 log10
LSol
Sabendo que MSol = +4.77, temos
L = 50.81LSol = 1.962 × 1028 W
3 Atmosferas estelares e transporte radioativo

LER CAP 6 KUTNER e CAP 9 CARROLl OSTLIE e SLIDES!!!
• Intensidade especı́fica
∂I Eλ dλ
Iλ = = (13)
∂λ dλdtdA cos θdΩ
Constante (não diverge) ao longo do percurso do raio no espaço vazio.
Figure 4: Intensidade Iλ
15
• Intensidade média Em geral, a intensidade varia com a direção. Define-
se portanto uma intensidade média de toda a esfera da estrela:
Z Z 2π Z π
1 1
⟨Iλ ⟩ = Iλ dΩ = Iλ sin θdθdϕ (14)
4π 4π 0 0
Já para um campo isotrópico de radiação (isotrópico = direção não muda

propriedades fı́sicas), fica igual à do corpo negro
• Fluxo radiativo especı́fico
Z Z 2π Z π
Fλ dλ = Iλ dλcosθdΩ = Iλ cos θ sin θdθdϕ (15)
0 0
É a energia média por comprimento de onda, por segundo e por área que
passa na sua direcção perpendicular (eixo z).
Para um campo de radiação isotrópico, não há transporte de energia
lı́quido (lı́quido no sentido econômico):
Fλ,isotrópico = 0 (16)
• Tanto o fluxo radiativo como a intensidade especı́fica descrevem a luz re-

cebida de um corpo celestial - como sabemos o que estamos medindo?
– Fonte resolvida ⇒ Iλ
– Fonte não resolvida ⇒ Frad
Figure 5: a) medindo intensidade especı́fica Iλ ; b) medindo fluxo radiativo Frad
• Pressão de radiação
– transmissão: Z
1
Prad,λ dλ = Iλ dλ cos2 θdΩ
c sphere
16
– campo de radiação isotrópico:
4π
Iλ dλ
3c
se o campo não for isotrópico o cálculo pode ser mais complicado
– pressão total Z ∞
Prad = Prad,λ dλ
0
• Perda de intensidade por absorção
dIλ = −κλ ρIλ ds
κλ = coeficiente de absorção, ou opacidade. é a seção eficaz de absorção

de fotões.
• Para um gás uniforme com densidade e opacidade constante:
Iλ = Iλ,0 e−κλ ρs
• Livre percurso médio:

1 1
l= =
κλ ρ nσλ
n =partı́culas/vol; σ =seção eficaz.

• Distância caracterı́stica:
√
d = τλ l = l N ⇔ N = τλ2
N = número de ”passos” de cada fotão.

É a distância que conseguimos enxergar através da atmosfera ”indo reto”.
Distância realmente percorrida:
dR = l × N
Os fotões escapam, em média, a partir de τ ≈ 2/3. Ou seja, em qualquer

direção que olhamos numa estrela chegamos a τ ≈ 2/3
• Profundidade óptica (relembrando):
dτλ = −κλ ρds
Atenção: olha-se para trás. s é a distância olhando para a estrela.

Podemos ver a profundidade óptica como número de livres percursos médios
desde a superfı́cie (τλ = 0 fora da estrela) e ao longo do raio, até o núcleo
onde τλ = 1.
17
• Ganho de intensidade por emissão:
dIλ = +jλ ρds
Juntando com a perda por absorção obtemos a primeira equação de trans-

ferência radiativa.
• Equação de transferência radiativa (1ª forma):
dIλ = −κλ ρIλ ds + jλ ρds
jλ = coeficiente de emissão do gás.
• Equação de transferência radiativa (forma comum): Expressa a com-

petição (razão) entre os processos de emissão e absorção.
1 dIλ
− = Iλ − Sλ
κλ ρ ds
onde Sλ = jλ /κλ é a função de fonte (source function) → razão entre

coeficientes de emissão vs. absorção
ds = distância ao longo da direção do fotão.
• Equilı́brio termodinâmico ⇒ ⟨I⟩ = S
3.1 Aproximações
• Aproximação de atmosfera plano-paralela:
– A atmosfera de estrelas próximas da sequência principal são fisica-

mente finas comparadas ao tamanho da estrela ⇒ raio de curvatura
da atmosfera é muito maior que espessura da atmosfera ⇒ consider-
amos uma placa plano-paralela.
18
– Profundidade ótica vertical:
Z 0
τλ,v (z) = κλ ρdz
z
Tem-se
τλ,v
τλ = = τλ,v sec θ
cos θ
Reescrevemos a equação de transferência como
dIλ
cos θ = Iλ − Sλ
dτλ,v
• Aproximação da atmosfera cinzenta: elimina dependência em λ
– O valor de τv,z depende do comprimento de onda, porque τλ,v (z) =
R0
κ ρdz
z λ
– Para simplificar a análise, considera-se que a opacidade é indepen-
dente do comprimento de onda. Usamos κ (opacidade média de
Rosseland) ⇒ Podemos escrever τv ao invés de τλ,v
– As outras dependências ao comprimento de onda podem ser elimi-
nadas integrando
R∞ a equação
R ∞ de transferência sobre todos os c.d.o.,
i.e. I = 0 Iλ dλ S = 0 Sλ dλ
– Ficamos com uma equação de transferência para atmosfera cinzenta,
dI
cos θ = =I −S
dτv
– Depois de fazer alguma bruxaria (pag. 294 Caroll Ostlie) temos
dFrad
= 4π(⟨I⟩ − S)
dτv
– Em coordenadas cartesianas, temos
dPrad κρ
= − Frad
dr c
– Em coordenadas esféricas, temos
dPrad 1
= Frad
dr c
The above result can be interpreted as ”the net radiative flux is driven
by differences in radiation pressure, with a photon wind blowing from
high to low pressure”
• No equilı́brio, todo processo de absorção é balanceado por um processo de
emissão e vice-versa ⇒ numa atmosfera plano-paralela temos o fluxo
radiativo com o mesmo valor em todos os nı́veis da atmosfera, incluindo
sua superfı́cie
Frad = constant = Fsurf = σTe4
19
• Depois de mágica (Carroll Ostlie pag. 294) obtemos
3
⟨I⟩ = Frad (τv + 2/3)
4π
• Aproximação de Eddington: I = Iin + Iout
– Para cada capa, I = Iin + Iout .

– Iin e Iout dependem da profundidade na atmosfera.
– Iin : de 0 a π/2
– Iout : de π/2 a π
– Na superfı́cie, Iin = τv = 0
– Equilı́brio termodinâmico local (LTE): I = S
– Variação da temperatura com profundidade ótica vertical numa at-
mosfera plano-paralela cinzenta em equilı́brio termodinâmico local
(LTE):
3 2
T 4 = Te4 τv + (17)
4 3
Desta equação vemos que T = Te em τv = 2/3, não τv = 0. Ou seja,
”o ponto médio de origem dos fotões” que captamos das estrelas não
é na superfı́cie da atmosfera, mas mais profundo.
1
⟨I⟩ = (Iout + Iin )
2
Frad = π(Iout − Iin )
2π 4π
Prad = (Iout + Iin ) = ⟨I⟩
3c 3c
20
3.2 Perfil das linhas espectrais
• Profundidade da linha:
(Fc − Fλ )/Fc
Fc = fluxo do espectro contı́nuo fora da linha espectral.

• Espessura equivalente:
Fc − Fλ
Z
W = dλ
Fc
• Core da linha: onde fica o λ0 central.

• Asas da linha: dos lados
• Mecanismos que alargam linhas espectrais
1. Alargamento natural:
Princı́pio da incerteza de Heisenberg: ∆E ≥ 4πh ∆t ⇒ menos tempo
de medição = mais incerteza na energia, e um elétron num estado
excitado só fica lá por um breve perı́odo ∆t ⇒ há uma incerteza
natural que alarga a linha espectral.
λ2

1 1
∆λ ≈ +
2πc ∆ti ∆tf
Onde ∆ti e ∆tf são os tempos de vida do eletrão nos estados inicial
e final respectivamente
2. Alargamento de Doppler: q
2kT
Velocidade média das partı́culas dada por M-B: v = m
21
Os c.d.o. da luz absorvida/emitida pelos átomos no gás são doppler-
shifted de acordo com (não-relativista) ∆λ/λ = ±|vr |/c
Logo, r
2λ 2kT
∆λ ≈
c m
Análise mais profunda:
r
2λ 2kT ln 2
(∆λ)1/2 = (asas decrescem exponencialmente)
c m
Considerando turbulência com dist. de velocidades segundo M-B,
s
2λ 2kT 2
(∆λ)1/2 = + vturb ln 2
c m
3. Alargamento por pressão (e colisões): Consideramos os dois

como ”alargamento por pressão”:
Alargamento por colisão: colisões individuais com átomos neutros
Alargamento por pressão: efeitos estatı́sticos de alto número de iões
passando próximo
O cálculo do alargamento é complexo, mas a forma geral resulta ser
como a do alargamento natural, tendo um perfil amortecido (damp-
ing) ou de Lorentz com
r
λ2 1 λ2 nσ 2kT
∆λ = ≈
c π∆t0 c π m
• Perfil de Voigt: perfil total das linhas espectrais
• Modelo Schuster-Schwarzschild: presumo que a fotosfera se porta

como uma fonte de radiação de corpo negro, e que os átomos logo acima
da fotosfera removem os fotões desse espectro contı́nuo, formando linhas
de absorção. É inconsistente com a ideia de que os fotões se originam em
τv = 2/3, no entanto ainda é uma aproximação válida,
22
• Densidade de coluna N : suponha que um tubo oco com seção de 1m2
conectasse a superfı́cie e o observador. O tubo conteria, então N átomos
do tipo especificado.
• Densidade de coluna de átomos absorventes: Na
3.3 Problemas
1. Calcule até que distância poderia ver através da atmosfera terrestre se
tivesse a opacidade da fotosfera Solar. Use κ5 00 = 0.03m2 kg −1 para a
opacidade Solar e 1.2kgm−3 para a densidade da atmosfera Terrestre.
R:
κ5 00 = 0.03m2 kg −1 , ρ = 1.2kgm−3
1
livre percurso médio de um fotão: l = = 27.7778m
κλ ρ
distância até a qual enxergamos: d = τλ l
vemos fotões a partir de τλ = 2/3
2
d= × 27.7778 = 18.52m
3
2. Use as leis relativistas da conservação de energia e do momento para provar
que um electrão isolado não pode absorver um fotão.
R:
Ei = Ef ⇔ Eγ + me c2 = γme c2 ⇔ Eγ = me c2 (γ − 1)
Eγ
pi = pf ⇔ = γme v ⇔ Eγ = γcme v
c
Juntando os dois resultados,
v γ v2 v
= ⇔ 2 =
c γ−1 c c
Aqui só há duas possibilidades: v = 0 e v = c. Um elétron não pode
ter v = c pois tem massa de repouso, pelo que só podemos ter v = 0.
Obviamente isto é uma contradição, haja vista que o elétron absorve o
fóton.
23
3. A densidade central do Sol é, segundo um modelo, 1.53 × 105 kgm−3 e a
opacidade média de Rosseland no centro é de 0.217m2 kg −1 .
(a) Calcule o livre percurso médio de um fotão no centro do Sol.

