Astronomy

The branch of science which deals with celestial objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole.

Cosmology

The branch of which deals with the origin and development of the universe. Modern cosmology is
dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
Units of distances used in space

1. Astronomical unit( AU)- The average distance between the earth and the sun. It is 1.5
million km( 1.50 x 1011 m)

2. Light year (ly)- Distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year. It is a unit of distance
not of time. It is equal to 9.46x 1015 m

3. Parsec(pc)- One parsec corresponds to the distance at which the mean radius of
the earth's orbit subtends an angle of one second of arc. It is equal to 3.26 ly.
luminosity of a star (L) is defined as the total radiant(electromagnetic energy) energy emitted per unit time.

This is the same as the total power emitted by a star.

In SI units,

luminosity (L )is measured in W or J s−1.

The Sun is the nearest star to us, and astronomers have determined its luminosity to a high degree of accuracy.

The luminosity of the Sun (solar luminosity), often written as Ls, is about 3.83 × 10 26 W. This much amount of
energy is emitting per second from the sun’s surface.
 Radiant flux intensity (F)- Also known as intensity of light

The observed intensity is known as radiant flux intensity F. This is defined as the radiant
power passing normally through a surface per unit area.

Figure shows how, F can be calculated for a star at a distance d from its centre.
The power of the star is its luminosity L, and the surface area of a sphere is 4π𝑑 2 .
standard candle is an astronomical object of known luminosity.

Astronomers can determine the distance of a standard candle by measuring the intensity (F) of the
electromagnetic radiation arriving at the Earth.

Standard candles have been successfully used to determine the distance of far-flung galaxies.

It is amazing that we can do this just by observing the starlight reaching us on Earth.

The two well-known standard candles are Cepheid variable stars and Type 1A supernovae.
Cepheid variable stars In 1908, Henrietta Leavitt discovered that the brightness of Cepheid variable stars varied
periodically, and the period of this variation was related to the average luminosity of the star.

By measuring the period of pulsating cephid stars, astronomers could determine the luminosity of the star.

The star’s distance could then be calculated from the observed radiant intensity at the Earth.

Finding a Cepheid variable star in a distant galaxy meant that the distance of the galaxy itself could be calculated.
 How to measure the distance of stars in galaxies

Normally two methods are applicable

1. Stellar Parallax method- useful to measure the distance of close stars from the earth
(i.e. less than 100 parsec)

Parallax is a method based on measuring two angles and sides of a triangle formed by the star, earth on one side
and the other side six month later. Astronomers find the distance of nearby stars in the space by using a parallax
method.

Astronomers use an effect to find the distance to a nearby star. Its apparent displacement by comparing the distance of star respect to the earth.

Step-1 See the position of an object (nearby star) once and then again six month later.
1 degree parallax angle is equal to 3600 arc second

The sun nearest star distance =1.2948 pc

The earth nearest star distance =1.2948 pc

The Pluto nearest star distance =1.2948 pc

Limitation: If the star has too much distance then parallax angle will become very small to measure and less precise the
distance measurement.
Cepheid Variable stars- A Cepheid variable is a type of star that pulsates radially, varying in both diameter and
temperature and producing changes in brightness with a well-defined stable period and amplitude.

A strong direct relationship between a Cepheid This discovery allows one to know the true luminosity
variable's land pulsation period established
Cepheids as important indicators of cosmic
of a Cepheid by simply observing its pulsation period.
benchmark for scaling galactic and extra galactic
distances.

