The Magnitude Scale

Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

•  While cataloging stars in the sky, the Greek

Astronomer Hipparchus developed the
“magnitude” system, which is still used by
astronomers today.
•  Hipparchus gave the brightest stars an
apparent magnitude, m = 1 and the faintest
stars, m = 6. Note that fainter stars have
higher magnitude values
 Classify
brightness of
stars by using
magnitudes

Orion
Constellation
 Classify
brightness of
stars by using
magnitudes
Betelgeuse (α Ori)
m=0.45

δ Ori ο Ori
m=2.40 m=4.70

ζ Ori η Ori
m=1.85 m=3.35

Orion
κ Ori Constellation
m=2.05

Rigel (β Ori)
m=0.15
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects
“Brightness” of an object is measured in terms of its radiant
flux, F, received from the object. F is the total amount of light
energy of all wavelengths that crosses a unit area.

Flux is the number of Joules of light energy per second per one square
meter. Flux has units of Watts / meter2.

The measured flux depends on the intrinsic Luminosity, L and its

distance from the observer. Luminosity has units of Watts (Energy per
second). Same object located farther from the Earth, would appear less
bright - it would have lower flux
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

R
Mathematically, consider a star
of instrinsic Luminosity, L,
surrounded by a spherical shell
of radius, R.
L
Area of Sphere = 4πR2.
The Flux = F = L / (4πR2).
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

Example : Luminosity of the Sun is L⊙ = 3.839 x 1026 W. What is

the flux of the Sun at a distance of 1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m ?
F = L / (4πR2) = 1365 W m-2
This value is defined as the solar irradiance (also called “solar
constant”, S on the inside cover of your book).
What is the flux of the Sun at a distance of 10 parcsecs = 2.063 x
106 AU ?
F1 / F2 = (R2 / R1)2 = (2.063 x 106 AU / 1 AU )2
= 4.3 billion times lower than solar irradiance !
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects
•  Present-day magnitude scale is defined such that the 1
magnitude corresponds to a change in flux by a factor of
2.512.
mA - mB = -2.5 x log10( FA / FB )

•  If FA = FB x 2.512, then
-2.5 x log10 (FA / FB ) = -2.5 x log10 (2.512)
=-2.5 x (0.4) = -1 mag.

•  Thus, mA - mB = -1 mag.
Star A is 1 magnitude brighter than Star B. (Star B is 1 mag
fainter than Star A).
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects
•  In addition, present-day magnitude scale is defined such
that the star Vega has a magnitude of 0 (by definition).
mA - mB = -2.5 x log10( FA / FB )

•  If FA = FB x 2.512, then
-2.5 x log10 (FA / FB ) = -2.5 x log10 (2.512)
=-2.5 x (0.4) = -1 mag.

•  Thus, mA - mB = -1 mag.
Star A is 1 magnitude brighter than Star B. (Star B is 1 mag
fainter than Star A).
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects
•  Present-day magnitude scale is defined such that one
magnitude corresponds to a change in flux by a factor of
2.512.
mA - mB = -2.5 x log10( FA / FB )
•  m⊙ = -26.83 mag for the Sun (denoted by Greek symbol
⊙). The faintest galaxies yet observed have mg = 30 mag
(observed by the Hubble Space Telescope). This
corresponds to a flux ratio of
m⊙ - mg = -2.5 x log10( F⊙/Fg )
F⊙ / Fg = 10-0.4 x (m⊙ - mg) = 10-0.4 x (-26.83 - 30) = 6 x 1022
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

Absolute Magnitude, M, is the magnitude of a an object if it were

placed at a distance of 10 parsecs (definition).
10+0.4(m - M) = (F10 / F) = (d / 10 pc)2
Solving for d: (d / 10 pc) = 100.2(m-M)

m - M = 5 log10(d / 10 pc) or
m - M = 5 log10(d) - 5, for d in units of parsec
m-M is defined as the Distance Modulus.
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects
Absolute Magnitude, M, is the magnitude of a an object if it were
placed at a distance of 10 parsecs (definition). It is intrinsic to an
object and never changes. (Like an object’s Luminosity.)

Apparent Magnitude, m, is the magnitude of an object as it appears

to be. It depends on how far away the object is from the observer.
(Like an object’s Flux.)

They are related by the Distance Modulus, DM = m - M.