R:
ρ = 1.53 × 105 kgm−3 , κλ = 0.217m2 kg −1

1
l= = 3.012 × 10−5
κλ ρ
(b) Calcule o tempo médio que demoraria o fotão a escapar do Sol se
o livre percurso médio se mantivesse igual até à superfı́cie (ignore
que de facto os fotões são permanentemente destruı́dos e criados pela
absorção, dispersão e emissão)
R:
Distância ”real” percorrida:
d=l×N
Precisamos antes do número de passos N , obtido a partir da distância

”atravessando a estrela”:
√ d2 R2
d = l N ⇔ N = 2 = Sol = 5.345 × 1026
l l2
Agora podemos calcular a distância verdadeira que o fotão percorre,
isto é, contando todo o percurso caótico ao invés de só atravessando
a estrela:
dR = l × N = 1.61 × 1022
Para obter o tempo, usamos o fato de que um fotão corre na veloci-
dade da luz:
dR
∆t = = 1.7 × 106 ano
c
4. A equação de transferência radiativa dada na aula está escrita em termos
da distância, s, medida ao longo do percurso do raio de luz. Em sistemas
de coordenadas diferentes, a equação de transferência terá um aspecto
diferente e é necessário ter o cuidado de incluir todos os termos necessários.
(a) Mostre que num sistema de coordenadas esféricas, com o centro da
estrela na origem, a equação de transferência assume a forma
cos θ dIλ
− = Iλ − Sλ
κλ ρ dr
onde θ é o ângulo entre o raio luminoso e a direção radial (para fora)

da estrela. Note que não basta substituir s por r.
24
R:
dr
dr = ds cos θ ⇔ ds =
cos θ
Logo, a equação assume a forma desejada.
(b) Use esta forma da equação de transferência para deduzir que
dPrad κρ
= − Frad
dr c
R:
RESOLUÇÃO ERRADA. LER CAROLL E OSTLIE
5. Para uma atmosfera plano-paralela, mostre que a aproximação de Edding-
ton leva às seguintes expressões para a intensidade média, fluxo radiativo
e pressão radiativa:
1 4π
⟨I⟩ = (Iout + Iin ); Frad = π(Iout − Iin ); Prad = ⟨I⟩
2 3c
R:
• Encontrando ⟨I⟩: Z
1
⟨Iλ ⟩ = Iλ dΩ
4π
Com a aproximação da atmosfera cinzenta, consideramos que não há
variação com o c.d.o.:
Z Z 2π Z π
1 1
⟨I⟩ = IdΩ = I sin θdθdϕ
4π 4π 0 0
Com a aproximação de Eddington, temos I = Iin + Iout , sendo que

Iin vai de 0 a π/2 e Iout vai de π/2 a π (cada um é metade da esfera):
" Z #
π/2 Z π
1
⟨I⟩ = 2π Iin sin θdθ + 2π Iout sin θdθ
4π 0 π/2
25
Computando a integral acima, ficamos com
1
⟨I⟩ = (Iin + Iout )
2
• Encontrando Frad :
Z
Fλ dλ = Iλ dλcosθdΩ
Aproximação da atmosfera cinzenta: não há variação com o c.d.o.:

Z
Frad = I cos θdΩ
Aproximação de Eddington: I = Iin +Iout , cada um metade da esfera

de novo. Computando, ficamos com
Frad = π(Iin − Iout )
• Encontrando Prad :
Z
1
Prad,λ dλ = Iλ dλ cos2 θdΩ
c sphere
Aproximação da atmosfera cinzenta:
1 2π π
Z Z
Prad = I sin θ cos2 θdθdϕ ⇔
c 0 0
2π π
Z
⇔ Prad = I sin θ cos2 θdθ
c 0
Aproximação de Eddington:
!
Z π/2 Z π
2π 2 2
Prad = Iin sin θ cos θdθ + Iout sin θ cos θdθ
c 0 π/2
Computando e usando o primeiro resultado,

4π
Prad = ⟨I⟩
3c
6. Utilizando a aproximação de Eddington para uma atmosfera plano-paralela,
determine os valores de Iin e Iout como funções da profundidade óptica ver-
tical. A que profundidade é a radiação isotrópica ao nı́vel de 1%?
R:
Da questão anterior temos que, para a aproximação em questão,
Iin + Iout
Frad = π(Iout − Iin ), ⟨I⟩ =
2
26
Além disso, sabemos que
3σ 4
Frad = σTe4 , ⟨I⟩ = T (τv + 2/3)
4π e
Encontramos então
3σTe4 τv σTe4

3τv
Iin = Iout = +1
4π π 4
7. Usando os resultados da atmosfera plano-paralela cinzenta em equilı́brio

termodinâmico local (LTE) determine a razão entre a temperatura efec-
tiva e a temperatura no topo da atmosfera. Se T e = 5777K, qual é a
temperatura no topo da atmosfera?
R:

4 3 4 2
T = Te τv + ⇔
4 3
1/4
T 3 1
⇔ = τv +
TE 4 2
No topo da atmosfera, τv = 0. Portanto,
T (Te = 5777K) = 4857.86K
8. Mostre que para atmosfera plano-paralela cinzenta em LTE, o valor (con-

stante) do fluxo radiativo é π vezes a função de fonte (source function)
determinada para uma profundidade óptica de 2/3.
Frad = πS(τv = 2/3)
Esta relação, chamada relação de Eddington-Barbier, diz que o fluxo

radiativo recebido da superfı́cie da estrela é determinado pela source func-
tion em τv = 2/3
R:
Em equilı́brio termodinâmico, S = ⟨I⟩. Além disso, sabemos que
3
⟨I⟩ = Frad (τv + 2/3)
4π
Então
4π 1
Frad = S
3 τv + 2/3
Se τv = 2/3,
Frad = πS
27
9. Considere uma camada plano-paralela de gás com espessura L, mantida
a uma temperatura constante T . Assuma que o gás tem profundidade
ótica τλ,0 , com τλ = 0 no topo da superfı́cie da camada. Assuma, ainda,
que mais nenhuma radiação exterior passa pelo gás. Use a forma geral da
equação de transferência
Z 0
Iλ (0) = Iλ,0 e−τλ,0 − Sλ e−τλ dτλ
τλ,0
para mostrar quando olhamos de cima para a camada, vemos a radiação

do corpo negro se τλ,0 >> 1 e linhas de emissão (onde jλ é grande) se
τλ,0 << 1. Pode considerar que a source function, Sλ não varia com
a posição dentro do gás. Pode ainda assumir equilı́brio termodinâmico
quando τλ,0 >> 1.
R:
• ”Sλ não varia com a posição”. Então tratamos como constante em

relação a dτλ = κλ ρds que, pelo ds, vemos que depende da posição
(?):
Z 0
Iλ (0) = Iλ,0 e−τλ,0 − Sλ e−τλ dτλ ⇔
τλ,0
⇔ Iλ (0) = Iλ,0 e−τλ,0 + Sλ (1 − e−τλ,0 )

• ”Mais nenhuma radiação exterior passa pelo gás” ⇒ Iλ,0 = 0:
⇔ Iλ (0) = Sλ (1 − e−τλ,0 )
• Se τλ,0 >> 1:
Iλ (0) ≈ Sλ ⇒ vemos radiação de corpo negro
• Se τλ,0 << 1: usamos a aproximação e−x ≈ 1 − x para obter
Iλ (0) = Sλ τλ,0
• Recordemos que dτλ = κλ ρds. Então τλ = κλ ρL pois o ”gás tem

espessura L”. Então
Iλ (0) = Sλ κλ ρL
• Recordemos agora que Sλ = jλ /κλ . Então
Iλ (0) = jλ ρL
28
10. Considere a camada do problema anterior, mas em que agora radiação
vinda de fora entra pela base da camada. Use a equação geral da equação
de transferência para mostrar que quando olhamos de cima para a camada,
vemos a radiação do corpo negro se τλ,0 >> 1. Se τλ,0 << 1, mostre que vê
linhas de absorção sobrepostas ao espectro da radiação incidente quando
Iλ,0 > Sλ e linhas emissão sobrepostas ao espectro da radiação incidente
quando Iλ,0 < Sλ . Pode considerar que a source function, Sλ , não varia
com a posição dentro do gás e assumir equilı́brio termodinâmico quando
τλ,0 >> 1.
R:
• ”Sλ não varia com a posição”. Então tratamos como constante em

relação a dτλ = κλ ρds que, pelo ds, vemos que depende da posição
(?):
Z 0
−τλ,0
Iλ (0) = Iλ,0 e − Sλ e−τλ dτλ ⇔
τλ,0
−τλ,0
⇔ Iλ (0) = Iλ,0 e + Sλ (1 − e−τλ,0 )
• Se τλ,0 >> 1:
Iλ (0) ≈ Sλ ⇒ vemos radiação de corpo negro
• Se τλ,0 << 1: usamos a aproximação e−x ≈ 1 − x para obter
Iλ (0) ≈ Iλ,0 (1 − τλ,0 ) + Sλ τλ,0 ⇔
• Recordemos que dτλ = κλ ρds. Então τλ = κλ ρL pois o ”gás tem

espessura L”.
• Recordemos agora que Sλ = jλ /κλ .
• Por fim temos
Iλ (0) = ρL(jλ − κλ Iλ,0 ) + Iλ,0
4 Interiores Estelares
4.1 Hydrostastic Equilibrium
Context: Stellar spectra doesn’t give us much data on a star’s interior, which is
why we’re studying this.
29
4.1.1 Determining the internal structures of stars
• How do we determine the interal structures of stars: put known, truthful
laws of physics on PC, simulate, make conclusions. The truthful data we
already have forces the other information to be truthful as well.
• We know that stars radiate energy, and they don’t have an infinite supply
of energy, so eventually they DIE.
• Stellar evolution is the result of a constant fight against gravity.
4.1.2 The Derivation of the Hydrostatic Equilibrium Equation
Figure 6: In a static star the gravitational force on a mass element is exactly

canceled by the outward force due to a pressure gradient in the star. A cylinder
of mass dm is located at a distance r from the center of the star. The height of
the cylinder is dr, and the areas of the top and bottom are both A. The density
of the gas is assumed to be ρ at that position.
2
• F = ma ⇔ Fg + FP,top + FP,bottom = dm ddt2r
30
• However,
– FP,t = −(FP,b + dFP )
– Fg = −G Mrr 2dm , such that Mr = mass inside the sphere of radius r.
The contribution to the gravitational force by spherically symmetric
mass shells located outside of r is zero.
– P = F/A ⇔ F = P A ⇒ dFP = AdP
– dm = ρAdr
2
• Thus we get dm ddt2r = −G Mrr 2dm − AdP
2
• Dividing by the volume V = Adr, we get ρ ddt2r = −G Mrr2 ρ − dP
dr
• If we assume the star is static, acceleration is zero and we finally get

• Hydrostatic equilibrium condition:
dP Mr ρ
= −G 2 = −ρg (18)
dr r
• Equation 18 clearly indicates that in order for a star to be static, a pres-
sure gradient dP/dr must exist to counteract the force of gravity. It is
not the pressure that supports a star, but the change in pressure with
radius. Furthermore, the pressure must decrease with increasing radius;
the pressure is necessarily larger in the interior than it is near the surface.
4.1.3 The Equation of Mass Conservation
Figure 7: A spherically symmetric shell of mass dMr having a thickness dr and

located a distance r from the center of the star. The local density of the shell
is ρ
From Figure 7, assuming the shell is sufficiently thin (dr << r), the vol-
ume of the shell is, approximately, dV = 4πr2 dr. Dividing by dr we get the
31
mass conservation equation, which dictates how the interior mass of a star must
change with distance from the center.
Mass conservation equation:
dMr
= 4πr2 ρ (19)
dr
4.2 Pressure Equation of State