This in turn allows one to determine the

This robost characteristic of classical
Cepheids was discovered in 1908
by Henrietta Swan Leavitt after studying
thousands of variable stars in the Magellanic
Clouds.
distance to the star, by comparing its known
luminosity to its observed brightness.
The term Cepheid originates from Delta Cepheid in the
constellation Cepheus, identified by John Goodricke in 1784, the
first of its type to be so identified.
Animation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXJBrRmHPj8
Type 1A supernovae

Type 1A supernovae stars implode rapidly towards the end of their lives, and scatter
matter and energy out into space. This implosion event can be brighter than the
galaxy itself. The luminosity of the star at the time of the implosion is always the
same. From this, astronomers can estimate the star’s distance from the Earth.
Colours of radiation emitted by a hot body (star) depends on its temperature
Shift in wavelength of radiation corresponding to maximum intensity is a function of temperature

The higher the temperature of a body:

(i) the shorter the wavelength at the

peak (maximum) intensity.
Intensity

(ii) the greater the intensity

of the electromagnetic
radiation at each wavelength.
Wein’s displacement law states that the wavelength of radiation (corresponding to maximum intensity) emitted by a blackbody is
inversely proportional to its absolute temperature.

The experimental value of the constant is 2.9 × 10−3 m K.

the product of maximum wavelength corresponds to maximum intensity and the absolute temperature is constant.

1. Find the temperature of the sun which radiates yellow light of wavelength 500 nm with maximum intensity.

2. Two objects emit maximum radiations at 4500A0and at 1500 A0 then calculate the ratio of the temperature of the
stars.

Day-to-day Application of Wien’s Law

Incandescent bulb light - As the filament's temperature drops, wavelengths lengthen, making the light look redder.
Stefan-Boltzmann law

Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the power radiated by a hot body (black body) across all wavelength per unit
surface area (P) is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the body.

P ∝ 𝑇4 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

P = σ 𝑇4

Where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant which is equal to 5.67 × 10 – 8 W m–2 K –4

The product of P and A gives the luminosity of the star.

L = P x A = 4 π 𝑟 2σ 𝑇 4

Hence, the luminosity of a star depends on two factors:

(i) its surface thermodynamic temperature T and
(ii) its radius r
Numerical
1. The surface temperature of the Sun is 5800 K and wavelength of light at peak intensity is 500 nm. The wavelength at peak
intensity for Sirius-B (a white dwarf star) is 120 nm. The luminosity of this star is 0.056 times that of the Sun. The luminosity
of the Sun is 3.83 × 10 26 W. Calculate the temperature and radius of Sirius-B. (Ans. T= 24 167 K, r = 9.4 x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎)

2. The sun has the surface temperature of 6000K. What is the power per unit area of the thermal radiation from the sun at
its entry to the earth's atmosphere? Take the sun’s radius to be rs and the radius of the earth orbit as 220 rs. The Stefan-
Boltzmann constant = 5.7 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4. [Ans: 4.2 kW m-2]

3. Suppose that the distances from Earth to two nearby stars can be reasonably estimated, and that their measured
brightnesses suggest the two stars have about the same luminosity, L. The spectrum of one of the stars peaks at about 700
nm (so it is reddish). The spectrum of the other peaks at about 350 nm (bluish). Use Wien’s law and the Stefan-Boltzmann
equation to determine (a) the surface temperature of each star, and (b) how much larger one star is than the other?
𝑟
Ans. (a) 4140 K, 8280K (b) 𝑟 = 4
𝑟𝑏
While observing in the sky it is found that the displacement of spectral lines towards longer wavelengths (the
red end of the spectrum) in radiation from distant galaxies and celestial objects. This effect of change in
apparent wavelength or frequency is called red shift.

Red Shift- Increase in observed wavelength is observed by a stationary observer if source of electromagnetic
wave (star) is moving away from it.

Red shift gives the strong evidence for the stars/galaxies moving away from us which justify the expansion of
the universe.

Fractional change in wavelength or frequency due to motion of stars is related with the receding speed of stars. The
fractional change is also known as redshift parameter ( z).

Z =

Δλ = λ𝑜𝑏𝑠 - λ𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 λ𝑜𝑏𝑠 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦.

λ𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 .

It is obtained by observing the materials contained in stars.
Question: In the laboratory, an emission spectral line is observed at a wavelength of 656.4 nm. The same spectral
line, in the spectrum from a distant galaxy, has wavelength 663.1 nm. Calculate the receding speed v of the galaxy.
Ans: 3.1x106 m/s
 The Birth and expansion of Universe

Big Bang is a model of evolution of the

Expansion of fabric of universe
universe from extremely hot and dense
ever since then can be justified
state of mass about 14 million years ago.
by studying the line spectra from
The mass was in point size called
the starts and doppler effect
nutshell(smaller than size of an atom)
known as Red shift.
which was banged in fraction of second.
1. No Science laws are applicable before Big Bang.