 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

Example: What is the absolute magnitude of the Sun ?

Msun = msun - 5 log10(d / 10 pc)
msun = -26.83 and d=1 AU = 4.85 x 10-6 pc.
Msun = +4.74
The distance modulus is: msun - Msun = -31.57
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

Example: What are the absolute magnitude and distance

modulus of the Vega ?
MVega = mVega - 5 log10( d / 10 pc )
mVega = 0. and dVega = 7.75 pc.
MVega = +0.55
The distance modulus is: mVega - MVega = -0.55.
 The Magnitude Scale
Measuring the brightness of astronomical objects

Compare the flux and luminosity of the Sun and Vega.

msun - mvega = -2.5 log10( Fsun / FVega )
Fsun / FVega = 10-0.4(msun-mvega) = 10-0.4(-26.83 - 0) = 54 billion !
Lsun / LVega = Fsun (dsun)2 / FVega (dVega)2 = 0.021
The Sun appears to be more than 50 billion times brighter than
Vega, but the Sun has only 2.1% of the Luminosity of Vega.
Distance matters !
 Classify
brightness of
stars by using
magnitudes

Orion
Constellation
 Classify
brightness of
Betelgeuse (α Ori) stars by using
m=0.45
magnitudes
δ Ori
m=2.40
ο Ori
m=4.70

ζ Ori η Ori
m=1.85 m=3.35

Orion
Constellation
κ Ori m=6.20
m=2.05
Rigel (β Ori)
m=0.15
 Make Observations
(take data)

Ask Questions

Suggest

Scientific Hypothesis

Process Make
Predictions

Results of new Experiments does not Make new Test supports hypothesis, make
support hypothesis. Revise hypothesis Experiments additional predictions and test them
or choose new one. to Test too. Repeat ad nausem.
Predictions
From Malcolm Gladwell’s, Outliers
 The Color Index

The apparent and absolute magnitudes covered so far are

bolometric magnitudes (bolometric comes from the word
bolometer which is an instrument that measures the increase in
temperature in the flux it receives at all wavelengths).
In practice, detectors measure an object’s flux within a certain
wavelength region defined by the sensitivity of the detector.
Astronomers use measurements of an object’s flux within two (or
more) different filters to measure an object’s Color Index.
Blue = 329 nm
Green = 656 nm
Red = 673 nm
 U B R
% Transmittance
V I

Wavelength (nm)
The color of an object can be measured precisely by using filters that
measure the relative flux of the object within narrow wavelength
ranges. Some astronomical filters are:

U : ultraviolet, filter centered at 365 nm

B : blue, filter centered at 440 nm

V : visual, filter centered at 550 nm

R : red, filter centered at 630 nm

I : infrared, filter centered at 900 nm

For more examples of images from many-colored
filters, see:
http://hubblesite.org/gallery/behind_the_pictures/
meaning_of_color/toolbox.php
 The Color Index
The Color index is defined as the difference between the
magnitude of an object measured in two different colors:

Definitions:
U, B, V (other capital letters) refer to the apparent magnitude
measured in that filter.
MU, MB, MV refer to the absolute magnitude measured in that
filter.
 The Color Index
The Color index is defined as the difference between the
magnitude of an object measured in two different colors:
U - B is the color index between ultraviolet and blue light.
B - V is the color index between blue and visual light.
Note that U - B = MU - MB and B - V = MB - MV
Because magnitudes decrease with increasing flux, an object with
smaller color index said to be bluer than an object with higher
color index. Example:
U - B = -2.5 log10 [ F(365nm) / F(440nm) ]
F(365) / F(440) = 10-0.4(U-B)
As U - B gets smaller, 10-0.4(U-B) gets bigger, and the flux at 365nm
gets larger than the flux at 440 nm.
 The Color Index
The relation between apparent magnitude and flux are related by:
U = -2.5 x log10( ∫Fλ x SU(λ) dλ ) + CU

Where the integral is over all

wavelengths. The Sensitivity
Function, SU, is the fraction of the
objects flux that is detected as a
function of wavelength in the U
filter (each filter has a sensitivity
function), like those shown here:
 T = 30,000 K U filter

Log Flux per nm

B filter
T = 10,000 K V filter

6,000 K

3,000 K
1000 K

100 1000 10,000

Wavelength [nm]
Objects with different blackbody temperatures have different
amounts of light measured in the UBV filters.
(Measuring the relative amount of light at even shorter or
longer wavelengths would give us even more information !)
 T = 30,000 K U filter