Context: we need to explain the pressure term of Equation 18. We need an
equation of state relating the dependence of pressure on other fundamental
parameters of the material.
Figure 8: (a) A cylinder of gas of length x and cross-sectional area A. Assume

that the gas contained in the cylinder is an ideal gas. (b) The collision of an
individual point mass with one of the ends of the cylinder. For a perfectly elastic
collision, the angle of reflection must equal the angle of incidence
(Derivations in Caroll & Ostlie)
• Pressure Integral: makes it possible to compute the pressure, given

some distribution function np dp.
1 ∞
Z
P = np pvdp (20)
3 0
• Ideal Gas Law:
P = N kT /V (21)
• Mean molecular weight:

m
µ= (22)
mH
where mH = 1.673532499 × 10−27 kg is the mass of the hydrogen atom.
The mean molecular weight is just the average mass of a free particle in
the gas, in units of the mass of hydrogen.
32
• Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Mean Molecular Weight:
ρkT
Pg = (23)
µmH
• The mean molecular weight depends on the composition of the gas as well
as on the state of ionization of each species. The level of ionization enters
because free electrons must be included in the average mass per particle
m. This implies that a detailed analysis of the Saha equation is necessary
to calculate the relative numbers of ionization states. When the gas is
either completely neutral or completely ionized, the calculation simplifies
significantly, however.
• For a neutral gas:
1 X 1
= Xj (24)
µn j
Aj
and
1 1 1
=X+ Y + Z (25)
µn 4 A n
where
– Aj = mj /mH
– Xj = mass fraction of atoms of type j
1
– A n = weighted average of all elements in the gas heavier than
helium. For solar abundances, A1 n ≈ 1/15.5
• For a completely ionised gas: now we must include the free electrons
as well (e.g. each H atom contributes 1 nucleus and 1 free electron)
1 X 1 + zj
= Xj (26)
µi j
Aj
Including H and He explicitly we have

1 3 1+z
≈ 2X + Y + Z (27)
µi 4 A i
For elements much heavier than helium:

– 1 + zj ≈ zj : zj >> 1 represents the number of protons (or electrons)
in an atom of type j.
– Aj ≈ 2zj , because sufficiently massive atoms have approximately
the same number of protons and neutrons in their nuclei, and that
protons and neutrons have very similar masses.
33
• Contribution due to Radiation Pressure: Because photons have mo-
mentum p = E/c, they are capable of delivering an impulse to other par-
ticles during absorption or reflection. Consequently, EM radiation results
in another form of pressure.
1 4
Prad = aT (28)
3
• Total Pressure:
Pt = Pg + Prad
4.3 Stellar Energy Sources

• Virial Theorem: system of particles in equilibrium ⇒ 2K + U = 0
• Kelvin-Helmholtz Timescale:
– To calculate the U of a star, we consider every possible pair of par-
ticles:
Mr dmi
dUg,i = −G
r
– Shell of thickness dr and mass dm, containing particles dmi :
dm = 4πr2 ρdr
Thus
Mr 4πr2 ρdr
dUg = −G
r
– Integrate over all shells:
Z R
Ug = 4πG Mr ρrdr
0
This requires knowing how r affects Mr and ρ, so we approximate to

a constant density throughout the sphere:
Mr 4 3
ρ≈ρ= 4 3
⇔ Mr ≈ πr ρ
3 πR
3
Substitute in:
3 GM 2
Ug ≈ −
5 R
– Apply virial theorem: E = 12 U
3 GM 2
E≈− (29)
10 R
34
– Assuming the Sun was much larger in the past, we have Ri >> RS .
Then the energy radiated away would be
3 GMS2
∆E = −(Ef − Ei ) ≈ −Ef ≈ ≈ 1.1 × 1041 J
10 RS
– Assuming constant luminosity throughout its lifetime, the Sun could

emit that energy for a time of
∆Eg
tKH = ≈ 107 yr
Lsun
GM 2
tKH = (30)
2RL
• Mass Number:
A=Z +N (31)
Since protons and neutrons have very similar masses which greatly exceed
that of the electron, A is a good indication of the mass of an isotope.
• Fusion: when lighter particles combine to form heavier particles, the
product has less mass. By conservation of mass-energy we know therefore
that the reaction released energy.
• Nuclear Timescale: assume Sun was originally 100% hydrogen and that
only the inner 10% of the Sun’s mass becomes hot enough to convert
hydrogen to helium. ∆m = 4mH − 1mHe = 0.03u, so ∆m/mi = 0.007,
i.e. only 0.7% of the mass of hydrogen would be converted to energy in
forming a helium nucleus. The amount of nuclear energy available in the
Sun would then be
E = 0.1 × 0.007 × M c2 = 1.3 × 1044 J
This gives a nuclear timescale of

Enuclear
tnuclear = ≈ 101 0yr
Lsun
• All nuclei are positively charged ⇒ a Coulomb potential energy barrier

must be surpassed in order for the nuclei to collide.
• The curve is composed of two parts: outside the nucleus is the potential
energy that exists between two positively charged nuclei, and the por-
tion inside forms a potential well governed by the strong nuclear force
that binds the nucleus together. The strong force is a very short range
interaction that dominates the Coulomb repulsion between protons.
35
Figure 9: The potential energy curve characteristic of nuclear reactions.
• Estimating temperature of the Sun classically, we find that
Z1 Z2 e2
Tclassical = ≈ 10K
6πϵ0 kr
but the Sun’s central temperature is 1.5 × 107 K, much lower.

• Quantum Tunneling: ∆x∆p ≥ h̄2 ⇒ the uncertainty in the position
of one proton colliding with another may be so large that even though
the kinetic energy of the collision is insufficient to overcome the classi-
cal Coulomb barrier, one proton might nevertheless find itself within the
central potential well defined by the strong force of the other.
Z12 Z22 e4 µm
Tquantum = ≈ 107 K (32)
12π 2 ϵ20 h2 k
• Not all particles in a gas of temperature T will have sufficient kinetic

energy and the necessary wavelength to tunnel through the Coulomb bar-
rier successfully. Consequently, the reaction rate per energy interval must
be described in terms of the number density of particles having energies
within a specific range, combined with the probability that those particles
can tunnel through the Coulomb barrier of the target nucleus. The total
nuclear reaction rate is then integrated over all possible energies. (... bla
bla bla)
• Nucleosynthesis: sequence of steps by which one element is converted
into another
• Proton-proton chain (PPI):
4 11 H → 41 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 2γ
3 ways of occurring (PP I, II, III):
36
Figure 10: The three branches of the pp chain, along with the branching ratios
appropriate for conditions in the core of the Sun.
• CNO Cycle: another cycle for the production of helium-4 from hydrogen.
Here, carbon is a catalyst. It is not destroyed in the chain and must
be present in the original material. To work in a stationary state, the
abundances of the isotopes in the slower reactions have to be higher in
order to have the same rate as the faster reactions.
Figure 11: CNO Cycle.
• Low mass stars, which have smaller central temperatures, are dominated
by the pp chains during their ”hydrogen burning” evolution, whereas more
massive stars, with higher central temperatures, convert hydrogen to he-
lium by the CNO cycle.
• Helium combustion: When hydrogen is depleted in the nucleus via pp
37
or CNO chains, gravity causes the nucleus to contract, heating it up and
provoking helium combustion.
• Triple-alpha process: reaction sequence via which helium is converted
into carbon.
4
2He + 4 2He ↔ 8 4Be
8
4Be + 4 2He → 12 6C + γ
• At the same temperatures that He enters combustion, other reactions can

also occur, such as carbon and oxygen combustion (alpha particle 4 He
capture).
12
C + 4 He → 16 O + γ
16
O + 4 He → 20 N e + γ
At helium-burning temperatures, the continued capture of alpha particles
leading to progessively more massive nuclei quickly becomes prohitibitive,
due to the ever higher Coulomb barrier.
• If a star is sufficiently massive, still higher temperatures can be obtained,
fusing heavier atoms.
• Binding energy:
Eb = ∆mc2 = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn − mnucleus ]c2
• Binding energy per nucleon: useful quantity for understanding energy

release in nuclear reactions
Eb /A
Based on what we have learned about stellar nucleosynthesis, it is clear
Figure 12: Binding energy per nucleon Eb /A as a function of mass number A.
why the most abundant nuclear species in the Universe are, in order,
1
1H, 4 2He, 16 8O, 12 6C, 20 10N e, 14 7N, 24 12M g, 28 14Si, 56 26F e
38
These abundances are the result of the dominant nuclear reaction processes
that occur in stars, together with the nuclear configurations that result in
the most stable nuclei.
• The study of stellar nucleosynthesis strongly suggests that all heavier nu-
clei were generated in the interiors of stars.
• Energy Generation Equation AKA Luminosity Gradient Equation: To
determine the luminosity (power output) of a star, we must now consider
all of the energy generated by stellar material. The contribution to the
total luminosity due to an infinitesimal mass dm is simply dL = ϵdm,
where ϵ = ϵnuclear + ϵgravity is the total energy released per kilogram per
second by all nuclear reactions and by gravity. For a spherically symmetric
star, the mass of a thin shell of thickness dr is just dm = dMr = ρdV =
4πr2 ρdr. Substituting and dividing by the shell thickness, we have
dLr
= 4πr2 ρϵ (33)
dr
Where Lr = interior luminosity due to all of the energy generated within
the star’s interior out to the radius r.
4.4 Energy Transport and Thermodynamics

• 3 ways of transporting energy from interior to outside star:
– Radiation: allows the energy produced by nuclear reactions and
gravitation to be carried to the surface via photons, the photons
being absorbed and re-emitted in nearly random directions as they
encounter matter. This suggests opacity plays an important role.
– Convection: hot, buoyant mass elements carry excess energy out-
ward while cool elements fall inward.
– Conduction: transports heat via collisions between particles. It is
generally insignificant in most stars throughout most their lifetimes
and thus will not be discussed here.
• Radiative Temperature Gradient dPrad
dr (Radiation energy transfer):
dPrad κρ 4 dT
= − Frad = aT 3 ⇔
dr c 3 dr
dT 3 κρ
⇔ =− Frad
dr 4ac T 3
Lr
but Frad = 4πr 2 , so
dT 3 κρ Lr
=− (34)
dr 4ac T 3 4πr2
As either the flux or opacity increases, the temperature gradient must be-
come steeper (more negative) if radiation is to transport all of the required
luminosity outward. The same situation holds as the density increases or
the temperature decreases.
39
• Pressure Scale Height HP (Convection energy transfer):
If the temperature gradient dT
dr becomes too steep (too negative), convec-
tion can begin to play an important role in energy transfer. Pressure scale
height = measure of characteristic length scale for convection.
P
HP = (35)
ρg
• 1st Law of Thermodynamics:
dU = dQ − dW (36)
such that
– dU = internal energy of mass element dm
– dQ = heat added to mass element
– dW = work done by mass element
Throughout our discussion, we will assume that these energy changes are
measured per unit mass.
• State function: depends only on present conditions of the gas, not on the
history of changes leading to that state. U is a state function, therefore
dU is independent of the actual process involved in the change.
• Inexact differential: depends on the ways in which the processes are
carried out, i.e. they are path-dependent. dQ and dW are inexact differ-
entials.
• Kinetic Energy in Ideal Gas
3
K= kT (ideal gas) (37)
2
• Potential Energy in Ideal Gas