2. Matters, energy and time came in existence after Big Bang only.

3. The universe is expanding and cooling continuously.

Astronomers observed the distance stars with high power resolution telescope and found that all
of them are moving away from us. The more distance the galaxy , the faster it moves.

The observed wavelength of all spectral lines from distant galaxies are longer that the ones
observed in the laboratory. Using Doppler effect, it can be concluded as a redshift, means stars
are moving away from us.

The receding speeds of different stars are different. Its relation with distance of stars was
stablished by Edwin Hubble as a Hubble’s law
Working at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California in 1920s, Edwin Hubble analyzed the
unexpected discovery that the recession speed v of the galaxy depends on distance from the earth.

Hubble’s law states that the recession speed (v) of a galaxy/stars is directly proportional to its distance (d) from the
earth.

V∝d
v = H0 d H0 is a Hubble constant whose SI unit is s-1

The experiment value of, H0 = 2.4 x 10-18s-1

or, 72 kms-1 Mpc-1

1 pc=3.26 ly= 3.26 x 9.46x1015 = 3.084x 1016m, 1 Mpc = 106 pc = 3.084x 1022m
The gradient of graph - recession speed vs distance of stars from experimental values gives the value of H0

Scatter of data shows the considerable uncertainty in the observations.

Age of Universe – Let the radius of the universe is R and the
age of the universe is T0. The galaxy at the farthest region is
Receding from us with velocity v,
Hubble law gives,
𝑣
R= −−−− −(𝑖)
𝐻𝑜

As the universe is expanding at same rate, then

R = v T0 --------------(ii)

From equation (i) and (ii)

1 1
T0= = = 14 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐻𝑜 2.4 𝑥 10−18

This data is supported by the observation of radioactivity which led the age of old rock on the earth is about 4.5
billion years.
Model of universe expansion- It can be compared with the dots on the surface of the ever expanding balloon.

All dots are equally spacing along with time.

Temperature of universe-The temperature of universe is estimated by finding the wavelength of cosmic microwave
background radiation CMB ( the radiation energy produced during the big bang). CMB radiation fills the whole
universe with an intensity that is nearly the same in every direction; it has a peak wavelength of 1.1 mm
corresponding to the temperature of 2.7 K.
1. A particular emission spectral line is measured in the laboratory to have a frequency of 7.3 × 10 14 Hz.
(i) Calculate the wavelength of this spectral line in the laboratory.
(ii) Calculate the observed wavelength of this same spectral line in the spectrum of a galaxy moving away from the
Earth at a speed of:
(a) 11 Mm s−1
(b) 7.0 % the speed of light.

(iii) The spectrum of all distant galaxies is redshifted. State and explain what you can deduce about the
Universe.
 2. The recession speed v against distance d graph for some galaxies is shown.

Determine the Hubble constant from this

graph. Explain your answer.
 3.

(a) Define the luminosity of a star.

(b) An astronomer has determined the surface temperature of a white dwarf star to be 7800 K and its radius as
8.5 × 10 6 m. Calculate the luminosity of this star.

(c) The surface temperature T of a star depends on the wavelength λmax at the peak intensity of the emitted
radiation from the star. The T against λmax graph for a cluster of stars in our galaxy is shown.
(i) Use the graph to show Wien’s displacement law is obeyed.

(ii) Estimate the surface temperature of a star with λmax = 400 ± 10 nm.
In your answer, include the absolute uncertainty.

4. Neptune is the farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System. Its distance from the Sun is 30
times greater than the distance of the Earth from the Sun. The radiant flux intensity from the Sun at
the Earth is 1400 W m−2. A space probe is close to Neptune.

Calculate the maximum radiant power received by an instrument of cross-sectional area 1.0 cm2 on
this space probe.

THE END