Log Flux per nm

B filter
T = 10,000 K V filter

6,000 K

3,000 K
1000 K

100 1000 10,000

Wavelength [nm]
We calculate the amount of light in a filter by integrating
the filter and the object’s spectrum, e.g., for the U-filter:
U = -2.5 x log10( ∫Fλ x SU(λ) dλ ) + CU
Where Fλ is the Flux per nm of the object, SU is the
filter’s Sensitivity function and CU is a constant.
 The Color Index
A very hot star has a surface temperature of 42,000 K and a less hot
star has a surface temperature of 10,000 K. Estimate their B-V colors
(given that CB - CV = CB-V = 0.65):
B = -2.5 x log10( ∫Fλ x SB(λ) dλ ) + CB
V = -2.5 x log10( ∫Fλ x SV(λ) dλ ) + CV
Approximate that (where Bλ(T) is the Planck function at wavelength λ and
temperature T)
∫Fλ x SB(λ) dλ = B440(T) ΔλB and

∫Fλ x SV(λ) dλ = B550(T) ΔλV

where ΔλB = 98 nm and ΔλV = 89 nm (approximate as square filters)
 The Color Index
B - V = -2.5 x log10( B440(T) ΔλB / B550(T) ΔλV ) + CB-V
B440(T) / B550(T) =
(550/440)5 x [ (ehc/(550nm)kT - 1) / (ehc/(450nm)kT - 1) ]
hc/k =(6.626 x 10-34 J s) x (2.998 x 108 m / s) / (1.38x10-23 J / K)
= 0.0144 [m * K]

∴ B440(42000K) / B550(42000K) = (3.05)x[ 0.865 / 1.180 ] = 2.236

B440(10000K) / B550(10000K) = (3.05) x [ 12.71 / 25.38 ] = 1.527

42,000K => B - V = -2.5 x log10(2.236 x 98nm/89nm) + CB-V = -0.33

10,000K => B - V = -2.5 x log10(1.527 x 98nm/89nm) + CB-V = 0.09

Stars with higher temperatures have lower color index (bluer colors)
Stars with lower temperatures have higher color indexes (redder colors)
 The Color Index
Color is related to temperature

Betelgeuse (α Ori) Recall relation of Flux per unit

wavelength for blackbody
m=0.45 radiation.
T = 3600 K
Appears Redder
Rigel (β Ori)
m=0.15
T = 13,000 K
Appears Bluer
Orion
Constellation
 The Color Index
The Bolometric Correction is defined as the difference between an
object’s bolometric magnitude (the magnitude corresponding to
the flux over all wavelengths) and its visual (V) magnitude.
BC = mbol - V = Mbol - MV
where mbol = -2.5 x log10( ∫Fλ dλ ) + Cbol
Note that there is no sensitivity function (like for the magnitude
measured in each color filter). For the bolometric magnitude, the
integral is over all wavelengths !
 Combine Luminosity and
Color information for Stars
Recall that the luminosity has a strong temperature (T) dependence
L = 4πR2 σT4
Now we know that for objects that emit like blackbodies, their color
has a temperature dependence. This is similar to Wein’s Law:
λmax = C / T (C is a constant)
This means that stars (which emit like blackbodies) can be classified on
a Luminosity - Temperature plot.
 Combine Luminosity and
Color information for Stars
This is the Hertzprung-Russell
(HR) diagram, which is a stellar
classification system developed by
Ejnar Hertzprung and Henry
Norris Russel in Denmark
around 1910.
The HR diagram relates the
magnitudes and colors of stars as
a function of their temperature.
Ejnar Hertzsprung Henry Norris Russell
We will return to this later this
semester.
Brighter

Absolute Magnitude (M)

(Luminosity)

Theoretical HR
diagram

Hotter
Temperature (Color, B-V)
 30,000 K 7500 K 5000 K 4000 K 3000 K
Brighter
Absolute Magnitude (M)
(Log Luminosity)

(Lines are Theoretical,

expected luminosities and
temperatures of stars)
Text
HR diagram where data points
show measurements from 22,000
real stars from the Hipparcos
satellite.

Hotter
Log Temperature (Color, B-V)