1
U = (average energy per particle)×(number of particles/mass) = K × m ,
where m = µmH is the average mass of a single particle in the gas. For
an ideal gas, K = 3kT /2 and
3
U= nRT (ideal gas) (38)
2
where n = number of moles per unit mass, and
k
nR = (39)
µmH
• Specific Heats:
∂Q ∂Q
CP = |P CV = |V (40)
∂T ∂T
40
• Work per unit mass: Suppose a cylinder with cross-sectional area A, filled
with gas of mass m and pressure P . The gas exerts a force F = P A on an
end of the cylinder, which is a piston that moves by dr. Then the work
done by the gas is

F PA
dW = dr = dr = P dV (41)
m m
Such that V = 1/ρ specific volume, or volume per unit mass.
• We can rewrite the 1st law as dU = dQ − P dV . At const. volume,
dV = 0 ⇒ dU = ∂Q
∂T |V dT , which is
dU = CV dT (always) (42)
It’s always true because dU is independent of any specific process
• But we saw that dU = 3nR/2 for a monatomic gas. Thus
3
CV = nR (monatomic gas) (43)
2
• Now finding CP for monatomic gas. First note that
∂Q ∂V
dU = |P dT − P |P dT
∂T ∂T
Also let’s consider all possible differential changes in pV = nRT and we
get
P dV + V dP = RT dn + nRdT
Constant P, n ⇒ dP = dn = 0 ⇒ P dV dT = nR. Together with the first
∂Q
equation, dU = CV dT and CP = ∂T |P we get
CP = CV + nR (monatomic gas)
• ”Adiabatic Gamma”:
CP
γ= (44)
CV
• Adiabatic Process: dQ = 0, i.e. no heat flows in/out of the mass
element dm.
• Adiabatic Gas Law:
From the 1st law and dQ = 0 we get dU = −P dV . With the differentiated
1st Law with constant n, we get P dV + V dP = nRdT .
dU
Also, since dU = CV dT , we have dT = C = − PCdV . Combining the two
V V
nR
results, we get P dV + V dP = − C V
P dV .
That may be rewritten to yield γ dV dP
V = − P . With P V = nRT we finally
get
PV γ = K (45)
Where K = constant.
41
• Adiabatic Temperature Gradient dT dr |ad (also convection):
Consider the situation where a hot convective bubble of gas rises and ex-
pands adiabatically, meaning it doesn’t exchange heat with its surround-
ings. After it has traveled some distance, it finally thermalises, giving up
any excess heat and dissolving into the gas.
(After derivation in book p.412):

dT 1 µmH GMr
|ad = − 1 − (46)
dr γ k r2
It is also convenient to write that as
dT g
|ad = − (47)
dr CP
This describes how the temperature of the gas inside the bubble changes
as the bubble rises and expands adiabatically.
• Superadiabatic Temperature Gradient:
If the star’s actual temperature gradient (designated by subscript ”act”)
is steeper than the adiabatic temperature gradient, i.e.
dT dT
> (48)
dr act dr ad
• Criteria for Convection: (Derivation for criteria in book p.413)

dT dT
|ad > |act convection occurs (bubble rises) (49)
dr dr
Or, equivalently,
d ln(P ) γ
< (50)
d ln(T ) γ−1
• Mixing Length Theory of Superadiabatic Convection:
The temperature gradient must be only slightly superadiabatic in the deep
interior in order for convection to carry most of the energy. Não entendi
o resto, foda-se
4.5 Stellar Model Building

• We have now derived all of the fundamental differential equations of stel-
lar structure. Solving these equations together with a set of relations
describing stellar material, gives a theoretical stellar model.
• Constitutive Relations:
These are the information required by the basic stellar equations concern-
ing the physical properties of the matter from which the star is made.
P = P (ρ, T, composition) (pressure) (51)
42
Figure 13: Convection bubble vs. surrounding gas
κ = κ(ρ, T, composition) (opacity) (52)

ϵ = ϵ(ρ, T, composition) (energy generation rate) (53)
• Boundary Conditions to the stellar equations:

These play the essential role of defining the limits of integration.
1. At the center of the star:

(
Mr → 0
r→0⇒ (54)
Lr → 0
That is, interior mass (mass inside sphere of radius r inside star) and
luminosity approach zero at the center.
2. At the surface of the star:

T → 0

r → R∗ ⇒ P → 0 (55)

ρ→0

So temperature, pressure and density approach zero at the surface.
43
• It is not generally possible to solve the system of stellar structure equa-
tions and their associated constitutive relations analytically, so we need
numerical solutions to ”build” stellar models. However, under very special
situations, we can find analytical solutions to a subset of equations.
• Polytrope or Polytropic Model: Star model in which the pressure de-
pends on density in the form
P = Kργ
• Lane-Emden Equation (derivation in book p. 426)

1 d 2 dDn
ξ = −Dnn (56)
ξ 2 dξ dξ
Where
– Dn = dimensionless function that is used to determine density ρ.
0 < Dn < 1
– ρ(r) = ρc [Dn (r)]n
– n = 1/(γ − 1) = polytropic index
– ξ = dimensionless independent variable that is used for the radius r.
– r = λn ξ
– Dn (ξ1 ) = 0 specifies the surface at ξ = ξ1
h (1−n)/n i1/2
Kρc
– λn = (n + 1) 4πG
Boundary conditions:
– At the center (ξ = 0): D(0) = 1 and dD/dξ = 0
– At the surface (ξ = ξ1 ): D(ξ1 ) = 0
• Analytic Solutions:
ξ2
√
– n = 0 ⇒ D0 (ξ) = 1 − 6 , with ξ1 = 6
44
sin ξ
– n = 1 ⇒ D1 (ξ) = ξ , with ξ1 = π
– n = 5 ⇒ D5 (ξ) = [1 + ϵ2 /3]−1/2 , with ξ1 → ∞
• The Lane-Emden equation properly describes a few star types:

– n = 0.5 − 1 ⇒ neutron stars
– n = 1.5 ⇒ completely convective nuclei (such as the ones in red
giants, brown dwarfs, gas giants like Jupiter and even rocky planets)
– n = 3 ⇒ Eddington Model for stellar structure. Main sequence
stars (like the Sun), and degenerate nuclei (like in white dwarfs)
– n = 5 ⇒ infinite radius (though not infinite mass), simplest self-
consistent star model
– n = ∞ ⇒ Isothermal sphere supported by self-gravity. Structure
similar to that of a colliding star system such as a globular cluster.
• Eddington Luminosity Limit LEd : maximum radiative luminosity that

a star can have and still remain in hydrostatic equilibrium. If L > LEd ,
mass loss must occur, driven by radiation pressure.
4πGc
LEd = M (57)
κ
• Although there is a physical motivation for parametrising stellar models in

terms of r, a star’s radius varies by orders of magnitude during its lifetime.
If we wish to identify a star in a way that defines it wholly, we must write
the stellar structure equations as a function of mass (composition has a
lesser effect). This can be expressed in Vogt-Russel’s theorem.
• Vogt-Russel Theorem: The mass and composition throughout a star
uniquely determine its radius, luminosity and internal structure, as well
as its subsequent evolution. The dependence of a star’s evolution on mass
and composition is a consequence of the change in composition due to
nuclear burning.
• To compare quantities in a large stellar mass interval (e.g. the relationship
between luminosity and mass), it is useful to write the star equations in
terms of mass. Dividing them by the mass conservation equation and
inverting the mass conservation equation, we get Boundary Conditions:
r = L = O at M = 0, ρ = T = 0 at M = MS
45
• Repeating the calculations for each mass and variations of the other pa-
rameters is obviously computationally retarded. We would thus like to
normalise the variables in a way that the solutions are independent of
the total mass, having fixed the chemical composition.
• Homologous model:
4.6 Problemas
1. Mostre que a equação de equilı́brio hidrostático também pode ser escrita
em termos da profundidade óptica como:
dP g
=
dτ κ
R:
Profundidade ótica: dτλ = −κλ ρds. Tomemos o valor médio do compri-
mento de onda: dτ = −κρds
Equilı́brio hidrostático: dP
dr = −ρg.
Nesse contexto, ds = dr = vetor que segue a direção radial para a su-
perfı́cie. Então,
dP g
=
dτ κ
2. Usando o teorema do virial, faça uma estimativa grosseira da temperatura
tı́pica do Sol.
R:
De (29):
3 GM 2
Eg ≈ −
10 R
Da termodinâmica,
3
K = N kT
2
Do Teorema do Virial,
1
K=− U
2
Assim,
3 3 GM 2 GM 2
N kT = ⇔T =
2 10 R 5N kR
Nesse caso, N = número de partı́culas no Sol, ou seja N = MS /mH × 2. 0
×2 é porque, presumindo que todo o hidrogênio está ionizado, cada átomo
de hidrogênio contribui 1 núcleo e 1 elétron livre como partı́culas. Assim,
T = 2.313 × 106 K
46
3. A partir da equação de Lane-Emden e impondo as condições fronteira
necessárias, mostre que a solução do politropo n = 0 é dada por:
ξ2 √
D0 (ξ) = − , ξ1 = 6
6
R:

1 d 2 dDn
ξ = −Dnn
ξ 2 dξ dξ
Se n = 0,
1 d 2 dD0
ξ = −1 ⇔
ξ 2 dξ dξ

d 2 dD0
⇔ ξ = −ξ 2 ⇔
dξ dξ
dD0 1
⇔ ξ2 = − ξ3 + C
dξ 3
dD0
Condição fronteira: dξ = 0 no centro (ξ = 0).
0=0+C ⇔C =0
dD0 1
ξ2 = − ξ3 ⇔
dξ 3
ξ2
⇔ D0 (ξ) = − +C
6
Condição fronteira: Dn (0) = 1
1=0+C ⇔C =1
ξ2
D0 (ξ) = − +1
6
À superfı́cie, D0 (ξ) = 0. Então,
ξ12 √
− + 1 = 0 ⇔ ξ1 = 6
6
4. Descreva a estrutura da densidade associada ao politropo n = 0.

R:
Densidade: ρ(r) = ρC [Dn (r)]n . n = 0 ⇒ ρ(r) = ρC , isto é, a densidade é
constante ao longo do raio.
5. No extremo de massa inferior da sequência principal, considere uma es-

trela com massa 0.072MS , log(Tef f ) = 3.23 e log(L/LS ) = -4.3. No
extremo superior, considere uma estrela de 85MS , log(Tef f ) = 4.705 e
log(L/LS ) = 6.006.
47
a) Estime os tempos de vida de combustão de hidrogénio estas estrelas com
massas próximas dos extremos inferior e superior da sequência principal.
Considere que a estrela de 0.072MS é totalmente convectiva de modo que
tem à sua disposição todo o hidrogénio para queimar e não só os 10% mais
interiores.
R:
∆E ∆mc2
tnuclear = =
L L
. Para a estrela menor,
1 × 0.007 × 0.072 × MS c2
t1 = = 4.66 × 1021 s = 1.477 × 1014 yr
10−4.3 LS
Para a estrela maior,
0.1 × 0.007 × 85 × MS c2
t2 = = 8.61798 × 105 yr
10−6.006 LS
b) Calcule os raios de ambas as estrelas. Qual a razão entre os raios?
R:
r
2 4 L
L = 4πR σT ⇔ R =
4πσT 4
Então, s
10−4.3
R1 = = 5.71 × 107
4πσ(103.23 )4
s
106.006
R2 = = 9.11 × 109
4πσ(104.705 )4
6. Calcule a luminosidade de Eddington para a estrela de 0.072MS e compare-

a com a sua luminosidade na sequência principal. O que conclui sobre o
efeito da pressão de radiação sobre a estabilidade da estrela?
R:
4πGc
Led = M
κ
Do livro (o professor não colocou na questão): κ = 0.001
Led = 3.6 × 1031
Nesse caso, Led << L, pelo que a pressão de radiação não é tão relevante
para estrelas pequenas.
7.
48
5 Evolução Estelar
Ver bibliografia nos slides (muito diversificada).
5.1 Evolution off the main sequence

• The existence of the main sequence is due to the nuclear reactions that
convert hydrogen into helium in the cores of stars.
• In this chapter we will follow the lives of stars as they age, beginning on
the main sequence.
• This evolutionary process is a consequence of the force of gravity and the
change in chemical composition due to nuclear reactions.
• Different phases of a star’s life mean different timescales for their aging.
Figure 14: Main-sequence and post-main-sequence evolutionary tracks of stars

(...)
• Pre-main-sequence: free-fall timescale and Kelvin-Helmholtz timescale

• Main sequence and post-main-sequence: nuclear reactions timescale
• Most stars are on the main sequence because that’s where stars spend
most of their evolution (nuclear timescale is longer).
49
• ZAMS: Zero-age main-sequence stars.
• M < 0.3MSol : convective cores, because high surface opacity drives sur-
face convection zones deep into the interior, making the entire star con-
vective.
• 0.3MSol < M < 1.2MSol : radiative cores due to little temperature-dependent

pp chain.
• M > 1.2MSol : convective cores due to highly temperature-dependent
CNO cycle.
• Schönberg-Chandrasekhar Limit: maximum fraction of a star’s mass
that can exist in an isothermal core and still support the overlying layers.
2
Mic µenv
≈ 0.37 (58)
M SC µic
Where
– µenv = mean mol. weight of overlying envelope
– µic = mean mol. weight of isothermal core
• The mass of an isothermal core may exceed the Schönberg-Chandrasekhar
Limit if an additional source of pressure can be found to supplement the
ideal gas pressure. This can occur if the electrons in the gas start to
become degenerate.
• Degenerate Electron Gas: when the density of a gas becomes suffi-

ciently high, the electrons are forced to occupy the lowest available energy
levels. Since electrons cannot occupy the same quantum state, they are
stacked into progressively higher energy states, beginning at the ground
state.
– Complete Degeneracy: in this case, the pressure of the gas is due

entirely to the nonthermal motions of the electrons, and therefore
the pressure becomes independent of the temperature of the gas.
– If the electrons are nonrelativistic, the pressure of a completely de-
generate e− gas is
Pe = Kρ5/3 (59)
Where K is a constant.
• Evolution of a Low-Mass (M = 1MSol ) Main-Sequence Star:

– Star reaches ZAMS (enters the MS)
– pp chain: H → He ⇒ core density increases
– When H is depleted, the core contracts
50
Figure 15: Evolution of M = 1MSol star.
– Contraction heats shell above, which starts burning H.

– Subgiant Branch (SGB):
– Structure: He nucleus, H burning shell, non-burning envelope above.
– The H burning shell produces more energy than the nucleus did dur-
ing its hydrogen burning.
– More energy ⇒ star’s luminosity increases
– L = 4πR2 σT 4 ⇒ Tef f and R also increase.
– At this point, the luminosity remains close to zero throughout the
core. Lr ≈ 0 ⇒ dT /dr ≈ 0 ⇒ the He core is isothermal.
– He nucleus continues to contract (while heating the H burning shell)
until it becomes electron degenerate (politrope n = 1.5). At this
point the equation of state no longer depends on T :
P = K1 ρ5/3 não relativista
P = K1 ρ4/3 relativista
51
– Mass of the isothermal He core becomes too great ⇒ core is no longer
capable of supporting the material above it (Schönberg-Chandrasekhar
Limit)
– Core collapses on a Kelvin-Helmholtz timescale. This corresponds to
(4) on Figure 14.
– Red Giant Branch (RGB):
– A convection zone develops near the surface, gradually going deeper
into the star.
– First Dredge-up: convection zone reaches the nucleus, mixing its el-
ements with the ones above and bringing them to the surface.
– At the tip of RGB, the temperature and pressure on the nucleus
finally allow He-burning (3α)
– Since the nucleus is electron degenerate, the temperature increase
does not lead to expansion and subsequent cooling, + the 3α effect
is highly temperature-dependent ⇒ explosive power!
– Helium Flash: energy released from new He-burning
– The He flash only lasts a few seconds ⇒ tough to model ⇒ dotted
line afterwards
– Structure: He-burning nucleus, H-burning shell, non-burning enve-
lope
– Early Assymptotic Giant Branch:
– He-burning leaves CO non-burning nucleus
– A convection zone develops near the surface, gradually going deeper
into the star (again)
– Second Dredge-up: convection zone reaches the nucleus, mixing its
elements with the ones above and bringing them to the surface.
– Thermal Pulse Assymptotic Giant Branch (TP-AGB):
– He-shell flashes: He-burning shell turns on/off, pulsing
– Planetary Nebula Formation (PN): star makes a planetary neb-
ula :)
• Evolution of an Intermediate-Mass (M = 5MSol ) M-S Star:
Same thing as M = 1 but with a few differences:
– He nucleus not degenerate ⇒ allows for gas expansion and cooling
⇒ no He flash.
– There’s a third dredge-up still.
– Horizontal branch.
– SGB more horizontal.
• Evolution of Massive Main-Sequence Stars:
52
– Star reaches ZAMS (enters the MS)
– pp chain: H → He ⇒ core density increases
– When H is depleted, the core contracts
– Contraction heats nucleus, which starts burning He before the nu-
cleus can even become degenerate.
– Contraction heats shell above, which starts burning H.
– When He is depleted, the temperature is really high ⇒ C-burning
and O-burning.
– Structure: CO-burning core, He-burning shell, H-burning shell, non-
burning envelope.
– As heavier elements are built up, the core develops more ”X-burning”
layers.
– Core luminosity increasing ⇒ radius increasing (outer layers) ⇒ Red
Supergiant
– Structure: Fe nucleus, Si-burning, O-burning, Ne-burning, C-burning,
He-burning, H-burning
– If the star can’t burn the Fe, the Fe nucleus simply becomes degen-
erate.
– Mass of the degenerate Fe core becomes too great ⇒ core is no longer
capable of supporting the material above it (Schönberg-Chandrasekhar
Limit)
– Core collapses ⇒ Fe becomes just protons, neutrons and electrons
– Protons combine with electrons ⇒ more neutrons
– Eventually we have a neutron star... on the nucleus
– Outer layers collapse into neutron nucleus: SUPERNOVA type-
II!
5.2 Estrelas variáveis e evolução binária

• R0 = radius of a star in equilibrium
• Stars pulsating: Suppose we decrease a star’s radius such that R < R0 .
This would cause the pressure to go up, meaning the temperature goes
up, the star expands and that cools it (pv = nrt). However, much like a
swing overshoots its lowest point as it returns from its maximum height,
the star overshoots its R0 . This leads to a cycle. The same would happen
if we set R > R0 .
• In a normal star:
– T ∝ 1/opacity
– Suppose we reduce R such that R < R0 (compression).
53
– Compressing the star causes P and T to increase.
– T increases ⇒ opacity decreases.
– Less opacity means more radiation flows out, reducing the tendency
to overshoot.
– Thus, the opacity quenches the oscillations.
• For a Cepheid variable star:

– T ∝ opacity
– The source of the opacity is the ionisation of He+ to form He++ .
– Suppose we reduce R such that R < R0 (compression).
– Compressing the star causes P and T to increase.
– T increases ⇒ opacity increases.
– More opacity means less radiation flows out, increasing the tendency
to overshoot.
– Thus, the opacity enhances the oscillations.
• Instability Strip: By plotting variable stars on the HR diagram, one
sees that most of them are in a vertical strip on the right side, suggesting
that the nature of the variability is, at least partially, related to the star’s
evolution.
5.2.1 Period-Luminosity Relation

• Cepheids allow us to measure distances.
Figure 16: Period-Luminosity relation
• Cepheids are all basically at the same distance in their galaxy.
54
• For the Cepheids, there is a relationship between the star’s period and its
mean apparent magnitude.
• Since they’re all at the same distance within their own galaxies, this means
there is a relationship between the star’s period and its mean absolute
magnitude ⇒ we get M from T .
• We can always measure a star’s apparent magnitude m.

• So, with the distance modulus m − M we get the distance to the Cepheid,
which gives us the distance to its galaxy.
• Calibrated Period-Luminosity Relation for the V band :
M⟨V ⟩ = −2.81 log10 Pd − 1.43
• Histogram of Cepheids’ periods: Figure 17
Figure 17: Histogram of Cepheid Periods
• There are clearly two groups:

– Classical Cepheids: shorter period, in Magellanic Clouds
– Type II/W Virginis Cepheids: longer period, in our own galaxy
• A star pulsating under its own gravity is a lot like a pendulum.

q
• For a pendulum oscillating, T = 2π Lg
q
• For a star, L = R and g = GM
R2 , so T ∝ 2π R3
GM
• But M/R3 ≈ ρ, so T ∝ (Gρ)−1/2

(In general: If gravity dominates, (Gρ)−1/2 is the timescale)
55
5.3 Close Binaries
• ≈ half of all stars are in binary systems
• Close Binary System: If two stars in a binary system are too close to
each other, and thus they can alter the other’s structure with tidal effects.
• The star’s energy comes from its translational and rotational motion.
• As the star rotates, different layers of material rub against each other, in
a fluid friction, making the star dissipate some of the rotational energy.
• Eventually, the star’s will orbit each other with one side facing the other
forever (like the Moon)
• As the star overshoots past the other in its translational motion, it gets
attracted by gravity and comes back. The same happens to the other star.
Eventually, the stars orbits’ will circularise.
• Circular orbits and stars facing each other = lowest energy arrangement.
We say that the spins are synchronised.
• ...
• Now suppose we set the origin of our coord. system to be the CM of the
binary system, and also make our coord. system rotate with the same
period as the binary system.
• This will ”fix” things in place, but in turn add a ”centrifugal force” com-
ponent to each particle... (J 2 /2mr2 )
• Effective Potential: the gravitational potential + this new centrifugal
potential
• We can draw surfaces with contour lines describing the effective potentials
of the particles, as in Figure 18.
• The effective potential of any particle in a given surface is perpendicular
to the surface.
– ... just like in Earth contour maps, the gravitational force in each
particle on the ground is perpendicular to it.
• Lagrange Points: points where the effective potential is zero.
• Any equipotential surface of a fluid must be of constant pressure.
– If they were not, there would be pressure differences forcing fluid
along the surface, and these forces would not be balanced by any
gravitational forces, which must be perpendicular to the surface.
• Any equipotential surface of a fluid must therefore also be of constant
density.
56
Figure 18: Surfaces of constant effective potential.
• Roche lobe: one of the lobes in the ”number 8” orbit that crosses the
equipotential surfaces plane.
• Three classes of close binary systems:
– detached: each star totally contained within its own Roche lobe
– semidetached: the photosphere of one star exactly fills its side of
the Roche lobe.
– contact binaries: both stars are at/over the Roche lobe.
• If the binaries are detached, then there is no mass transfer between them
and they don’t alter each other’s evolution ⇒ we can study their evolution
as isolated stars.
• If the binaries are not detached, then there is mass transfer and their
evolution is different.
• The more massive star evolves off the MS first. When it becomes a red
giant, it may become large enough to fill its Roche lobe. Thus, mass begins
to be transferred from the larger star to the smaller star. The transfer
stops once both masses are equal.
• At some point, the star that was losing mass will collapse and become
one of the three: white dwarf (low-intermediate mass stars), neutron star
(massive stars) and black hole (big boys).
•
57
Figure 19: Surfaces of constant effective potential.
5.4 Planetary Nebulae

• The gravitational force on a mass m in the outer layer of a star is GmM/R2 ,
therefore the pull on the outer layer falls off as 1/R2 . Since the outer layer
of a red giant is weakly held, it is driven away.
• Shells that are driven away from the planet are called planetary nebulae
because that’s what it looks like when viewed from a small telescope
• We see the driven-away shells as rings because of Figure 21. They are
spherical.
• From Figure 21 we also see that one region moves away from us and is
redshifted, and another moves towards us and is thus blueshifted... by
comparing both shifts we can measure the rate of expansion of the shell.
5.5 Para refletir

1. Após queimar o H do núcleo, as estrelas abandonam a sequência principal.
Para estrela de massa baixa e intermediária (parecida à do Sol), o núcleo
de hélio resultante será isotérmico durante algum tempo. Por quê?
R:
Porque nesse perı́odo da vida da estrela, o núcleo de Hélio ainda não
começou a formar CO pelo processo 3α... não está a produzir output de
energia = L ≈ 0 no núcleo, logo dT /dr ≈ 0 no núcleo (ver equação 34),
i.e. ele é isotérmico.
2. Em que aspectos da evolução na pós-sequência principal é a massa deter-
minante? Por outras palavras, que mudanças qualitativas na estrutura e
58
Figure 20: Classes of binary star systems.
evolução pós-sequência principal dependem da massa? Porque têm estre-

las de massa pequena, intermédia e alta histórias evolutivas diferentes?
R:
Para massa pequena (M ≈ 1), quando o núcleo He começa a queimar
para formar C e O pelo processo 3 − α, muita energia é emitida desta nova
fonte (temperatura aumenta). Já que o núcleo é electron degenerate, este
aumento de temperatura não faz o gás expandir e esfriar. Logo, a energia
emitida é quase explosiva, causando um helium flash.
Para massas intermediárias, isto não acontece pois seu núcleo de He não
é degenerado. Além disso, há um terceiro dredge-up, o aparecimento do
Horizontal Branch (HB), e a linha RGB é mais horizontal.
Para massas altas, a pressão e temperatura serão altas o suficiente para
permitir não só o H e He fazerem fusão nuclear, mas também elemen-
tos mais pesados posteriormente. Então acabamos ficando com várias
camadas, de elementos cada vez mais pesados quanto mais próximo do
centro, fazendo fusão (”queimando”). Se a estrela parar no ferro, este
acaba ficando degenerado a ponto de separar os prótons, elétrons e neu-
trons dos átomos. p + e− → n + νe ⇒ acumulam-se neutrons no centro
(neutron star). Camadas exteriores caem para o núcleo de neutrons ⇒
type-II supernova. Isto é diferente das massas pequenas e intermediárias,
que acabam formando a nebulosa planetária e se tornando anãs brancas.
3. Por que se dá o flash de He em estrelas como o Sol, mas não em estrelas
de massas maiores que ≈ 2.25MSol ?
R:
Porque o núcleo de He é degenerado nas estrelas menores, tal que quando
59
Figure 21: Lines of sight through a planetary nebula. (a) Appearance.The
shaded regions represent the places where the lines of sight pass though the
shell.The line of sight near the edge passes through more material than that
through the center.This is responsible for the ringlike appearance. (b) Doppler
shifts. Material on the near side is moving toward the observer, producing a
blueshift, and material on the far side is moving away, producing a redshift.
a queima de He começa, o consequente aumento na temperatura não leva

à expansão e arrefecimento do gás. Portanto, a emissão de energia é
”explosiva”, sobretudo levando em conta que o processo 3α de queima do
He é altamente dependente da temperatura. Já nas estrelas maiores, o
núcleo de He não é degenerado, pelo que o gás expande e arrefece com o
aumento da temperatura, controlando a emissão de energia.
4. Como criaria um modelo simplificado de uma estrela totalmente degener-
ada?
R:
usaria inteligência artificial porque nao aguento mais
5.6 Problemas
:
1.
L
Ṁ = −4 × 10−13 η M⊙
gR
a) Explique qualitativamente porque entram L, g e R na equação da
maneira que entram.
R:
L é uma medida de output de energia, logo é diretamente proporcional à
60
taxa de perda de massa. g é inversamente proporcional a Ṁ porque mais
gravidade = matéria mais presa à estrela. R é inversamente proporcinal a
Ṁ pois se a estrela é maior, há menos fluxo radiativo escapando a estrela
pois tem de atravessar uma distância maior.
b) Estime a taxa de perda de massa de uma estrela AGB de 1M⊙ com

uma luminosidade de 7000L⊙ e uma temperatura de 3000K.
R:
OBS.: deixou-se tudo em unidades solares.
Obtemos R a partir de L = 4πR2 σTe4 :
s
L
L = 4πR2 σTe4 ⇔ R =
4πσTe4
s
R L/L⊙
= = 310.25
R⊙ T 4 /T⊙4
GM
Obtemos g a partir de g = R2 :
2
g M R⊙
= = 1.039 × 10−5
g⊙ M⊙ R
Finalmente,
Ṁ = 8.68 × 10−7 M⊙ /ano
c) Mostre que a relação dada acima pode se escrever como

LR
Ṁ = −4 × 10−13 η M⊙
M
R:
g = GM/R2
Logo,
2 2
g GM R⊙ M R⊙
= 2 =
g⊙ R GM⊙ M⊙ R
Logo em unidades solares temos
M
g=
R2
Substituindo na expressão encontra-se o desejado.
d) Se L, R e η não variarem no tempo (não é certo), deduza uma expressão

que dê a massa em função do tempo. Represente a massa inicial da fase
de perda de massa como M0 .
61
R:
dM LR
Ṁ = = −4 × 10−13 η
dt M
dM
M = −4 × 10−13 ηLR = C (constante)
dt
Z t Z t
dM
M dt = Cdt
0 dt 0
Z t Z t
M dM = C dt
0 0
2
M t
| = Ct
2 0
M 2 (t) − M 2 (0) = 2Ct
q
M = 2Ct + M02
q
M = −8 × 10−13 ηLR + M02
e) Tomando L e M0 dados na alı́nea b e R = 310R⊙ , quanto tempo

tardaria a estrela até atingir a massa do núcleo de carbono-oxigênio de-
generado (0.6M⊙ )?
R:
M 2 (t) − M02
q
M= 2Ct + M02 ⇔ t =
2C
t = 368663.6 anos
2. Considere a Figura 14. Faça uma estimativa ”back of the envelope” da

escala de tempo Kelvin-Helmholtz de uma estrela de 5M⊙ no ramo subgi-
gante. Compare com o tempo de 350000 anos que os modelos detalhados
indicam passar entre os pontos 4 e 5 da figura.
R:
GM 2
tKH =
2RL
Tem de pegar Te e L do diagrama (entre os pontos 4 e 5, no meio da
linha). Com L = 4πR2 σTe achamos R, e podemos calcular tKH
3. p′ = 16′ , d = 213 pc.
a) Calcule o diâmetro fı́sico da nebulosa.
R:
1
d= lAU ⇔ lAU = dp′′
p′′
62
p′′ = 16 × 60′′ = 960′′
lAU = 204480AU = 0.911pc
b) Mediu-se que a nebulosa se está a expandir com uma velocidade de 20

km/s. Assumindo que a velocidade é constante, estime a idade da nebu-
losa.
R:
r l
∆t = = = 24208.97 anos
v 2v
6 Remanentes estelares degenerados

• After the planetary nebula is ejected, we are left with the CO core.
• The temperature is not high enough for further nuclear reactions to take
place, and the gas pressure is not high enough to support the star against
gravitational collapse.
• Therefore, the collapse happens until an additional source of pressure ap-
pears: when a high enough density is reached there’s electron degeneracy.
• A degenerate gas is an electron gas in which all the electrons are in the
lowest energy states allowed by the exclusion principle.
• For atoms with many electrons, when you add up all the excitation energies
of the electrons, you find that
E = 2(E0 + E1 + E2 + ...) >> N kT
• That is, E >> N kT overall and Ei >> kT on average, which means elec-
trons are in higher levels Ei than we would guess by just considering the
thermal energy kT available for them. They have much greater energies
than they would in an ordinary gas. These high energy electrons also have
high momenta. They can therefore exert a pressure considerably in excess
of the pressure exerted by an ideal gas at the same temperature.
• The higher pressure is called degeneracy pressure. It is responsible for the
hardness of metals.
• We can also describe this pressure in terms of the uncertainty principle:
∆p∆x ≥ h/4π
• When the density becomes very high, we are confining them to a small
∆x, which implies a large ∆p. Higher uncertainty in momentum means
large momenta are possible, and the electrons with these momenta exert
the degeneracy pressure.
63
• Fermi energy: energy for which T = 0K (zero absoluto) ⇒ total degen-
eracy
h̄2
ϵF = (3π 2 n)2/3
2m
• Vimos antes que:
– Estrelas de massa baixa e intermédia acabariam gerando uma
nebulosa planetária e deixando para trás uma anã branca.
– Estrelas de massa elevada acabariam como supernovas, deixando
para trás uma estrela de neutrões (ou um buraco negro).
– Tanto as anãs brancas como as estrelas de neutrões são degener-
adas.
6.1 Anãs brancas

• Bem confinadas no HR, fracas mas podem ser quentes, abrangem um
grande intervalo de temperaturas (cores!)
• O gás considera-se degenerado se a energia de Fermi for maior que a energia

térmica 3/2kT
• Condição para o gás degenerado: Caroll Ostlie p. 625
T
<D
ρ2/3
com D = 1261Km2 kg −2/3
64
• Para o Sol T
ρ2/3
= 5500Km2 kg −2/3 > D
• Para Sirius B (anã branca) T

ρ2/3
= 37Km2 kg −2/3 << D, de fato de-
generado, pelo que a pressão é dada por P = Kρ5/3 que é o politropo
correspondente a n = 1.5
• Relação massa-volume para anãs brancas:
Mwd Vwd = const
Em que o WD é de White Dwarf. Para M = 1M⊙ , R ≈ 7 × 106 m.

• Para massas maiores, o volume diminui. Logo a densidade aumenta,
fazendo o momento dos eletrões aumentar e entrar no regime relativista
em que P = Kρ4/3
• Limite de Chandrasekhar: Mas o regime relativista é dinamicamente
instável. Existe uma massa máxima (limite de Chandrasekhar) de 1.44M⊙ .
• Nas anãs brancas, a energia é transportada sobretudo por condução de

electrões (os electrões podem viajar bastante sem serem absorvidos). A
condução é muito eficiente e o interior é quase isotérmico.
• (16.5 Caroll Ostlie) a luminosidade é
L = CTc7/2
4
Em que C é uma constante. Note-se que L também é proporcional a Tef f
• A perda de energia deve-se sobretudo à diminuição da energia cinética dos

núcleos, não dos eletrões, pois os estados mais baixos estão ocupados e
portanto eles permanecem com energia alta: não podem radiar energia e
descer
65
• A energia disponı́vel para radiação é
MW D 3
U= kTc
AmH 2
Onde A = Z + N do elemento, mH = massa do núcleo de H. Como o
elemento é carbono, AmH = mC = 12u = massa do núcleo de carbono.
Logo M mC é o número total de núcleos na anã branca. Multiplicando
wd
pela energia cinética média 23 kTc , temos a energia total disponı́vel para
radiação.
• Tempo de arrefecimento da anã branca (estimativa furreba):
U 3 Mwd k
τcool = =
Lwd 2 AmH CTc5/2
This is an underestimate, because the cooling timescale increases as Tc

decreases.
• Como o consumo da energia interna fornece a luminosidade, tem-se
−7/5
dU 5 t
− = Lwd = L0 1 +
dt 2 τ0
6.2 Neutron stars

• Neutron Degeneracy:
Because neutron stars are formed when the degenerate core of an aging
supergiant nears the Chandrasekhar limit and collapses, we take MCh ≈
1.4M⊙ for a typical neutron star mass. That would consist of 1.4M⊙ /mn ≈
1057 neutrons. The star is supported by neutron degeneracy pressure: neu-
trons are also fermions and thus subject to the Pauli exclusion principle.
Neutrons stack up in progressively larger energy states and cannot climb
down, keeping a high momentum which exerts pressure to maintain the
star against gravitational collapse.
• A velocidade de escape clássica é de ≈ 0.643c. Claramente um problema
relativista.
• Relação massa-volume análoga à das anãs brancas.
• Neutron drip: When the density is even higher (4 × 1014 kgm−3 ), the
minimum energy arrangement is one in which (due to the Pauli exclusion
principle) some of the neutrons are found outside the nuclei. Now the star
is a mix of: i) a lattice of neutron-rich nuclei; ii) nonrelativistic degenerate
free neutrons; iii) relativistic degenerate electrons.
• As propriedades deste material ultra denso ainda são mal compreendidas.
66
• A figura 6.2 mostra a evolução da estrutura da estrela com o aumento da
densidade, e a figura 6.2 mostra um modelo de uma estrela de neutrons
tı́pica (M = MCh ≈ 1.4M⊙ ).
• Although the details are sensitive to the equation of state used, this model
displays some typical features.
1. Outer crust: consists of heavy nuclei, in the form of either a fluid
”ocean” or a solid lattice, and relativistic degenerate electrons.
2. Inner crust: consists of a lattice of nuclei, a superfluid of free neu-
trons, and relativistic degenerate electrons. The bottom of the inner
crust occurs where ρ ≈ ρnuc ⇒ and the nuclei dissolve.
3. Interior: consists primarily of superfluid neutrons, with a smaller
number of superfluid, superconducting protons and relativistic de-
generate electrons.
4. Core: ???? ninguém sabe
• Superfluid = flows with no viscosity; superconducting = transfers energy
with no resistance.
• Rotation of neutron stars: when a core collapses to become a neutron
star, the size shrinks (r down), which means that for angular momentum
L = mvr to be conserved, it has to spin faster (v up).
• Strong magnetic field (complicated reason)
• Extremamente quentes. T ≈ 1011 K no inı́cio, chegando aos T ≈ 106 K
que terá durante umas dezenas de milhares de anos. Para esta T ≈ 106
temos luminosidade comparável à do Sol.
67
• O comprimento de onda máximo no espectro de corpo negro é
λmax ≈ 2.9nm (Raios-X)
• Limite de Chandrasekhar para as estrelas de neutrões

Mn Vn = constante
Para Mn = MCh = 1.4M⊙ , tipicamente tem-se Rn = 11km.
• A relatividade geral impõe limites a massa que pode aguentar
2.2M⊙ sem rotação
2.9M⊙ com rotação
• Para estrelas maiores, nada (quarks??) pode parar o colapso... levando a
um buraco negro estelar, ou uma (hipotética) estrela de quarks.
6.3 Pulsares
• Pulsars are neutron stars spinning. On the surface of the neutron star,
there is some emission point (or ”hot spot”) producing a beam of radiation,
like a lighthouse beam. We can only see the radiation when the beam is
pointing towards us. This creates a cycle in which we detect a ”pulse” of
EM radiation every pulse cycle P .
6.4 Para refletir

1. Para estrelas degeneradas (anãs brancas ou estrela de neutrões) verifica-
se uma extraordinária relação entre massa e volume. Qual é? Como
modelaria de uma forma simples uma estrela destas?
R:
É a relação descoberta por Chandrasekhar, M V = constante. Não sei
como modelaria
68
2.
3.
4. O que é uma binária de contacto?
R:
É um sistema de duas estrelas que orbitam uma a outra, sendo que uma
delas preenche seu lobos de Roche a ponto de transferir massa para a
outra.
5.
6.
6.5 Problemas
1. Assumindo (incorretamente) que as oscilações de δ Cephei são sinusoidais,
com uma amplitude de velocidade de ≈ 20km/s e um perı́odo de 5d8h48m,
determine o aumento máximo que o seu raio pode ter (com referência ao
raio de equilı́brio).
R:

2π
R(t) = R0 + A sin t
Π

dR 2π 2π
V (t) = = A cos t
dt Π Π
2πA
Ou seja, a amplitude da velocidade é Π , que é 20km/s. Então
Π(s)
A = 20(km/s) = 1.476 × 106 km
2π
R = R0 + 1.476 × 106 km
2. Calcule a velocidade de escape de uma anã branca com 1M⊙ .

R:
∆K = −∆U
1 2 GmM⊙
0 − mvesc = 2
2 Rwd
r
2GM⊙
vesc =
Rwd
Uma anã branca de 1M⊙ tem raio aproximado de 7 × 106 m, logo
vesc ≈ 6.16 × 106 m/s
69
3. Qual é a energia térmica armazenada por uma anã branca de 1M⊙ e
T = 107K? Assumindo que radia como um corpo negro de T = 104K,
qual seria a sua escala do seu tempo de vida enquanto objecto luminoso?
R:
Energia disponı́vel para radiação:
Mwd 3 1.989 × 1030 3
U= kT = 1.381 × 10−23 × 107K = 2.068 × 1040 J
mC 2 1.993 × 10−26 2
Taxa de emissão dessa energia:
2
L = 4πRwd σT 4 = 4π(7 × 106 )2 σ(104)4 = 3.49 × 1023 W
Logo
τ = U/L = 1.8764 × 109 yr
4. Apresente um argumento analı́tico para afirmar que a mecânica newtoni-

ana não é adequada para descrever estrelas de neutrões.
R:
Se M = 1.4M⊙ , podemos considerar R = 11km, pelo que a velocidade de
escape é r
2GM
vesc = = 1.84 × 108 ≈ 0.62c
R
Situação claramente relativista
5. Deduza a condição sobre a temperatura e a densidade para ter um gás
degenerado.
R:
Embora a degeneração não seja completa a T > 0K, presumir que é
completa é uma boa aproximação para uma anã branca. Para ionização
completa, o número de eletrões por unidade de volume é

no. electrons no. nucleons Z ρ
ne = =
nucleon volume A mH
Em que mH = massa de um átomo de hidrogênio. Então a energia de
Fermi é:
2/3
h̄2 2 2/3 h̄2

2 Z ρ
ϵF = 3π ne = 3π
2me 2me A mH
Agora comparamos a energia de Fermi ϵF com a energia térmica média
de um eletrão 3/2kT . Se 3/2kT < ϵF então o gás é degenerado, i.e.
2/3
h̄2

3 Z ρ
kT < 3π 2
2 2me A mH
2 2/3
T h̄2 3π Z
< =D
ρ2/3 3me k mH A
70
7 Formação Estelar
7.1 Cenário
• As estrelas se formam a partir do colapso gravitacional de nuvens de gás
interestellar
• A Via Láctea tem uma grande quantidade de material para formar estrelas
7.2 Formação de Protoestrelas

• The virial theorem 2K + U = 0 describes the condition of equilibrium for
a stable, gravitationally bound system.
– If 2K > |U |, the force due to gas pressure will dominate the force of
gravity and the cloud will expand.
– If 2K < |U |, the cloud will collapse.
The boundary between these two cases describes the critical condition for
stability when rotation, turbulence, and magnetic fields are neglected.
• Potential energy of the cloud:
3 GMc2
U ∼−
5 Rc
Where Mc , Rc are the mass and radius of the cloud
• Internal Kinetic energy of the cloud:
3
K= N kT
2
• Jeans Criterion for gravitational collapse:
We know that
Mc
N=
µmH
Where µ = mean molecular weight, and
1/3
4πRc3

3Mc
Mc = V ρ = ρ ⇔ Rc =
3 4πρ0
Thus from 2K < |U |, the condition for collapse becomes, isolating Mc ,
3/2 1/2
5kT 3
Mc > MJ =
GµmH 4πρ0
Where MJ = Jeans’ mass. Isolating Rc we’d get
1/2
15kT
Rc > RJ = (60)
4πGµmH ρ0
Where RJ = Jeans’ length.
71
• The Jeans mass derivation above neglected the important fact that there
must exist an external pressure on the cloud due to the surrounding in-
terstellar medium.
• Bonnor-Ebert mass: critical mass required for gravitational collapse in
the presence of an external gas pressure of P0 .
cBE vT4
MBE = 1/2
P0 G3/2
p
Where vT = kT /µmH = isothermal sound speed (γ = 1), and
dimensionless constant cBE ≈ 1.18.
• Making the simplifying (and probably unrealistic) assumption that any
existing pressure gradients are too small to influence the motion appre-
ciably ( dP
dr small), then the cloud is essentially in free-fall (and thus T is
constant) during the first part of its evolution.
d2 r Mc ρ0 dP d2 r Mc
ρ0 2
= −G 2 − ⇒ 2 = −G 2
dt r dr dt r
• Free-fall timescale: 1/2

3π 1
tf f =
32 Gρ0
Typically, T = 10K, Mc = 1M⊙ , Rc = 0.1pc, ρ = 10−17 kgm−3 , thus
tf f ≈ 4 × 105 yr
• Homologous collapse: free fall is independent of the initial radius of
the sphere. Consequently, as long as the original density of the spherical
molecular cloud was uniform, all parts of the cloud will take the same
amount of time to collapse, and the density will increase at the same rate
everywhere.
• Inside-out collapse: if the cloud is somewhat centrally condensed when
the collapse begins, the free-fall time will be shorter for the material near
the center than for material farther out. Thus, as the collapse progresses,
the density will increase more rapidly near the center than in other regions.
• Fragmentation: refer to Equation 60. Since during free-fall T is constant
and ρ increases, MJ must decrease. After collapse has begun, any initial
inhomogeneities in density will cause individual sections of the cloud to
satisfy Mc > MJ independently and begin to collapse locally, producing
smaller objects within the original cloud.
• Our implicit assumption that the collapse is isothermal has problems:
clearly stars are hotter than the original temperature of the cloud (10 −
100K).
72
• At the isothermal extreme, if the energy that is released during a gravi-
tational collapse is radiated away efficiently, the temperature can remain
nearly constant. At the adiabatic extreme, if the energy cannot be trans-
ported out of the cloud at all, then the temperature must rise.
• Adiabatic collapse: from thermo,
T = K ′′ ργ−1
Where K ′′ = constant, and γ = ratio of specific heats. Thus we’d have

MJ ∝ ρ(3γ−4)/2 . For atomic hydrogen, γ = 5/3, so
MJ ∝ ρ1/2
I.e. the Jeans mass (minimum mass for collapse) increases with increasing
density for a perfectly adiabatic collapse of a cloud. The result is a mini-
mum mass for the fragments produced. We can make a crude estimate:
Mmin = 0.2 − 0.5M⊙
• Evolution of the cloud:
– Initially, the early stages of the free-fall collapse are nearly isothermal
because light near the center of the collapse can travel significant
distances before being absorved by any dust.
– Owing to an initial slight increase in density toward the center of
the cloud, the free-fall timescale is shorter near the center and the
density increases more rapidly there (inside-out).
– When the density of the material near the center of the collapse
region reaches ρ ∼ 10−10 , the region becomes optically thick and the
collapse becomes more adiabatic.
73
– The increased pressure of heat not being able to escape when the
collapse becomes adiabatic substantially slows the rate of collapse
near the core. At this point the central region is nearly in hydrostatic
equilibrium (r ∼ 5AU ). This central object is the protostar.
– When the infalling material meets the nearly hydrostatic core, a
shock wave develops where the speed of the material exceeds the
local sound speed. The infalling material loses a lot of its K to give
T to the core, increasing its L.
– When T ∼ 1000K, the dust within the developing protostar begins
to vaporise and the opacity drops. This means that the radius R
where τ = 2/3 is reduced, approaching the surface of the core. Since
L = 4πR2 σTe4 and L remains high in this phase, we know Te must
increase to compensate for the loss of R.
– When T ∼ 2000K, molecular hydrogen begins to dissociate into in-
dividual atoms. To separate H2 , energy is absorbed which would
otherwise provide pressure to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium. As
a result, the core becomes unstable and a second collapse occurs.
At this point, the core mass is still much less than its final value,
implying accretion is still ongoing.
– After the second core collapse, a second shock wave happens as the
envelope continues to accrete falling material.
– We reach the flat part of Figure 7.2, where the temperature is high
enough such that deuterium (21 H) begins to burn, producing up to
60% of the luminosity of the 1M⊙ protostar.
– When the deuterium is depleted, the nuclear reactions stop and the
luminosity decreases, leading to the sharp turn downwards in Figure
7.2.
– Now we change timescales from free-fall to nuclear reactions: tf f →
tKH .
– Extra electrons coming from the ionisation of heavier elements in the
gas go to H ⇒ the opacity of the outer layers becomes dominated
by the H − ion. This large opacity causes the envelope to become
convective.
– Hayashi Track: track in HR diagram that happens because of the
constraints that convection puts on the structure of a star. To the
right of the track, no stable stars can exist; To the left of the track,
stable stars exist.
∗ With the high H − opacity on the surface, the star is completely
convective in the beginning. Deuterium burning stars on the
black square of Figure 7.2.
∗ As the central temperature continues to rise (star still contract-
ing), increasing levels of ionisation decrease the opacity in that
74
region and a radiative core develops, progressively encompassing
more of the star.
∗ At the point of minimum luminosity following the descent in the
track, the radiative core allows energy to escape into the con-
vective envelope more readily, causing the luminosity to increase
again. Since the star is still shrinking, T is still rising.
∗ The temperature is high enough for the first two steps of the
PP-I chain (H → He) and CNO cycle reaction C → N to begin.
∗ At the point of maximum luminosity after the minimum, the
rate of nuclear energy production has become so great that the
central core is forced to expand.
∗ When the 126 C is finally exhausted, the core reaches a sufficiently
high temperature for the rest of the PP-I chain to become im-
portant.
• Role of angular momentum in disc formation: figure 22
7.3 Para Refletir

1. Explique porque são as regiões densas e frias as mais prováveis para a
formação de estrelas.
75
Figure 22: Fragmentation of a collapsing interstellar cloud. a) The cloud is ini-
tially rotating as shown. As it collapses, the angular momentum J is conserved.
b) As the cloud becomes smaller, its angular speed ω must increase to keep the
angular momentum fixed. The rotation inhibits collapse perpendicular to the
axis of rotation, and the cloud flattens (massa de pizza). c) Unable to collapse
any further, the cloud breaks up, with the angular momentum being divided
between the spin and orbital angular momenta of the individual fragments.
R:
Se forem mais densas, é mais provável para a força gravitacional causar
colapso, o que não pode ser dito para uma nuvem muito dispersa. Além
disso, se a nuvem estiver mais fria, as partı́culas se movem com menos
velocidade, permitindo novamente que a força gravitacional faça o seu
trabalho.
2. À medida que uma nuvem colapsa, o que acontece à massa de Jeans dos
fragmentos?
R:
Como MJ ∝ ρ−1/2 , a medida que a nuvem colapsa a densidade aumenta,
levando a uma diminuição da massa de Jeans. Durante o colapso, qual-
quer inhomogeneidade inicial na densidade causará partes diferentes da
nuvem a satisfazerem Mc > MJ separadamente, causando colapso indi-
vidual destas partes (fragmentação).
76
3. Como pode a formação de vários sistemas estelares facilitar o processo de
formação estelar?
R:
Estrelas já existentes podem ajudar a fornecer matéria/energia para a
formação de novas estrelas, por meio de ventos solares e encontros próximos
entre estrelas e nuvens. Ambos os processos podem iniciar colapsos grav-
itacionais em nuvens, causando formação estelar.
4. Como pode uma nuvem gravitacionalmente ligada dar origem a uma as-
sociação de estrelas não ligadas gravitacionalmente?
R:
Por meio da fragmentação, a nuvem pode gerar múltiplas estrelas, cujo
movimento pode levar a um subsequente afastamento tal que as estrelas
não ficam mais gravitacionalmente ligadas.
5. Recordando os resultados para o equilı́brio hidrostárico, (...)
R:
7.4 Problemas
1. Mostre que a massa de Jeans também se pode escrever como:
cJ vT4
MJ = 1/2
P0 G3/2
Onde vT é a velocidade isotérmica do som e P0 a pressão a pressão asso-

ciada à densidade ρ0 e cJ ≈ 5.46.
R:
Sabemos que
kT kT
vT2 = ⇔ mH =
µmH µvT2
P V = N kT ⇔ P = N kT /V
mas
M M kT
N= ⇒P = = ρvT2
µmH V µmH
3 1/2

Substituindo mH e P na expressão original, e tendo em conta que 53/2 4π ≈
5.46 = cJ
cJ vT4
MJ = 1/2
G3/2 P0
2. Assumindo que a aceleração de queda livre da superfı́cie de uma nuvem

em colapso se mantém constante durante todo o colapso, deduza uma
77
expressão para o tempo de queda livre. Mostre que difere por um termo
da ordem da unidade relativamente a expressão dada na aula:
1/2
3π 1
tf f =
32 Gρ0
R:
A aceleração é constante durante todo o colapso, então consideramos o
raio e massa no momento do colapso:
GMJ
a=
RJ2
Seja tq o tempo de queda:
Z tq Z tq
dr dr
= at ⇔ dt = a tdt
dt 0 dt 0
1 GMJ 2
r(tq ) = RJ = t
2 RJ2 q
s
2RJ3
tq =
GMJ
Assumindo uma nuvem esférica,
MJ 3MJ 3MJ
ρ0 = = ⇔ RJ3 =
V 4πRJ3 4πρ0
Substituindo na expressão para tq ,
r
3
tq =
2πGρ0
Comparando com a expressão da aula,
tq 4
= ≈ 1.27
tf f π
3. (...)
a) (...)
R:
d2 r dvr GMr
= vr = − 2 + rω 2
dt2 dr r
L0 = Lf ⇔ I0 ω0 = Iω
Assumindo que a nuvem é uma esfera, I = 52 M r2 , i.e.
r 2
0
r02 ω0 = r2 ω ⇔ ω = ω0
r
78
Substituindo,
Z f Z f
GMr
vr dvr = − + rω 2 dr
i i r2
1 2 GMr ω2 r4
(vf − v02 ) = − 0 20
2 rf 2rf
Mas v0 = 0 pelo enunciado, e vf = 0 pois é quando o colapso acaba. Então
GMr ω2 r4
= 0 20
rf 2rf
Isolando rf ,
ω 2 r04
rf =
2GMr
b) (...)
R:
ω0 = 2.647 × 10−16 rad/s
c (...)
R:
v0 = r0 ω0 = 4.1m/s
d (...)
R:
2 1
Li = Lf ⇔ M r02 ω0 = M r2 ω 2
5 2
ω = 2.253 × 10−10 rad/s
e) (...)
R:
2π
∆t = = 883 anos
ω
r
4π 2 a3
∆tKep = = 1000 anos
GM
79

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[Resumo] Astrofı́sica

1 The Continuous Spectrum Of Light

1.2 The Magnitude Scale

• Relationship between absolute magnitude and luminosity:

1.3 Blackbody Radiation

λmax T = 2.9 × 10−3 m · K (6)

• As the temperature of a blackbody increases, it emits more energy per

Where A = area of emission. For a spherical star, A = 4πR2 and we have

L = 4πR2 σTe4 (7)

Where Te = effective temperature.

1.4 Colour Index

– Because a colour index is the difference between two magnitudes, it

BC = mbol − V = Mbol − MV (8)

1.5 Efeito do meio interestelar

(m − M ) = 5 log(d) − 5 = 5 log(4.77 × 10−6 pc) − 5 = −31.6

• Qual é a sua magnitude absoluta?

5. Para uma estrela de raio R, cujo espectro é o de um corpo negro à temper-

• Collision excitation rates depend on the temperature of the gas, because

• Boltzmann Distribution: determines the ratios between populations.

Figure 2: Boltzmann distribution for the ratio between two populations as a

• If we know the temperature in the atmosphere of a star, we can use the

2.1 The Hertzprung-Russel diagram

2.2 Para Refletir

2. Qual a energia necessária para ionizar hidrogênio no estado n = 2? A que

3. Para um gás H neutro, qual é a temperatura à qual o número de átomos

• nj /ni = 1/100 = 0.01

4. De acordo com a equação de Boltzmann, quando T → ∞, como se dis-

7. Num aglomerado estelar em Orion, a 500pc, identificamos uma estrela cujo

Depois utilizamos a relação entre magnitude e luminosidade, com o Sol

L = 50.81LSol = 1.962 × 1028 W

3 Atmosferas estelares e transporte radioativo

Já para um campo isotrópico de radiação (isotrópico = direção não muda

• Tanto o fluxo radiativo como a intensidade especı́fica descrevem a luz re-

Figure 5: a) medindo intensidade especı́fica Iλ ; b) medindo fluxo radiativo Frad

• Perda de intensidade por absorção

dIλ = −κλ ρIλ ds

κλ = coeficiente de absorção, ou opacidade. é a seção eficaz de absorção

• Livre percurso médio:

n =partı́culas/vol; σ =seção eficaz.

N = número de ”passos” de cada fotão.

Os fotões escapam, em média, a partir de τ ≈ 2/3. Ou seja, em qualquer

dτλ = −κλ ρds

Atenção: olha-se para trás. s é a distância olhando para a estrela.

dIλ = +jλ ρds

Juntando com a perda por absorção obtemos a primeira equação de trans-

• Equação de transferência radiativa (1ª forma):

dIλ = −κλ ρIλ ds + jλ ρds

jλ = coeficiente de emissão do gás.

• Equação de transferência radiativa (forma comum): Expressa a com-

onde Sλ = jλ /κλ é a função de fonte (source function) → razão entre

– A atmosfera de estrelas próximas da sequência principal são fisica-

• Aproximação de Eddington: I = Iin + Iout

– Para cada capa, I = Iin + Iout .

Fc = fluxo do espectro contı́nuo fora da linha espectral.

• Core da linha: onde fica o λ0 central.

3. Alargamento por pressão (e colisões): Consideramos os dois

• Modelo Schuster-Schwarzschild: presumo que a fotosfera se porta

(a) Calcule o livre percurso médio de um fotão no centro do Sol.

ρ = 1.53 × 105 kgm−3 , κλ = 0.217m2 kg −1

Precisamos antes do número de passos N , obtido a partir da distância

onde θ é o ângulo entre o raio luminoso e a direção radial (para fora)

Com a aproximação de Eddington, temos I = Iin + Iout , sendo que

Aproximação da atmosfera cinzenta: não há variação com o c.d.o.: