StudyIQ Complete Geography Handouts (ENG)

STUDYIQ.
COM BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY

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BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY
What is Geography?
• Definition: Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their
environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human
societies spread across it.
The term Geography

What is geography? was coined by
Eratosthenese.
It is study of
Diverse Places
Environment Spaces of
Earth’s Surface
It also includes interaction between Human Being and Physical environment
GEOS means EARTH
Putting together, they

Geography Derived from Greek mean “Description of
Word the Earth”.
GRAPHOS means
DESCRIPTION
PHYSICAL It is study of the processes that

GEOGRAPHY shape the Earth’s surface, the
animals, and plants that inhibit it
Branches of and the spatial patterns they exhibit.
Geography
HUMAN It is associated with humans and

GEOGRAPHY their relationship with
communities, cultures, economics
and interactions with the
environment by studying their
relations with and across locations.
STUDYIQ.COM BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY
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THE UNIVERSE smaller than an atom, an infinite

temperature, and an infinite density.
• The word "universe" is derived from the
▪ The theory proposes that the Universe
Latin word "Universum," which was used by
was once compressed into a single
the Romans to describe the globe and
particle and began expanding
cosmos.
indefinitely after a massive explosion.
• Physical subatomic particles such as
▪ The expansion produced nebulae, which
electrons and protons and non-physical
eventually coalesced into stars and
(such as light, gravitation, space, and so on)
planets.
components make up the Universe.
▪ The scientific community is unanimous
• The universe is a huge wide-open space that that the age of the universe is
holds everything from the smallest particle approximately 13.7 billion years.
to the biggest galaxy. ▪ Approximately 3 lakh years after the big
• Astronomers use a special instrument called bang, atomic matter production causes
a spectroscope to tell whether an object is the universe to become transparent.
moving away from Earth or toward Earth.
• Based on the information from this o The Steady State Theory
instrument, scientists have learned that the ▪ The steady-state theory was formulated
universe is still growing outward in every by Bondi, Gold, and Fred Hoyle.
direction. ▪ According to this theory, the number of
• Scientists believe that about 13.7 billion galaxies in the observable universe
years ago, a powerful remains constant, and new
explosion called the Big galaxies are constantly forming
Bang happened. out of empty space to fill the
• This powerful explosion set gaps left by galaxies that have
the universe into motion crossed the border of the
and this motion continues observable universe.
today. ▪ Consequently, the total mass
• The universe consists of of the observable universe
both Physical (subatomic remains constant. Consequently,
particles like electrons, the universe's steady state is
protons, matter etc.) and
maintained.
Non-Physical (light,
o The Pulsating Theory
gravitation, space etc,)
▪ According to this theory, the universe
components.
• Evolution Of Universe- The three main pulses, or alternately expands and
theories put forward to explain the origin contracts. At this moment, the universe
and evolution of the universe are: is expanding.
▪ In the future, gravitational attraction
o The Big Bang Theory: could halt the universe's expansion,
▪ In 1931, after Edwin Hubble proposed causing it to contract, according to the
the constant expansion of the universe, pulsing theory.
a Belgian cosmologist formulated the Big ▪ After shrinking to a particular size, the
Bang Theory. universe will begin to expand. The
▪ According to the theory of the big bang, universe's alternate expansion and
the entirety of the universe's matter contraction gives rise to pulsating
resided in a single location with a volume universes.
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GALAXIES • Some galaxies are called “spiral” because

• A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust and they look like giant pinwheels in the sky.
billions of stars and their solar system, all held The galaxy we live in, the Milky Way, is a
together by gravity. spiral galaxy.
• The universe has many galaxies, and each • Some galaxies are called “elliptical”
carries millions of stars which are bounded by because they look like flat balls.
a unique force known as gravitational force. • A galaxy may be called “irregular” if it
• There may be millions, or even billions, of doesn’t really have a shape.
stars in one galaxy. There are billions of • A new type of galaxy was discovered
galaxies in the universe. recently, called a “starburst” galaxy. In
• There are approximately 70,000 million stars this type of galaxy, new stars just seem to
in the universe. The solar system where our ‘burst out’ very quickly.
earth exists is in the Milky Way Galaxy. • Andromeda, our closest galactic
• Galaxies are labeled according to their shape. neighbor.
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TYPES OF GALAXIES
Elliptical Galaxies Spiral Galaxies Irregular Galaxies
Flattened balls of old Flattened shape and No particular shape

stars and contains very have bulge in the centre
little gas composed of sold stars.
Universe is expanding or contracting? us learn how the early universe was

formed. The cosmic microwave background
What is CMB?
radiation and the cosmological redshift-
• The cosmic microwave background (CMB) distance relation are together regarded as
is leftover radiation from the Big Bang or the best available evidence for the Big Bang
the time when the universe began. The theory.
CMB is useful to scientists because it helps
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Let’s understand what is wave? time. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz)
which is equal to one wave per second.
• A wave is a disturbance in a medium that
• So higher wavelength-> Low frequency->
carries energy without a net movement of
Low energy.
particles.
• And Shorter wavelength-> Higher
Wave is being characterized by wavelength and Frequency-> High Energy.
frequency.
Now Lets understand what is Red shift and Blue
• Amplitude – Wave is an energy transport Shift:
phenomenon. Amplitude is the height of the
• When you were a kid, at that time you have
wave, usually measured in meters. It is
threw the stone in the pond. The moment
directly related to the amount of energy
stone struck on the surface of the pond; a
carried by a wave. wave was started propagating. This wave
• Wavelength – The distance between travelled towards the shore and when it
identical points in the adjacent cycles of reached to the shore it becomes dead.
crests of a wave is called a wavelength. It is Same thing happens when big bang was
also measured in meters. happened. Waves started propagating and
• Frequency – Frequency of a wave is the still travelling towards the end.
number of waves passing a point in a certain
COSMOLOGICAL RED SHIFT space in a phenomenon known as

cosmological redshift.
• Redshift is the phenomenon in which the
• The greater the redshift, the greater the
wavelength of an object's EM radiation
distance the light has traveled.
increases. There are numerous reasons for
• Redshift and blueshift describe the change
redshift. Major three are identified as:
in the frequency of a light wave depending
o Separation of objects in space (an
on whether an object is moving towards or
example of Doppler Effect)
away from us.
o The universe is expanding (known as
• When an object is moving away from us, the
Cosmological Redshift)
light from the object is known as redshift,
o Strong gravitational fields warp
and when an object is moving towards us,
spacetime and exert a force on light
the light from the object is known as
(known as Gravitational Redshift).
blueshift.
• When an object recedes, light shifts toward
the red end of the electromagnetic
spectrum, i.e., the wavelength increases.
(Don't let the word red confuse you. This
applies to any portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, including X-rays
and gamma rays.)
• The universe is expanding, and that
expansion stretches light traveling through
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SOLAR SYSTEM: • All the planets were formed in the same

period sometime about 4.6 billion years ago.
• The word “solar” refers to the sun; the sun • Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was also
is one of the 150 billion stars of the Milky considered a planet. However, in a meeting
Way. of the International Astronomical Union, a
• It moves through space taking with it a decision was taken that Pluto like other
larger family of objects. celestial objects (2003 UB313) discovered in
• Our solar system is elliptical in shape. recent past may be called 'dwarf planet'
• The sun is the center of the solar system. • The sun is the biggest object in our solar
• Its largest and most important members are system.
the Eight known planets and their moons, • It contains 99.8% of the solar system’s mass.
along with smaller objects called comets,
asteroids, and meteoroids that orbit the
sun.
Sun Reference Data
Diameter: 1.39 million km (870,000 Age: 4.5 billion years

miles)
Mass: 1.989 X 1030 Kg 330,000 x Earth Distance from Earth: 149.6 million km
Density: 1.41 (water=1) Distance to Nearest 4.3 light years
Star:
Solar Wind 3 million km/hr. Luminosity: 390 billion billion
Speed: megawatts
Solar Cycle: at surface: 8 - 11 years Temperature 5,500o C
(9,932oF)
Temperature 14 million Degree Celsius Temperature of 4,000oC
(22.5 million Degree F) (7,232oF)
at Core:
Sunspots:
Rotation Period at 25 Earth days Rotation Period at 35 Earth days
Equator: Poles:
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ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM: and pulling even more dust inwards causing
• Formed about 4.6 billion years ago. a snowball effect.
• Dust cloud collapsed, it formed a solar • About 99.9% of the material fell into the
nebula- a spinning, swirling disk material. centre and became the protosun (no
• Gravity pulled more and more material sunlight yet).
towards center. • Once the centre of the cloud became hot
• Hydrogen atoms began to combine and enough it triggered nuclear fusion, and the
form helium. Sun was born.
• As more matter got pulled in, the centre got • Remaining material after clumping together
denser and hotter, increasing the gravity formed the planets, dwarfs, and moons.
PLANET • Eventually, only the planets and other small

bodies in the solar system remained.
• By the current count of astronomers, our • The four rocky planets at the center of the
solar system includes 8 planets and 5 dwarf solar system Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
planets. Mars, are known as the inner
• The planets were formed during the process planets/terrestrial planets.
of solar system formation when clumps • Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are all
began to form in the disk of gas and dusk composed primarily of gas and are known as
rotating about our young Sun. the outer planets/Jovian Planets.
THREE CRITERIA FOR A

PLANET
Orbit around the Enough gravity to force It has removed debris

Star it into a spherical shape around its orbit
According to International Astronomica Union except satellites, be defined into three distinct
planets and other bodies in our Solar System, categories in the following way:
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(1) A “planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it
around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self- assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round)
gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it shape , (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood
assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite.
shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood
(3) All other objects , except satellites, orbiting the
around its orbit.
Sun shall be referred to collectively as “Small Solar-
(2) A “dwarf planet” is a celestial body that (a) is in System Bodies”.
orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its
Size – Wise Jupiter > Saturn > Uranus > Neptune > Earth > Venus >Mars > Mercury
Inner / Terrestrial Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury
Planets
Jovian / Outer Planets Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus
No. of Satellites Saturn (82)>Jupiter (79) > Uranus (27) > Neptune (13) > Mars (2) > Earth
(1) > Venus (0) & Mercury (0) → (Moon at Jupiter were found by Galileo)
Time Period of Neptune > Uranus > Saturn > Jupiter > Mars > Earth > Venus > Mercury
revolution of Planets
around the sun
ASTEROID BELTS : asteroid belt between Mars and

Jupiter.
• They are rocky remnants left over from the
2. Trojans: These asteroids share an
early formation of our solar system about
orbit with a larger planet, but do
4.6 billion years ago.
not collide with it because they
• Most asteroids are irregularly shaped,
gather around two special places in
though a few are nearly spherical and are
the orbit (called the L4 and L5
known to have a small companion moon
Lagrangian points). There, the
(some have two moons).
gravitational pull from the sun and
• Classification of Asteroids: the planet are balanced.
1. Main Asteroid Belt: The majority
3. Near-Earth Asteroids: These
of known asteroids orbit within the
objects have orbits that pass close
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by that of Earth. Asteroids that

actually cross Earth’s orbital path
are known as Earth-crossers.
KUIPER BELTS : • The Kuiper Belt (also known as the

Edgeworth-Kuiper belt) is a region of the
• Ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt. Solar System that exists beyond the eight
major planets, extending from the orbit of
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Neptune (at 30 AU) to approximately 50 AU • Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary
from the Sun. (1 Astronomical Unit (AU) = criteria except that it has not cleared its debris
distance between the Earth and the Sun) from its orbital neighborhood.
• It is similar to the asteroid belt, in that it • Pluto is a dwarf planet.
contains many small bodies, all remnants
from the Solar System's formation.
COMETS :
• Consisting mainly of objects composed
primarily of ice. • A comet is a small icy solar system body.
• It is similar to the asteroid belt, but is far • Made of frozen gases mainly water, ammonia,
larger—20 times as wide and 20–200 times methane and carbon dioxide.
as massive. • Comets orbit the Sun and are relatively small
• There are bits of rock and ice, comets and solar system objects.
• As comets approach the sun, a portion of their
dwarf planets in the Kuiper Belt. Besides
ice begins to melt. When some parts of the ice
Pluto and a bunch of comets, other melt, the sun's heat causes the other
interesting Kuiper Belt Objects are Eris, materials to evaporate.
Make-make and Haumea. They are dwarf • This results in a halo of light that extends
planets like Pluto. outward as if the object were travelling
• Pluto is the largest known object in Kuiper through space. The ice and compounds such
as ammonia and methane form a coma-like
belt.
cloud-like shell. This is a significant distinction
• Charon is Pluto’s largest moon. between comets and asteroids.
• It has highly elliptical orbits and sometimes
also have a tail.
DWARF PLANETS : • Halley’s is one of the largest comets.
METEORS, METEORITES & METEOROID:
METEOROID It is solid debris originating from any celestial objects.
When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere at high speed

METEORS
and burn up.
METEORITES When a meteoroid doesn’t melt up completely and reach

to the earth surface.
MOON :
• A moon is an object that orbits a planet.
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• Besides planets, moon can circle the dwarf • The moon takes 27 days and 7 hours and 43
planets, large asteroids and other bodies but minutes for both its rotation and revolution
not stars. around the earth. It is the fifth largest
• The moon follows a consistent path around natural satellite of the solar system.
the earth. Even as the moon orbits the
earth, the gravitational attraction between
the earth and the natural satellite keeps it in EARTH :
its orbit.
• Being our nearest celestial neighbor, the • Earth is the third planet from the sun and it
moon appears enormous in comparison to is the only place in the known universe
the stars. confirmed to host life.
• In actuality, all stars and planets are bigger • The major atmospheric components of the
than the moon, but they are so far away that Earth are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20.95%),
they appear to be much smaller. Argon (0.930%), and Carbon Dioxide
• The satellites move around a planet from (0.039%
west to east.
• They do not have their own light but reflect
the light of the sun.
• Earth is an oblate spheroid.

• It has a slightly greater radius at
Shape of Earth equator
• Earth’s poles are slightly flattened
• Earth has one natural satellite i.e.,
the moon
MOTION OF THE EARTH
ROTATION REVOLUTION
• Motion of earth along its axis is known as

• Motion of the earth around the sun is
rotation.
known as Revolution.
• Earth rotates along its axis from west to
east and takes approximately 24 hrs for • It takes 365 ¼ day to revolve around
completing rotation. the sun.
• Every fourth year, February is of 29
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis which makes
days instead of 28 days by adjusting 6
an angle pf 23.5 with the normal.
hoursevery day.
• The seasons on Earth change because the
planet is slightly tilted on its axis as it • Such a year with 366 days is called a
travels around the sun. leap year
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SOLISTICE :
• It is a Latin word that means ‘Stalled Sun’.

• These are the days when the sun’s path in the sky is the farthest north or south.
• Two solstices happen in June (20 Or 21) and December (20 or 21)
SOLISTICE
SUMMER SOLISTICE WINTER SOLISTICE
• On 21st June, the northern • On 22nd December, the tropic of

hemisphere is tilted towards the sun Capricorn receives direct rays of the
and rays of the sun fall directly on sun.
the tropic of cancer. • Longest night and the shortest day
• Longest day and the shortest night all across the northern hemisphere
all across the northern hemisphere occur on 22nd December.
occur on 21st June. • It is summer in the southern
• Arctic region falls within the zone of hemisphere with longer days and
illumination. shorter nights
EQUINOX : • This occurs twice each year, around 20

March and 23 September.
• A solar equinox is a moment in time when • Equal days and equal nights
the Sun crosses the Earth's equator, which is • Neither pole will be tilted towards the sun.
to say, appears directly above the equator
• It is autumn season in the northern
(rather than north or south of the equator).
hemisphere and spring season in the
southern hemisphere on the 23rd of
September.
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PERIHELION AND APHELION :

• Aphelion: When it is farthest from the sun at
• Perihelion: When the Earth is closest to the its aphelion. At aphelion position, the earth is
Sun at its perihelion. At Perihelion position, about 152 million km away.
the earth is about 147 million km away.
Perihelion Aphelion
Perihelion is where the Earth is closest to Aphelion is when our planet reaches its farthest point
the Sun (91.4 million miles, or 147 million from the Sun (94.5 million miles, or 152 million
kilometres). kilometres)
This occurs around January 3 every year. This occurs around July 4.
The closest point to the Sun in a planet’s The furthest point is called aphelion.
orbit is called perihelion.
ECLIPSE : Eclipse happens when a planet or a moon • Total: When the moon completely obscures
gets in the way of sun’s light. the sun. The sky becomes so dark that it
resembles nighttime. Only a small portion of
the planet can observe it.
SOLAR ECLIPSE When moon passes LUNAR ECLIPSE: Depending on how the sun, the
between Earth and moon, and the earth line up, lunar eclipse too can
Sun be categorized as: The Moon moves in an orbit
around Earth. At the same time, Earth orbits the
LUNAR ECLIPSE When Earth blocks Sun.
Sunlight from
reaching the Moon. • Sometimes Earth moves between the Sun
and the Moon.
SOLAR ECLIPSE: Depending on the moon's distance • When this happens, Earth blocks the
from Earth during the event, various types of solar sunlight that normally is reflected by the
obscuration can be observed. They may be Moon.
classified as:
• Partial: When the moon is not perfectly

aligned with the sun, only a portion of the
sun's rays are blocked from reaching the
earth.
• Annular: When the moon covers the sun,
but the sun can be seen around the moon's
edges, giving the impression that the sun is
a bright ring surrounding the moon's dark
disc.
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• Instead of light hitting the Moon's surface, 1. Total lunar eclipse.

Earth's shadow falls on the Moon. 2. Partial lunar eclipse.
• This is an eclipse of the Moon or a lunar • Partial: When only a part of the
eclipse. moon moves into the shadow of the
• A lunar eclipse can occur only when the earth.
Moon is full. • Total: When the earth passes
• A lunar eclipse can be seen from Earth at directly in front of the moon and
casts its shadow on the full moon.
night.
• There are two types of lunar eclipses:
LATTITUDE OR PARALLEL: It is angular distance of • It is measured in degrees from the centre of

a place north or south of the equator. It is measured the earth.
in degrees from the center of the earth. Lines of • The Tropic of Cancer, at roughly 23.5
latitude, also called parallels, are imaginary lines degrees north, and the Tropic of Capricorn,
that divide the Earth. at roughly 23.5 degrees south, is the
boundaries of what we consider the tropics.
• They run east to west but measure your
• The Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle are
distance north or south.
at roughly 66.5 degrees north and south,
• The equator is the most well-known parallel.
respectively.
• At 0 degrees latitude, it equally divides the
• They mark the boundaries of the Arctic and
Earth into the Northern and Southern
Antarctic regions.
hemispheres.
• Each degree of latitude covers about 111
• From the equator, latitude increases as you
kilometres on the Earth’s surface.
travel north or south, reaching 90 degrees at
• One degree of latitude can be further
each pole.
divided into 60 minutes, and one minute can
be further divided into 60 seconds.
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Important Latitude includes:

1. Equator (0)
2. The north pole (90 N)
3. The south pole (90 S)
4. Tropic of cancer (23.5 N)
5. Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 S)
6. Arctic circle (66.5 N)
7. Antarctic circle (66.5 S)
LONGITUDE OR MERIDIAN: • Places east of Greenwich gain time,

whereas places west of Greenwich lose
• The angular distance of a place east or west time.
of the prime meridian. • Latitudes are measured in degrees. All
• Longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles parallel circles from the equator to the
that run from pole to pole. poles are called lines of latitude.
• Royal astronomical observatory at • The equator is also called zero degrees
Greenwich near London as the zero latitude.
• All parallel north of the equator is called
meridian or prime meridian.
northern latitude.
• The meridian of longitude is of equal length • All parallel south of the equator is called
but remember, Latitudes are not equal. southern latitude.
• Local time is determined in relation to • On moving away from either side of the
Greenwich Mean Time. equator, the length of the latitudes
decreases, that is, the equator is the
longest and the length of the latitudes at
the poles is zero.
LONGITUDE OR TIME:
• There is a close relation between longitude
• The Earth rotate from west to east. and time.
• Every 15 degree we go eastward, local time • The Earth makes one complete rotation of
advanced by 1 hour. 360 degrees in 24 hours.
• The Sun takes 12 hours’ time to cross the
Eastern and Western hemispheres.
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• It passes through 15 degrees is one hour or • To keep uniform the time range in all the
one degree in four minutes. territorial limits of the country, the central
• Thus, there is a difference of 4 minutes of meridian is regarded as the Standard
time for one degree of longitude. Meridian whose local time is considered as
• The Earth takes 24 hours’ time to complete the standard time for the whole country.
one Rotation. • There are a total of 24 time zones in the
world.
Indian Standard Time • India standard Meridian passes through UP,

MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra
• Indian Standard Time (IST) represents the
Pradesh.
time observed throughout India, with a time
offset of UTC+5:30.
• Indian Standard Time calculates on the
basis of 82.5° E longitude, just west of the
town of Mirzapur, near Allahabad in the
state of Uttar Pradesh.
• Indian Standard Time calculates on the basis
of 82.5° E longitude, just west of the town of
Mirzapur, near Allahabad in the state of
Uttar Pradesh.
• A clock tower at the Allahabad Observatory
(15° N 82.5° E) calculates local time, though
the National Physical Laboratory, in New
Delhi has been entrusted with the official
time-keeping devices.
The International Date Line
• The international date line (IDL) is an

imaginary line that runs along the Earth's
surface from the North Pole to the South
Pole in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
When you cross it, you either gain or lose a
day depending on which way you are
traveling.
• The international dateline passes through
the mid-Pacific Ocean and roughly follows
a 180 degrees longitude north-south line on
the Earth.
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• It is located halfway around the world from subtracted. When crossing the date line
the prime meridian — the 0 degrees ships gain a day from the calendar and have
longitude line in Greenwich, England. an ‘eight-day week’. It repeats a day. If a
ship crosses the date line on Monday, the
• The International Date Line functions as a
next day will be again Monday and not
“line of demarcation” separating two Tuesday.
consecutive calendar dates.
• The date changes by exactly one day when
it is crossed.
• Crossing the date line from east to west
loses a day
• While crossing the dateline from west to
east, traveller gains a day.
• Rule: On crossing the date line, the ships

adjust the dates according to the following
rules:
• When crossing westward, towards Asia
(from U.S.A. to Japan), a day must be
added. When crossing the date line, ship
misses a day from the calendar and have
‘six day week’. If a ship crosses the date line
on Monday, the next day will be
Wednesday and not Tuesday.
• When crossing eastward towards America
(from Japan to the U.S.A.) a day must be
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Origin and evolution of

earth
Early Theories Modern Theories
Big Bang Theory

Gaseous Nebular
Planetesimal
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Hypothesis
1920
1755 1796 1905
EDWIN
CHAMBERLAIN
IMMANUEL HUBBLE
PIERRE
KANT LAPLACE
MOULTON
Other Early Theories
Gaseous Tidal Binary Star

Hypothesis Hypothesis
1918 1937
Harold James
Russell
Jeffreys Jeans
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I) Early
1) Gaseous Hypothesis by Immanuel Kant (1755):
• Primordial matter was scattered in the universe,

Assumption which consisted of small, hard and cold particles.
• These particles were attracted under the
influence of gravity of their own.
• Kant’s theory was based on Newton’s Law of

Gravity.
• According to him, original substance is made up
Theory
of cold, unmoving, solid particles.
• This particle clashed with each other because of
gravity, due to which it induced angular
momentum and thereafter it began to rotate.
• This rotation has generated heat and cold and
static matter was converted into a rotating
nebula characterized by a strong centrifugal
force.
• The successive rings of matter were thrown off,
which in course of time condensed to form the
planets.
Problem in this
theory
• He did not explain from where the

primordial matter came.
• He did not explain source of energy to cause
the random motion of cold matter.
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2) Nebular Hypothesis by Pierre Laplace (1796):

• In beginning huge and hot nebula was rotating on
its axis. (Solves Kant problem of heat).
Assumption • The nebula was constantly cooling due to heat
loss from its outer surface through the process of
radiation, and as a result, it was constantly
shrinking in size due to cooling contraction.
• Gradual loss of heat resulted into cooling of

Theory
nebula. Thus, gradual loss in the size of nebula.
• Decrease in size increases spinning size and
consequently centrifugal force exceeded the
centripetal force.
• Outer ring(layer) is separated from the remaining
part due to excessive cooling of outer surface.
• Original ring was divided into nine rings and each
ring moved away from other ring.
• Materials of each ring cooled condensed to form
planet.
No proper
explanation of
Problem in this • Source of the origin of nebula?
theory • Why fixed number of rings?
• Why all satellite does not rotate in
same direction?
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3) Planetesimal Hypothesis by Chamberlain and Moulton (1905):
• Sun existed before the formation of planets.

• Due to strong gravitational pull of passing star,
Theory masses of gas were torn from the Sun.
• This mass of gas broke into number which on
cooling became solid particles (called
planetesimals).
• Due to collision and gravitational attraction, this
planetesimal particles clubbed together to form
planets.
• Close approach of two stars is extremely unlikely.

Problem in this • Gases from Sun would be so hot that it would
theory disperse in the space.
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II) Other Early Theories:
3) Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys (1918):
• The primitive Sun was stationary and was

rotating on its axis.
• The intruding sun was moving nearer to primitive
Theory sun.
• Due to huge tidal impact of moving star, gaseous
material separated from sun.
• These gaseous materials further condensed to
form planets.
• Angular momentum is not enough to detach

Problem in this gaseous matter.
theory • Hot gases mass from Sun would dissipate into the
space.
4) Binary Star Hypothesis by Russell (1937):
• The intruding star comes close to binary stars and

Theory eject matter from one of the stars.
• This ejected matter became planets and revolves
around the proto sun.
Problem in this • It does not explain what happened to intruding

theory star and the remnant of star from which matter
got ejected.
23
III) Modern Theories
• Big Bang Theory (1920):

▪ It is the most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe.
▪ It is also called expanding hypothesis.
▪ It provided evidence that the universe is expanding, and galaxies are moving further
and further apart.
• The universality of physical Laws.

Assumption • On a large-scale universe is homogenous and
isotropic
• All matter forming the universe existed in one

place in the form of “tiny ball”.
• At the Big Bang (event took place 13.7 billion
Theory
years ago) the tiny ball exploded. This led to huge
expansion which still continues.
• There was rapid expansion during big bang.
Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down.
• Due to expansion, some energy is converted into
matter.
• Within 300,000 years from big bang, temperature
dropped to 4500 K and gave rise to atomic
matter.
• The majority of atoms formed were hydrogen,
along with helium and traces of lithium. Huge
clouds of these elements fused through gravity to
form stars and galaxies.
24
THE STAR FORMATION combine to increase the mass in the center

of the cloud.
• The life cycle of a star from birth till death
• This increase in mass increases the
and all the stages in between take millions
gravitational pull. The gravitational pull
of years, that’s why we find no changes in
attracts all the molecules and particles from
their appearance, as human life is like a
the surrounding.
fraction of the blink of an eye to these titans.
• Now, as the molecules keep on falling to the
• A star is not one in the count; they are
center of the cloud, the mass of the cloud
millions or billions in numbers scattered
increases, and its center starts heating, the
around the universe.
heated center is called a protostar.
• A star begins its life as a protostar inside vast
• Now, this protostar keeps on attracting
molecular clouds of dust and gas; these
more and more molecules towards it
molecular clouds are called nebulae or dark
leading to its temperature rise.
nebulae.
• The temperature rise continues until the
• Nebula, a nebula is an interstellar cloud of
stage comes when the pressure reaches the
molecules like hydrogen, helium, and
extent that two hydrogen atoms begin to
scattered particles of dust.
fuse, forming helium by releasing heat and
• Normally, these molecules or nebulae are
radiation.
cold and stable; however, a nearby
• So, the process of fusing two hydrogen
supernova explosion may send a
atoms to form helium by releasing
tremendous amount of energy to this
tremendous energy is called nuclear fusion.
molecular cloud.
• Now, what happens next is that the inward
• Now, in the molecular cloud, this
force of gravity gets balanced by the
transmitted energy causes a gravitational
outward force created by the emitted heat
disturbance due to which these particles
and radiation.
contract under the effect of its gravity.
• This inward and outward balancing of the
• Under the contracting effect of gravity,
force is the moment when the star is born.
these hydrogen and helium elements
25
FORMATION OF PLANETS together. Planetesimals are many smaller

bodies.
3. In the final stage, these large numbers of
1. The stars are localized lumps of gas within a small planetesimals accrete to form fewer
nebula. The gravitational force within the large bodies in the form of planets.
lumps leads to the formation of a core to
the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of
gas and dust develops around the gas core.
2. In the next stage, the gas cloud starts
getting condensed and the matter around
the core develops into small, rounded
objects. These small-rounded objects by
the process of cohesion develop into what
is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start
forming by collision, and gravitational
attraction causes the material to stick
26
Planets Facts
Mercury ▪ It is the nearest to the Sun and the smallest planet in our solar
system.
▪ It has no satellite of its own.
▪ It takes 1408 hours / 58.66 Earth days to complete a rotation.
Venus ▪ It is called morning or an evening star, although it is not a star.
▪ Sometimes it is called as Earth’s twin.
▪ Venus has no moon or satellite of its own.
▪ It rotates from east to west while the Earth rotates from west to
east.
▪ It takes 5,832 hours / 243 Earth days to complete a rotation.
Earth ▪ The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known
to exist.
▪ The axis of rotation of the Earth is 23.5 degrees relative to the orbital
plane – the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun. The tilt is
responsible for the change of seasons on the Earth.
▪ The Earth has only one moon.
▪ The Earth takes 24 hours to complete a rotation.
Mars ▪ It appears slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also called the red
planet.
▪ Mars has two small natural satellites.
▪ It takes 25 hours to complete a rotation.
Jupiter ▪ Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system.
▪ Jupiter has 53 named satellites and another 26 awaiting official
names.
▪ It also has faint rings around it.
▪ It takes only 10 hours to complete a rotation.
Saturn ▪ The Saturn is yellowish in colour.
▪ It has an icy ring around it.
▪ It has more than (82-> 53+29) known moons.
▪ It takes 11 hours to complete a rotation (second-shortest day in the
solar system).
Uranus ▪ Uranus also rotates from east to west (like Venus).
▪ It has a highly tilted rotational axis.
27

Neptune ▪ It is the eighth and most distant planet in our solar system.
▪ The Neptune is dark, cold and has a presence of supersonic winds.
Evolution of Earth: • Crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core are
the various layers of the planet, beginning
• Initially, earth was a barren, rocky and hot
with the surface. From the crust to the
object with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen
centre of the planet, the density increases.
and helium.
• This allowed heavier materials to sink
• Some event processes caused this rocky,
towards the centre of the earth and the
barren and hot earth to a beautiful planet
lighter ones to move towards the surface.
with ample amount of water and conducive
• Due to this earth got divide into layers like
atmosphere.
the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core.
• Earth has a layered structure because the
material that exists is not uniform. Evolution of Atmosphere:
Evolution of Lithosphere: • Due to solar wind, Hydrogen and helium
have been stripped off from primordial
• The earth was mostly in a volatile state
atmosphere of the planet.
during its primordial stage.
• During cooling and solidification of earth,
• As the density of the Earth's interior
gases and water vapors were released from
increased, the temperature increased, and
the interior of solid earth. (This process is
the materials began to separate according
called degassing)
to their densities. This process is called
• This early atmosphere contains water
differentiation.
vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane,
• Heavier elements, such as iron, moved
ammonia and very little amount of oxygen.
toward the centre, while lighter elements
• Also, continuous volcanic eruptions
moved to the surface. With the passage of
contributed water vapors and gases to the
time, the earth cooled, solidified, and
atmosphere.
contracted in size to form its crust (the outer
layer of the earth).
Loss of primordial Hot interior of the The composition of

atmosphere earth contributed to atmosphere was
evolution of the modified by the living
atmosphere world through the
First Stage process of
Photosynthesis.
Second Stage
Third Stage
28
Evolution of hydrosphere:
• As the earth cooled, the water vapor Origin of life:
released started getting condensed. The
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got • The last phase in the evolution of the earth
dissolved in rainwater and the temperature is the origin and evolution of life.
further decreased causing more • Modern scientists refer to the origin of life
condensation and more rains. The as a kind of chemical reaction, which first
rainwater falling onto the surface got generated complex organic molecules and
collected in the depressions to give rise to assembled them.
oceans. • This assemblage was such that they could
• The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 duplicate themselves converting inanimate
million years from the formation of the matter into living substance.
earth. The oceans are as old as 4,000 million • The record of life that existed on this planet
years. in different periods is found in rocks in the
• Sometime around 3,800 million years ago, form of fossils.
life began to evolve. • The microscopic structures closely related
• However, around 2,500-3,000 million years to the present form of blue algae have been
before the present, the process of found in geological formations much older
photosynthesis got evolved. than some 3,000 million years.
• Life was confined to the oceans for a long • It can be assumed that life began to evolve
time. Oceans began to have the contribution sometime 3,800 million years ago. The
of oxygen through the process of summary of evolution of life from unicellular
photosynthesis. Eventually, oceans were bacteria to the modern man is given in the
saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million Geological Time below.
years ago, oxygen began to flood the
atmosphere.
STUDYIQ.COM BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 1
EARTH’S SURFACE • The plates move anywhere from 25 to 100

mm per year. About 250 million years ago
• Earth's surface is continuously evolving and most of the land was connected together.
is the result of the complex interactions • The rocky layer under the soil of the Earth
between Earth's internal (endogenetic) and is called the crust. This comprises the
external (exogenetic) processes. continents and ocean basins.
• Endogenetic and exogenetic interactions • The crust has a variable thickness, being 35-
result in landforms and landscapes that are 70 km thick on the continents and 5-10 km
the product of numerous different thick in the ocean basins.
processes, and thus are ‘polygenetic’ (More • The crust is composed mainly of alumino-
than one origin/source, Originated or silicates. The entire crust occupies just 1% of
Developed Several times) in origin. the Earth’s volume.
• Most of the Earth's surface, about 70%, is • The temperature of the crust increases as
covered with water. you go deeper into the Earth. It starts out
• The remaining 30% is made up of the seven cool but can get up to 400 degrees C at the
continental landmasses. boundary between the crust and the
• Underneath the water that fills the oceans mantle.
and the dirt and plants that cover the • The tectonic plates are actually floating on
continents, the Earth’s surface layer is made the molten asthenosphere.
of rock. o Asthenosphere is basically ductile
• This outer layer formed a hard, rocky crust part of the earth just below the
as the lava cooled about 4.5 billion years lithosphere, including the upper
ago. mantle.
• This crust is broken into many large plates o It is about 180 km thick.
(tectonic plates) that move slowly relative to • Earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and
each other. oceanic trench formation occur along plate
• The mountain ranges around the world boundaries. The plates are in constant
formed when two plates collided and their motion.
edges are forced up. • The reason that tectonic plates are able to
• Many other surface features are the result move is the Earth’s lithosphere has higher
of the movement of these tectonic plates.
strength and lower density than the crust that result in differences in
underlying asthenosphere. gravitational forces.
• Their movement is determined by heat loss • The Earth’s surface may seemed fixed and
from the mantle of the planet. permanent to us, but underneath our feet
• Convection is transferred into plate motion there is constant motion and changes that
by a combination of frictional drag, we may not notice until there is an
downward suction at subduction zones, and earthquake or a volcanic eruption.
variations in topography and density of the
Study of Earth’s interior helps to understand
Earth’s Geophysical Earth’s Composition Internal Mineral

Surface Phenomeno Magnetic of structure of exploration
n field Atmosphere various
solar
system
objects
GEOPHYSICAL PHENOMENON
location, changes in critical geographical

• Geophysical phenomena are natural events features (including water bodies and ice-
that occur in the Earth’s environment. caps), and in flora and fauna and the effects
• Geophysical phenomena include of such changes.
earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity,
cyclone, geographical features and their
• Volcanism includes the movement of • An earthquake is a sudden motion or

molten rock (magma) onto or toward the trembling in the earth caused by the abrupt
earth’s surface. release of slowly accumulated energy.
o A volcano is a place where gases, o Earthquake is caused due to release
ashes and/or molten rock material – of energy which generates waves
lava – escape to the ground. that travel in all directions.
GEOPHYSICAL PHENOMENON’s
IMPACT
• Their physical effects and consequences, are
identical to the geophysical events that
cause natural disasters each year, regardless
of whether they are a windstorm, flood,
volcanic eruption, or tsunami.
• Global geophysical events are low-
frequency, high-impact geophysical
phenomena that can have negative effects tsunami,' or as a result of a more spatially
on the environment and society. confined event at a deliberately sensitive
• Global geophysical events have negative location.
effects on the world's environment, • In our natural environment, various forms
economy, and culture. of disasters occur in severe intensity. All
• These events may occur as a result of a disasters threaten the humans or societies
global physical effect, such as an incident of and had their impact from one decade to
severe terrestrial cooling in response to a another.
volcanic 'super-eruption' or large comet or • Disasters can be categorized as
asteroid impact, as a result of a subsidiary o Natural Disasters such as Volcano,
outcome for the global market and social Tsunami, Earthquake; landslides
fabric of a catastrophic regional event, such o Human Made Disasters
as an Atlantic- or Pacific-wide' mega- o Human Induced Disaster
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD • Earth's magnetic field, also known as the

geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field
• Earth's magnetic field is approximately a that extends from Earth's interior out into
magnetic dipole, with the magnetic field S space, where it interacts with the solar
pole near the Earth's geographic north pole wind, a stream of charged particles
(see Magnetic North Pole) and the other emanating from the Sun.
magnetic field N pole near the Earth's • The magnetic field is generated by electric
geographic south pole (see Magnetic South currents due to the motion of convection
Pole). currents of a mixture of molten iron and
nickel in Earth's outer core. These
convection currents are caused by heat

escaping from the core, a natural process
called a Geodynamo.
• Dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by
which a celestial body such as Earth or a star
generates a magnetic field and sustains it
over astronomical time scales (millions of
years).
• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in
the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
Effect (caused due to the rotation of the
earth), gives rise to self-sustaining
(geodynamo) Earth’s magnetic field.
• Life on earth would not have been possible • Bright auroras strongly heat the ionosphere,
without earth’s magnetic field. causing its plasma to expand into the
• It protects the earth’s atmosphere from the magnetosphere, increasing the size of the
harmful solar wind. plasma geosphere, and causing escape of
• However, some of the charged particles atmospheric matter into the solar wind.
from the solar wind are trapped in the Van • Geomagnetic storms result when the
Allen radiation belt. pressure of plasmas contained inside the
• A smaller number of particles from the solar magnetosphere is sufficiently large to
wind manage to travel, as though on an inflate and thereby distort the
electromagnetic energy transmission line, to geomagnetic field.
the Earth's upper atmosphere and • The solar wind is responsible for the overall
ionosphere in the auroral zones. shape of the Earth's magnetosphere, and
• The only time the solar wind is observable variations in its speed, density, direction,
on the Earth is when it is strong enough to and entrained magnetic field have a
produce phenomena such as the aurora and significant impact on the local space
geomagnetic storms. environment of the Earth.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF SOLAR SYSTEM • With the rise of the sun, the remaining
OBJECTS material began to clump together.
• The entire solar system was formed from a

single nebular cloud, and the process of the
formation of every solar system object is
believed to be similar to that of the earth.
• Solar nebula - Approximately 4.6 billion
years ago, the solar system was a cloud of
dust and gas known as a Solar Nebula.
• Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as
it began to spin, forming the sun in the
center of the nebula.
EVOLUTION & COMPOSITION OF THE frequencies of solar radiation to carry out

ATMOSPHERE their biophysical processes.
• The atmosphere absorbs certain
• Due to the loss of hydrogen, helium, and frequencies and lets through some other
other gases containing hydrogen as a result frequencies of solar radiation. In other
of the Sun's radiation, the primordial Earth words, the atmosphere regulates the entry
lacked an atmosphere. of solar radiation.
• The first atmosphere was created by • The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases.
trapped gases escaping from the interior of • The atmosphere is composed of -
the early Earth, a process that continues o Gases
today in volcanoes. (Degassing) o Vapour
• Extreme volcanism occurred on the Early o Particulates
Earth during differentiation, when massive • They are collectively called ‘aerosols’.
heating and fluid-like movement in the • Some of the gases may be regarded as
mantle occurred. permanent atmospheric components which
• It is likely that the majority of the Earth's remain in fixed proportion to the total gas
atmosphere originated from degassing early volume.
in the planet's history. • Other constituents vary in quantity from
• These gases are currently emitted by place to place and from time to time.
volcanoes Hydrogen, Carbon Dioxide, • If the suspended particles, water vapour,
Nitrogen, Sulphur Dioxide. and other variable gases were excluded
• The current atmosphere contains various from the atmosphere, then the dry air is
gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen very stable all over the earth up to about 80
etc. kilometers.
• The evolution of the atmosphere could be • According to its composition, broadly it is
divided into four separate stages: divided into two layers-
o Origin o Homosphere – It is the lower
o Chemical / pre-biological era segment of the two-part division of
o Microbial era, and atmosphere and further consists of
o Biological era. three regions namely troposphere,
• The composition of the present atmosphere stratosphere and mesosphere.
however required the formation of oxygen o Heterosphere – It is the layer of an
to sufficient levels to sustain life, and atmosphere where the gases are
required life to create the sufficient levels separated out by molecular diffusion
of oxygen. This era of evolution of the with increasing altitude such that
atmosphere is called the "Biological Era." lighter species become more
• Plants require carbon dioxide to survive abundant relative to heavier species.
while animals and many other organisms
need oxygen for their survival. The
atmosphere supplies these life-giving gases.
• All life forms need a particular range of
temperature and a specific range of
MINERAL EXPLORATION Direct Sources Indirect Sources
• Mineral exploration is the search for • Surface rock • Seismic

evidence of mineralisation hosted by the • Volcanoes activities
• Mining Projects • Meteorites
surrounding rocks.
• Drilling Projects • Gravitation
• Understanding volcanic activity and the • Deep Ocean Drilling • Magnetic
nature of rocks is essential for mineral Project field
exploration. • Integrated Ocean
• Most of the minerals like diamonds (form at Drilling Project
a depth of 150-800 km in the mantle) that
occur on the earth’s surface are formed
deep below the earth’s surface. Direct Sources
• They are brought to the surface by volcanic
activity. • In mining activity, minerals are extracted
• Nearly everything we use each day began from deep below the surface. For ex. Gold
life as a mineral. mines in South Africa are as deep as 3 - 4 km.
• Your car, PC, mobile phone and power This gives a direct clue on changing density
supply are all made with materials derived and composition of rock inside the earth.
from minerals. • Scientists around the world are working on
two major projects as “Deep Ocean Drilling
SOURCES TO STUDY INTERIOR OF EARTH Project” and the “Integrated Ocean Drilling
Project”. This and many deep drilling
• The materials available for analysis are projects have provided a large volume of
from two sources: information through the analysis of
o Direct Sources materials collected at different depths.
o Indirect Sources These materials reveal the nature of
material available at a certain depth. From
mining, it is easy to deduce that pressure
and temperature increase from the surface
towards the interior deeper depth. Also, the
Density of the material increases from the • A magnetic survey of the earth reveals the
top surface to the interior bottom. distribution of magnetic materials available
• Volcanic eruption forms another source of in different parts of the earth.
obtaining direct information. As and when o It provides information what’s the
the molten material (magma) is thrown state of the interior of the earth.
onto the surface of the earth, during a Whether it’s solid, liquid, or in
volcanic eruption. It becomes available for gaseous form.
laboratory analysis o The technology revealed that the
mantle is liquid, the outer core is
Indirect Sources
liquid but the inner core is solid.
• Meteorites are found in space and seldom • The geodynamo effect helps scientists
reach the earth. When it reaches the earth, understand what's happening inside the
it is available for analysis. Meteorites are not earth's core.
from the interior of the earth; therefore, it • Shifts in the magnetic field also provide
has an indirect source to acquire the interior clues to the inaccessible iron core.
of the earth because scientists assume that
Meteorites were once part of the planet,
therefore, their structure and material is
similar to the earth.
• Gravitational value is not the same across
all the latitudes. The differences in
gravitational value show the uneven
distribution of mass of material within the
earth.
SEISMIC WAVES landslides, and large human-made

explosions.
• Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other • The refraction or reflection of seismic
vibrations of the earth and its crust. waves is used for research into the structure
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that of the Earth’s interior.
travel through the Earth’s different layers • The terms seismic waves and earthquake
and are a result of earthquakes, volcanic waves are often used interchangeably
eruptions, magma movement, large
Types of Seismic Waves
Body waves Surface Waves
Primary Waves Secondary Love Waves Rayleigh Waves

Waves
Body waves of propagation of the wave. Hence, they

create troughs and crests in the material
• Body waves are generated due to the
through which they pass (they distort the
release of energy at the focus and move in
medium).
all directions travelling through the interior
▪ These waves are of high frequency and
of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
possess slightly higher destructive power
• There are two types of body waves: compared to P-waves.
▪ S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids
and gases) as fluids do not support shear
stresses.
Surface Waves
• Surface waves are the last to report on

seismographs. These waves are more
destructive.
• These waves travel along the ground surface
or just below it.
Primary waves (P-waves) • These are similar to waves on the water
surface.
▪ Primary waves are called so because they are • Rayleigh waves and Love waves are the
the fastest among the seismic waves and parts of the surface wave.
hence are recorded first on the seismograph. o Love waves
▪ P-waves are also called as longitudinal waves ▪ It’s the fastest surface wave and
because the displacement of the medium is in moves the ground from side to
the same direction as, or the opposite side.
direction to, (parallel to) the direction of o Rayleigh waves
propagation of the wave; or compressional ▪ A Rayleigh wave rolls along the
waves because they produce compression and ground just like a wave rolls across
rarefaction when travelling through a medium. a lake or an ocean.
▪ These waves are of relatively high frequency ▪ Because it rolls, it moves the
and are the least destructive among the ground up and down and side-to-
earthquake waves. side in the same direction that the
▪ They can travel in all mediums, and their wave is moving.
velocity depends on the shear strength ▪ Most of the shaking and damage
(elasticity) of the medium. from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave.
Secondary waves (S-waves)
▪ Secondary waves (secondary they are NOTE: Apart from the Primary wave all
recorded second on the seismograph) or S- three seismic waves travel perpendicular
waves are also called as transverse waves or to the direction of earth surface.
shear waves or distortional waves.
▪ Transverse waves or shear waves mean that HOW DO SEISMIC WAVES HELP?
the direction of vibrations of the particles in
• By observing the changes in velocity, the
the medium is perpendicular to the direction
density and composition of the earth’s
interior can be estimated (change in • This observation led to the discovery of the
densities greatly varies the wave velocity). liquid outer core.
• Discontinuities in wave motion as a function • The shadow zone of p-waves appears as a
of depth are indicative of changes in phase. band around the earth between 105° and
• That is, by observing the changes in the 145° away from the epicenter.
direction of the waves, the emergence of • This is because p-waves are refracted when
shadow zones, and different layers can be they pass through the transition between
identified. the semisolid mantle and the liquid outer
core.
SHADOW ZONE OF P-WAVES AND S- • However, the seismographs located beyond
WAVES 145° from the epicenter; record the arrival
of p-waves, but not that of s-waves. This
• S-waves do not travel through liquids (they
gives clues about the solid inner core.
are attenuated).
• Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from
• The entire zone beyond 105° does not
epicenter was identified as the shadow zone
receive s-waves, and hence this zone is
for both the types of waves.
identified as the shadow zone of s-waves.
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
• The Earth can be divided in one of two ways

– mechanically or chemically.
• Mechanically – or rheologically, meaning
the study of liquid states.
• It can be divided into the lithosphere,
asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer
core, and the inner core.
• But chemically or by composition, which is
the more popular of the two, it can be 1. Continental crust, which is
divided into the crust, the mantle (which relatively low density and has a
can be subdivided into the upper and lower composition similar to granite.
mantle), and the core (which can also be
subdivided into the outer core, and inner
core).
• The crust is a silicate solid (mostly
compounds made of silicon and oxygen),
• The mantle is a viscous molten rock,
• The outer core is a viscous liquid,
• The inner core is a dense solid
CRUST
• The crust is the outermost chemical layer, and

the layer humans currently reside on.
• The crust has two types:
2. Oceanic crust, which is relatively crust, with some being more abundant than
high density (especially when it is others.
cold and old) and has a • Oxygen, silicon, iron, and aluminum are the
composition similar to basalt. most abundant elements in the Earth's
• In the lower part of the crust, rocks start to be crust, accounting for 88.1% of its mass.
more ductile and less brittle because of added • No-one has ever journeyed to the center of
heat. the Earth. The furthest we have reached is
• Earthquakes, therefore, generally occur in the one-third of the way to the mantle.
upper crust.
Lithosphere
• Basaltic and ultrabasic rocks make up the
crust’s lowest layer. • The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the
• The temperature of the crust increases with earth with thickness varying between 10-
depth, reaching levels of around 200 degree C 200 km.
to 400 degree C near the mantle-crust • It includes the crust and the upper part of
boundary. the mantle.
• In the higher region of the crust, the • The lithosphere is broken into tectonic
temperature rises by up to 30 degrees Celsius plates (lithospheric plates), and the
for every kilometer. movement of these tectonic plates causes
• The crust's outer layer is made up of large-scale changes in the earth’s geological
sedimentary material, and beneath it are acidic structure (folding, faulting).
crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. • The source of heat that drives plate
• At the base of the crust is a substantial change tectonics is the primordial heat leftover
in seismic velocity called the Mohorovicic from the planet’s formation as well as the
discontinuity or Moho for short, discovered by radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and
Andrija Mohorovicic. potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.
• The Earth's crust makes up 0.5% to 1% of the
planet's volume. Many elements make up the
Most abundant element of the earth

MANTLE • A convective material circulation occurs in

the mantle because of the temperature
• The portion of the interior beyond the crust differential (although solid, the high
is called as the mantle. temperatures within the mantle cause the
• The mantle is about 2900 kms in thickness. silicate material to be sufficiently ductile).
• Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67%
of the earth’s mass is occupied by the Asthenosphere
mantle.
• The upper portion of the mantle is called as
• The major constituent elements of the asthenosphere (astheno means weak).
mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and
• It lies just below the lithosphere extending
hence it is also termed as SIMA.
up to 80-200 km.
• The density of the layer is higher than the
• It is highly viscous, mechanically weak, and
crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
ductile and its density is higher than that of
• The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the crust.
the entire crust constitute the Lithosphere.
• These properties of the asthenosphere aid
• The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) in plate tectonic movement and isostatic
is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and adjustments (the elevated part at one part
ductile, deforming region of the upper of the crust area is counterbalanced by a
mantle which lies just below the depressed part at another).
lithosphere.
• It is the main source of magma that finds its
• The asthenosphere is the main source of way to the surface during volcanic
magma and it is the layer over which the eruptions.
lithospheric plates/ continental plates
move (plate tectonics).
• The discontinuity between the upper mantle
and the lower mantleis known as Repetti
Discontinuity.
• The portion of the mantle which is just
below the lithosphere and asthenosphere,
but above the core is called as Mesosphere.
• The mantle is made up of 45 percent
oxygen, 21 percent silicon, and 23 percent
magnesium as basic elements (OSM).
• Temperatures in the mantle range from
around 200 degree C at the upper crustal
border to almost 4,000 degree C at the core-
mantle boundary.
CORE The Inner Core
The Outer Core • The inner core extends from the centre of
the earth to 5100 km below the earth’s
• The outer core, surrounding the inner core, surface.
lies between 2900 km and 5100 km below • The inner core is generally believed to be
the earth’s surface. composed primarily of iron (80%) and some
• The outer core is composed of iron mixed nickel (nife).
with nickel (nife) and trace amounts of • Since this layer can transmit shear waves
lighter elements. (transverse seismic waves), it is solid.
• The outer core is not under enough (When P-waves strike the outer core – inner
pressure to be solid, so it is liquid even core boundary, they give rise to S-waves)
though it has a composition similar to the • Earth’s inner core rotates slightly faster
inner core. relative to the rotation of the surface.
• The density of the outer core ranges from • The solid inner core is too hot to hold a
9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3. permanent magnetic field.
• The temperature of the outer core ranges • The density of the inner core ranges from
from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.
near the inner core. • The core (inner core and the outer core)
• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in accounts for just about 16 per cent of the
the outer core, combined with the Coriolis earth’s volume but 33% of earth’s mass.
Effect, gives rise to Earth’s magnetic field. • Scientists have determined the
• The core-mantle boundary is located at the temperature near the Earth’s centre to be
depth of 2900 km. At this boundary, called 6000֯ C, 1000֯ C hotter than previously
the Gutenberg discontinuity, there is a thought.
sudden change from 5.5 gm/cm3 of the • At 6000°C, this iron core is as hot as the
mantle to 10 gm/cm3. Sun’s surface, but the crushing pressure
caused by gravity prevents it from becoming
liquid.
SEISMIC DISCONTINUITIES  The cause of the moho is thought to be a

change in rock composition from rocks
Seismic discontinuities are the regions in the earth containing feldspar (above) to rocks that
where seismic waves behave a lot different contain no feldspars.
compared to the surrounding regions due to a
marked change in physical or chemical properties.
 Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho):

separates the crust from the mantle.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity: lies between the
mantle and the outer core.
THE MOHOROVICIC (MOHO)

DISCONTINUITY
 Mohorovicic (moho) discontinuity forms the

boundary between the crust and the
asthenosphere.
 The boundary is between 25 and 60 km
deep beneath the continents and between
5 and 8 km deep beneath the ocean floor.
MAGNETIC FIELD  In electric fields, objects that have an

electric charge are attracted or repelled
 A ‘field’ is a region in which a body from each other.
experiences a force owing to the presence  Magnetic fields determine how electric
of other bodies. Earth’s Magnetic Field is currents that contain moving electric
one such field. charges exert a force on other electric
 Gravitational fields determine how bodies currents.
with mass are attracted to each other.
DYNAMO THEORY: GENERATION OF o The tachocline is the transition region of

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD stars of more than 0.3 solar masses,
between the radiative interior and the
• Dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by differentially rotating outer convective
which a celestial body such as Earth or a zone.
star generates a magnetic field. o This causes the region to have a very large
• The theory describes the process through shear as the rotation rate changes very
which a rotating, convecting, and electrically rapidly.
conducting fluid can maintain a magnetic
field over astronomical time scales.
• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in
the outer core, combined with the Coriolis
Effect, gives rise to the self-sustaining
(geodynamo) Earth’s magnetic field.
• The conductive fluid in the geodynamo is
liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar
dynamo is ionized gas at the tachocline.
Mechanism • Charged metals passing through these fields

go on to create electric currents of their
• Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the
own, and so the cycle continues. This self-
earth’s outer core.
sustaining loop is known as the
• Lower pressure than the inner core means
geodynamo.
the metal in the outer core is fluid.
• The spiral movement of the charged
• The temperature of the outer core ranges
particles caused by the Coriolis force means
from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C
that separate magnetic fields created are
near the inner core.
roughly aligned in the same direction, their
• Heat sources include energy released by the combined effect adding up to produce one
compression of the core, energy released at vast magnetic field of the planet.
the inner core boundary as it grows, and
radioactivity of potassium, uranium, and
thorium.
• The differences in temperature, pressure,
and composition within the outer core cause
convection currents in the molten iron of
the outer core as cool, dense matter sinks
while warm, less dense matter rises.
• This flow of liquid iron generates electric
currents, which in turn produce magnetic
fields.
MAGNETIC POLES • Unlike poles of different magnets attract

each other; like poles repel each other.
• The Geomagnetic poles (dipole poles) are
the intersections of the Earth's surface and
the axis of a bar magnet hypothetically
placed at the centre the Earth.
• Magnetic pole, the region at each end of a
magnet where the external magnetic field is
strongest.
• A bar magnet suspended in Earth’s magnetic
field orients itself in a north-south direction.
• The north-seeking pole of such a magnet, or
any similar pole, is called a north magnetic
pole.
• The south-seeking pole, or any pole similar
to it, is called a south magnetic pole.
GEOMAGNETIC REVERSAL • The reversal is not literally 'periodic' as it is on

the sun, whose magnetic field reverses every
• A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a 11 years.
planet's magnetic field such that the positions • The time between magnetic reversals on the
of magnetic north and magnetic south are earth is sometimes as short as 10,000 years and
interchanged. sometimes as long as 25 million years.
• The Earth's field has alternated between • And the time it takes to reverse could be about
periods of normal polarity, in which the a few hundred or a few thousand years.
predominant direction of the field was the same • The magnetic poles emerge at odd latitudes
as the present direction, and reverse polarity, in throughout the process of the reversal.
which it was the opposite.
• These periods are called chrons.
o A polarity chron, or chron, is the
time interval between polarity
reversals of Earth's magnetic field.
• Reversal occurrences are statistically random.
• There have been 183 reversals over the last 83
million years (on average once every ~450,000
years).
MAGNETOSPHERE and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip

away the upper atmosphere, including the
• The magnetosphere is the region above the ozone layer that protects the Earth from
ionosphere that is defined by the extent of harmful ultraviolet radiation.
the Earth’s magnetic field in space. • Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar
• The magnetosphere is formed by the system by the Sun’s magnetosphere called
interaction of the solar wind with Earth’s the heliosphere.
magnetic field. • The boundary between the solar wind and
• It extends several tens of thousands of Earth’s magnetic field is called the
kilometers into space, protecting the Earth magnetopause.
from the charged particles of the solar wind
AURORAS • The charged particles follow magnetic field

lines which are oriented in and out of our
• Aurora is the name given to the luminous planet and its atmosphere near the
glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth magnetic poles.
which is produced by charged particles • Therefore, aurora mostly is seen to occur at
(solar wind) descending from the planet’s high latitudes.
magnetosphere.
• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and
negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a
ring current. This current reduces the
magnetic field at the Earth’s surface.
• Some of these particles penetrate the
ionosphere and collide with the atoms
there.
• This results in an excitation of the oxygen
and nitrogen molecular electrons.
• The molecules get back to their original
state by emitting photons of light which are
the aurora.
GEOMAGNETIC STORMS Earth's magnetic field, which

oscillates in a complex manner. All of
• A geomagnetic storm is a major and these phenomena constitute a
temporary disturbance of Earth’s "magnetic storm"
magnetosphere.
• Magnetic storms have two fundamental
origins:
o A coronal mass ejection is a powerful
burst of solar wind emitted by the
Sun on occasion. This solar wind gust
perturbs the outer portion of the
o On occasion, the Sun's magnetic field (SEPs), high-speed solar winds, and coronal
connects directly with the Earth's. mass ejections (CMEs) that come close can
This direct magnetic connection is impact space weather in near-Earth space
not a typical occurrence. When this and the upper atmosphere.
occurs, charged particles travelling
Effects of Geomagnetic Storms
along magnetic field lines can easily
enter the magnetosphere, generate • The ionosphere gets heated and distorted,
currents, and trigger time- • Long-range radio communication that is
dependent variations in the dependent upon sub-ionospheric reflection
magnetic field. can be difficult.
• Sustained (for many hours) periods of the • Ionospheric expansion can increase satellite
high-speed solar wind, drag and make their orbits difficult to
• A southward directed solar wind magnetic control,
field (opposite the direction of Earth’s field) • Disrupt satellite communication systems
at the dayside of the magnetosphere. • Astronauts and high-altitude pilots would
• This condition is effective for transferring face high radiation levels.
energy from the solar wind into Earth’s • Electric power grids would see a high
magnetosphere. increase in voltage which may lead to
• Not all solar flares reach Earth, but solar blackouts.
flares/storms, solar energetic particles
VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELTS • The belts endanger satellites, which must
have their sensitive components protected
• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of with adequate shielding if they spend
energetic charged particles, most of which significant time near that zone.
originate from the solar wind, that are
captured by and held around a planet by
that planet's magnetosphere.
• Two such concentric tire-shaped regions.
The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while the
outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii.
• By trapping the solar wind, the belts deflect
the energetic particles and protect the
atmosphere from destruction.
GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS
• Geomorphic: This term is relating to the form of o The gravitational stresses are as
the landscape and other natural features of the essential as the other geomorphic
earth’s surface. processes.
o Geomorphological processes are the ▪ Gravity is the force that keeps
natural processes of erosion, us in contact with the surface
weathering, and deposition that modify and is responsible for the
the surficial materials and landforms on movement of all surface
the earth's surface. material on Earth.
o Exogenous and endogenous forces o Without gradients and gravity, there
exert chemical and physical pressures would be no movement and,
on the earth's materials. consequently, no transportation,
• Geomorphic agents: These agents are nothing erosion, or deposition.
but the mobile medium (like running water, • Geomorphic processes: These processes are
moving ice masses or glaciers, wind, waves, physical and chemical processes that take place
currents etc.) which removes, transports, and on the earth’s surface (folding, faulting,
deposits earth materials. weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and
o All movements on the surface of the exogenic forces.
earth and within the earth are caused by • Geomorphic movements: large-scale physical
gradients - from high pressure to low and chemical changes that take place on the
pressure regions, from higher levels to earth’s surface due to geomorphic processes.
lower levels, etc.
EARTH
MOVEMENT
ENDOGENETIC EXOGENETIC
DIASTROPHISM (Slow) SUDDEN WEATHERING ERROSION/DEPOSITIONAL
ICE
EPEIROGEN EARTHQUAKE PHYSICAL
OROGENIC
IC RIVER
UPWARD
TENSION
CHEMICAL SEA
DOWNWARD VOLCANOES
D WIND
COMPRESSION BIOLOGICAL
UNDERGROUND
WATER
ENDOGENIC GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS ▪ Diastrophism refers to

deformation of the earth's
• Endogenic forces are those internal forces that crust.
derive their strength from the earth’s interior ▪ Diastrophic movements are
and play a crucial role in shaping the earth's gradual.
crust. ▪ Diastrophic movements are
o Examples – mountain building forces, further classified into
continent building forces, earthquakes, 1. Epeirogenic movements
volcanism, etc. (continent forming ―
• The endogenic forces are mainly land-building subsidence, upliftment)
forces. 2. Orogenic movements
• The energy emanating from within the earth is (mountain building ―
the main force behind endogenic geomorphic folding, faulting).
processes. • All such internal forces contribute to vertical and
• This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, horizontal motions and lead to subsidence, land
rotational and tidal friction, and primordial upliftment, volcanism, faulting, folding,
heat from the origin of the earth.
• Endogenetic forces are of 2 types based on
direction
o Horizontal
o Vertical
• Endogenetic Forces are of 2 types based on
intensity
o Sudden forces
▪ Sudden movements like
earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occur in a very short
period.
o Diastrophic forces earthquakes lead to diverse landforms.
Factors behind Endogenic movements o Convectional currents in the mantle

drive the lithospheric plates (crust and
• Internal Heat: upper mantle) and the movement of the
o The ultimate source of energy behind lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the
endogenic movements is internal heat. cause behind endogenic movements.
o Internal heat is a result of radioactive o The destination of convection currents
decay (which is 50% of earth’s internal determines the nature and location of
heat) and gravitation (leads to pressure the endogenic movements
gradients). • Earth’s Rotation
• Conventional Currents o The earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect)
o Differences in temperature and can impact where convection currents
pressure among various layers of the travel.
earth give rise to density
differences which further give rise to
conventional currents.
DIASTROPHISM o Epeirogenic processes involving uplift or

warping of large parts of the earth’s
• Diastrophism refers to the deformation of the crust (simple deformation);
Earth’s crust due to diastrophic movements o Earthquakes and volcanism involving
(deforming movements) such as folding, local relatively minor movements;
faulting, warping (bending or twisting of a large o Plate tectonics involving horizontal
area) and fracturing. movements of crustal plates.
• All processes that move, elevate or build up • All of the aforementioned processes result in
portions of the earth’s crust come under changes in pressure, volume, and temperature
diastrophism. They include: (PVT) that result in the metamorphism of rocks.
o Orogenic processes involving mountain • The most obvious evidence of diastrophic
building through severe folding (crust is movement can be seen where sedimentary
severely deformed into folds) and rocks have been bent, broken, or tilted.
affecting long and narrow belts of the
earth’s crust;
EPEIROGENIC/CONTINENT FORMING MOVEMENTS
• Epeirogenic or continent forming movements

are radial movements (act along the radius of
the earth).
• Their direction may be towards (subsidence) or
away (uplift) from the centre.
• They cause upheavals or depressions of land
exhibiting undulations (wavy surface) of long
wavelengths and little folding.
• The broad central parts of continents are called
cratons and are subject to Epeirogenic, hence
the name continent forming movements.
• Epeirogenic movement can be permanent or o When igneous material is injected into

transient. the crust, permanent uplift can occur,
o Transient uplift can occur over a thermal and one characteristic of a mantle
anomaly due to convecting abnormally plume is circular or elliptical structural
hot mantle, and it disappears when uplift (without folding) over a large
convection subsides. radius (tens to thousands of kilometres).
UPLIFT and Korkai on the coast of Tirunelveli were all

flourishing seaports about 1,000 to 2,000 years
• Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea ago.
caves, and fossiliferous beds above sea level are
evidence of upliftment. SUBSIDENCE
• In India, raised beaches to occur at several
• Submerged forests and valleys, as well as
places along the Kathiawar, Nellore, and
buildings, are evidence of subsidence.
Tirunelveli coasts.
• In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was
• Several places which were on the sea some
submerged as a result of an earthquake.
centuries ago are now a few miles inland due to
upliftment. • The presence of peat and lignite beds below the
sea level in Tirunelveli and the Sundarbans is an
• For example, Coringa near the mouth of the
example of subsidence.
Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta,
• The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated
from the Arakan coast by the submergence of
the intervening land.
• On the east side of Bombay Island, trees have
been found embedded in the mud about 4 m
below the low watermark.
• A similar submerged forest has also been
noticed on the Tirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.
• A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Strait is very shallow and has been submerged
in geologically recent times.
• A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram
near Chennai is submerged in the sea.
OROGENIC/THE MOUNTAIN-FORMING MOVEMENTS ▪ Tension produces fissures (since this type of

force acts away from a point in two
• In contrast to Epeirogenic movement, the directions),
Orogenic movement is a more complicated o towards each other (Compressional force/
deformation of the Earth’s crust, associated convergent force)
with crustal thickening (due to the convergence ▪ compression produces folds (because this
type of force acts towards a point from two
of tectonic plates).
• Such plate convergence forms Orogenic belts
that are characterized by “the folding and
faulting of layers of rock, by the intrusion of
magma, and by volcanism.
• Orogenic or mountain-forming movements act
tangentially to the earth's surface, as in plate
tectonics.
• Horizontal forces and movements are also

called tangential forces. Orogenetic or
Horizontal forces work in two ways viz.
o in opposite directions (Tensional force/divergent
forces)
or more directions).
OROGENIC MOVEMENT
TENSIONAL COMPRESSIONAL
• Compression produces folds.

• Tension produces fissures.
• This type of force acts towards a
• This type of force acts away from
point from two or more directions.
a point in two directions.
SUDDEN MOVEMENTS - EARTHQUAKE huge plates that form the Earth's surface slowly
move over, under, and past each other.
• An earthquake is a sudden movement of the • Earthquakes may cause a change in contours,
Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain change in river courses, shoreline changes,
that has accumulated over a long time. glacial surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil
o Such surplus accumulated stress in rocks in creeps, mass wasting etc.
the earth’s interior due to folding, faulting or
• Caused by the
other physical changes is relieved through
1. Seismic waves
the weak zones over the earth’s surface in
2. Waves that are generated due to a sudden
the form of kinetic energy (Seismic waves).
movement
• For hundreds of millions of years, the forces of
• A seismograph, or seismometer, is an
plate tectonics have shaped the Earth as the
instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes.
SUDDEN MOVEMENTS- VOLCANISM • The convection currents create convergent and

divergent boundaries.
• Volcanism includes the movement of molten
• At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-molten
rock (magma) onto or towards the earth’s
and sometimes gaseous material appears on
surface through narrow volcanic vents or
earth.
fissures.
• The earthquakes here may expose fault zones
• A volcano is formed when the molten magma in
through which magma may escape.
the earth’s interior escapes through the crust by
• At the convergent boundary, the subduction of
vents and fissures in the crust, accompanied by
denser plate creates magma at high pressure,
steam, gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur
which will escape to the surface in the form of
dioxide, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.)
violent eruptions.
and pyroclastic material (cloud of ash, lava
fragments carried through the air, and vapour).
• Depending on the chemical composition and
viscosity of the lava, a volcano may take various
forms.
Causes of volcanism
• Huge temperature difference due to the

differential amount of Radioactivity.
• Temperature difference gives rise to
Convectional currents.
EXOGENIC GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENTS • Exogenic geomorphic processes vary from location

to location due to variations in:
• The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or o Thermal gradients caused by seasonal,
its surface brought down by the forces emanating latitudinal, land and water distribution on
from above the earth’s surface (wind, water) are the earth's surface.
called exogenic geomorphic process. o The type and distribution of vegetation,
• Exogenic geomorphic process gives rise to which depends primarily on precipitation
exogenic geomorphic movements or simply and temperature, indirectly affect
exogenic movements such as weathering and exogenic geomorphological processes.
erosion. o Depending on the type and structure of
• The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic rocks, exogenic geomorphic processes
processes are small and slow but will, in the long exert varying degrees of force.
run, affect the rocks severely due to continued o Variable resistance to various geomorphic
fatigue. processes is exhibited by a variety of rock
types with distinct structures.
The force behind Exogenic Movements giving rise to exogenic movements (weathering
and erosion).
 Exogenic processes are a direct result of the
 Earth materials become subjected to molecular
sun’s heat. stresses caused due to temperature changes.
 Sun’s energy dictates the weather patterns like
 Chemical processes normally lead to loosening
winds, precipitation, etc.
of bonds between grains.
 Sun’s heat along with weather patterns are  Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling
responsible for stress-induced in earth materials (shear stresses ― separating forces) forces.
DENUDATION • As very little or no motion of materials takes

place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site
• All the exogenic processes (weathering and process.
erosion) are covered under a general term,
• The weathered material is carried farther away
denudation.
by erosion.
• The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to
• There are three major groups of weathering
uncover.
processes:
• Denudation depends on physical (folds, faults, 1. Chemical weathering processes;
orientation and inclination of beds, presence or 2. Physical or Mechanical weathering
absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or
processes;
softness of constituent minerals, permeability) 3. Biological weathering processes
and chemical (chemical susceptibility of mineral
• All the types of weathering often go hand in
constituents to corrosion) properties of the
hand.
rocks.
• Denudation leads to - Chemical weathering processes
o Weathering
o Mass Movement • Chemical weathering is the process of rocks and
o Erosion/ Transportation soil decomposing chemically.
• A group of weathering processes viz; solution,
WEATHERING carbonation, hydration, oxidation and
reduction act on the rocks to decompose,
• Weathering is the disintegration of rocks, soil,
dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state
and minerals under the influence of physical
through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface
(heat, pressure) and chemical (leaching,
and/or soil water and other acids.
oxidation and reduction, hydration) agents.
• Water and air along with heat must be present • Some of these reactions occur more easily when
to speed up all chemical reactions. the water is slightly acidic.
• Over and above the carbon dioxide present in
the air, decomposition of plants and animals
increase the quantity of carbon dioxide
underground.
• These chemical reactions on various minerals
are very much similar to the chemical reactions
in a laboratory.
• There are different types of chemical
weathering processes, such as solution,
hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, oxidation,
reduction, and chelation.
PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING o Frost wedging occurs when liquid water in

the pores of a rock freezes and expands,
• Physical weathering involves mechanical causing the rock to crack.
disintegration of rocks due to temperature
changes, freeze-thaw cycles, wet-dry cycles,
crystallization of salts, animal, and plant activity,
etc.
• Physical weathering describes a change that
affects the structure of a rock, but not its
composition.
• Forces that shatter rocks, rub away rock
surfaces, or form cracks within the rock are
o When the ice melts again, the water can
examples of physical weathering.
flow into new pores. As the freezing and
• Physical or mechanical weathering processes
melting process repeats, the cracks in
depend on applied forces:
rocks from frost wedging can become
1. Gravitational forces such as overburden
quite large.
pressure, load and shearing stress;
o Frost wedging can only occur in climates
2. Expansion forces due to temperature
with temperature fluctuations great
changes, crystal growth or animal
enough to cause rapid freezing and
activity;
melting of water.
3. Water pressures controlled by wetting
o The freeze-thaw cycle from frost wedging
and drying cycles.
is one-way potholes in roads form.
• Exfoliation occurs when rocks that formed in
high pressure environments are brought to the
Types of Physical Weathering Earth's surface. When the pressure on these
rocks decreases, they expand and split apart into
• Wedging is caused by substances that get into
sheets. It occurs most often with igneous rocks.
holes and cracks in rock and expand outwards.
• Abrasion is caused when rocks rub together. For
This exerts pressure on the rock and may cause
example, the rocks on a riverbed smooth each
it to further crack and split apart. Water that
other because they collide in the current. Small
freezes in cracks and forms ice, salt from
particles of rock carried by the wind may cause
evaporated seawater, and growing plant roots
abrasion as well. These forces can cause
may all cause wedging.
abrasion by grating against rock fragments,
known as clasts. Abrasion can also occur when If different portions of a rock expand at different
clasts scrape directly against each other due to rates, the heated parts will exert pressure on
their movement from wind, water currents, and each other, and crack. When heat is lost,
gravity (such as down the side of a mountain). molecules contract and take up less space. As
Through impact and friction, these rocks heat is added, molecules expand. As thermal
eventually become smaller and smaller. If you expansion repeats, it causes stress on rocks and
have ever seen tiny pebbles along the beach, or eventually they will crumble. This happens most
smooth stones along the edge of a river, you frequently in desserts where the temperature
have witnessed the result of abrasion difference between night and day can be very
weathering. drastic.
• Thermal expansion is caused by heating. When
rocks are heated -- as by the sun -- they expand.
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
• Biological weathering is the removal of minerals • Weathering is the first step in the formation of
from the environment due to growth or soil from rocks.
movement of organisms. • Weathering weakens soil and rocks and makes it
• Living organisms contribute to both mechanical
and chemical weathering.
• Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare
rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical
microenvironment.
• On a larger scale, seedlings sprouting in a
crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure
as well as providing a pathway for water and
chemical infiltration.
• Burrowing and wedging by organisms like
earthworms, rodents etc., help in exposing the
easy to exploit natural resources.
new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in
• Weathering leads to natural soil enrichment.
the penetration of moisture and air.
• Weathering leads to mineral enrichment of
• Decaying plant and animal matter help in the
certain ores by leaching unwanted minerals
production of humid, carbonic and other acids
leaving behind the valuable ones.
which enhance decay and solubility of some
elements. MASS MOVEMENT
• Algae utilize mineral nutrients for growth and
help in the concentration of iron and manganese • Mass movements which are sliding of huge
oxides. amounts of soil and rock are seen in mudslides,
• Sometimes, Plant roots exert a tremendous landslides, and avalanches.
pressure on the earth materials mechanically • It is the movement of masses of bodies of mud,
breaking them apart. bedrock, soil, and rock debris, which commonly
happen along steep-sided hills and mountains
because of the gravitational pull.
• These are very active over weathered slopes
rather than over un-weathered materials.
• Mass movements do not come under erosion EROSION/ TRANSPORTATION

though there is a shift of materials from one
place to another.
• Heave, flow and slide are the three forms of
movements.
• Mass movements can be classified into two
major classes:
o Rapid movements
o Slow movements
Causes preceding mass movements
• Removal of support from below to materials EROSION & DEPOSITION

above through natural or artificial means.
• An upsurge in height of slopes and gradient. • Erosion requires the collection and transport of
• Overfilling through the addition of materials by rock debris.
artificial filling or naturally. • Similar to weathering and mass wasting, erosion
is a degradative process.
• Overburdening due to heavy rainfall, saturation,
• This process is brought about by the dynamic
and lubrication of slope materials. activity of erosive agents such as wind, moving
• Elimination of material or load from over the water, glaciers, waves, and groundwater.
original slope surfaces. • The wind (gaseous state), running water (liquid
• Event of explosions, earthquakes, etc. state), and glacier (solid state) are governed by
• Extreme natural seepage. climatic conditions.
• The other two agents, waves and groundwater,
• Heavy drawdown of water from reservoirs, are climate-independent.
lakes, and rivers leading to a slow outflow of • In the case of waves, the location along the
water from under the slopes or river banks. interface between lithosphere and hydrosphere
• Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation. (coastal region) determines the work of waves,
whereas the work of groundwater is determined
more by the region's lithology.
• Erosion diminishes relief, or the landscape is
degraded. Erosion is largely responsible for the
continuous changes occurring on the earth's
surface.
• Kinetic energy controls denudational processes
including erosion and transport.
• On gentler slopes, erosional agents lose velocity
and energy, and the materials carried by them
begin to settle. Therefore, deposition is a
consequence of erosion.
• The coarser particles settle first, followed by the
finer particles. The same geomorphic agents
that contribute to erosion – moving water, wind,
glaciers, waves, and groundwater – also
contribute to deposition or aggradation. The
depressions are filled with deposits.
HOW IS EROSION DIFFERENT TO WEATHERING?
Erosion Weathering
It is the displacement of solids by wind, water It is the decomposition of rocks, soil and minerals by direct
and ice. contact with the atmosphere.
The eroded materials are displaced. The weathered materials are not displaced.
The different types of erosion are water, wind, The different types of weathering include physical, chemical
ice, thermal and gravity erosion and biological weathering
Wind, water, ice and human activities are some Weathering is caused due to atmospheric factors like air
of the causes of erosion. pressure.
1
TECTONIC
• The basic concept of Plate Tectonics is that

• The theory of plate tectonics is the outcome the earth’s lithosphere is divided into
of years of research on global tectonics several rigid slabs or plates.
(movement of the earth’s crust) that began • These plates are moving horizontally over
with Wegner’s Continental Drift Theory, the viscous asthenosphere of the mantle.
followed by the theory of Seafloor • Due to this movement of the plates, various
spreading. deformations such as stretching, folding,
• The plate tectonics theory was put forward etc., occur along the plates' margins or
by D.P. McKenzie, R.L Parker, W.C Morgan boundaries.
and X. Le Pichon in 1967-68. • The term Tectonics is derived from the
• It is the most universally accepted theory Greek word “Tektonikos,” which means
and provides the best explanation for nearly building or construction. It refers to
deformations on the earth’s crust due to
all tectonic and volcanic phenomena.
internal forces.
VARIOUS THEORIES
Continental Sea Floor Spreading Plate Tectonics

Drift
Explained by Put forward Arthur In 1967, McKenzie and Parker

by Alfred Holmes explained suggested the theory of plate
Wegener in 1915 Convectional Current tectonics. Morgan later outlined
Theory in the 1930s. the theory in 1968
Based on convection
current theory, Harry
Hess explained See
Floor Spreading in the
1940s
Theory Explains the Explains the Movement Explains the Movement of
Movement of of Oceanic Plates only Lithospheric plates that include
Continents only both continents and oceans.
Forces for Buoyancy, gravity, Convection currents in Convection currents in the mantle
movement pole-fleeing force, the mantle drag crustal drag crustal plates
tidal currents, plates
tides.
2
Evidence Apparent affinity Ocean bottom relief, Ocean bottom relief,

of physical Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic rocks, distribution
features, botanical distribution of of earthquakes and volcanoes,
evidence, fossil earthquakes and gravitational anomalies at
evidence, Tillite volcanoes etc. trenches, etc.
deposits, placer
deposits, rocks of
same age across
different
continents etc.
Drawbacks Too general with Doesn’t explain the

silly and movement of
sometimes illogical continental plates
evidence.
Acceptance Discarded Not complete Most widely accepted
Usefulness Helped in the Helped in the evolution Helped us understand various

evolution of of plate tectonics geographical features.
convection current theory
theory and
seafloor spreading
theory
VARIOUS PLATE TECTONICS THEORIES

1. Continental drift theory
2. Sea floor spreading theory
3. Plate tectonic theory
Seafloor spreading Theory Process
• Proposed by the American geophysicist • The mid-ocean ridge is the region where
Harry H. Hess in 1960. new oceanic crust is created. The oceanic
• Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in crust is composed of rocks that move away
which tectonic plates large slabs of Earth's from the ridge as new crust is being formed.
lithosphere split apart from each other. • The formation of the new crust is due to the
• Seafloor spreading and other tectonic rising of the molten material (magma) from
activity processes are the result of mantle the mantle by convection current.
convection. • When the molten magma reaches the
oceanic crust, it cools and pushes away the
3
existing rocks from the ridge equally in both • He described that the molten magma from
directions. the mantle arose due to the convection
• A younger oceanic crust is then formed, currents in the interior of the earth.
causing the spread of the ocean floor.
Seafloor drill
• The new rock is dense but not as dense as
the old rock that moves away from the • The seafloor drilling system led to the
ridge. evidence that supports the seafloor-
• As the rock moves, further, it becomes spreading hypothesis. The samples obtained
colder and denser until it reaches an ocean from the seafloor drill reveals that the rocks
trench or continues spreading. away from the mid-oceanic ridge were
relatively older than the rocks near to it.
Evidence of Sea Floor Spreading
Radiometric age dating and fossil ages
Molten material
• By the use of radiometric age dating and
• Hess’s discovery on the warmer
studying fossil ages, it was also found out
temperature near the mid-Atlantic ridge
the rocks of the sea floor age is younger than
when he began the ocean mapping, led to
the continental rocks.
his evidence about the molten material
underneath the ocean.
Continental Drift Theory 2. Rocks of same age across the oceans:

It is established by radiometric dating
• Alfred Wegener (1912) proposed:- methods that the earliest marine
1. A large super-continent PANGEA deposits along the coastline of south
split into smaller fragments America and Africa are of Jurassic age,
about 200-300 million years ago. this suggest ocean did not occur prior
These then drifted apart to form to that.
the present arrangement of 3. Tillite: It is sedimentary rock formed
continents. out of deposits of glaciers.
2. He had no satisfactory Gondwanaland system of sediments
mechanism to offer, but has its counterparts in six different
appealed to a less-dense landmasses of Southern Hemisphere.
continent “floating” and Thick tilliation at base shows prolonged
“drifting” over a more dense glaciation.
oceanic crust (like icebergs in 4. Placer deposits: Occurrences of rich
the ocean). placer deposits of gold in Ghana coast
• The argument for the Continental Drift and the absolute absence of source
Theory gets strength from the following rock in the region.
evidences: 5. Distribution of fossils: Lemurs occur in
1. Matching of Continents in a Jig-Saw- India, Madagascar, and Africa, this
Fit: The shorelines of Africa and South information leads to consideration of
America towards each other show a these three landmasses being
remarkable match. connected in the past, hypothetically
4
named” Lemuria”. Also Mesosaurus ( a 1. Pole-fleecing force –

small reptile living in brackish water) rotation of earth.
skeleton have been found only in two 2. Tidal force – This is due to
localities – South Africa and Iraver attraction of moon and the
formation of Brazil, which are 4,800 km sun that develops tides in
apart presently. oceanic waters.
• According to Wegener, forces responsible
for this Continental drifting are:
PLATE TECTONICS upper mantle—is broken into large rocky

plates.
• Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that • These plates lie on top of a partially molten
explains how major landforms are created layer of rock called the asthenosphere.
as a result of Earth’s subterranean • Due to the convection of the asthenosphere
movements. and lithosphere, the plates move relative to
• The theory, which solidified in the 1960s, each other at different rates, from two to 15
transformed the earth sciences by centimeters (one to six inches) per year.
explaining many phenomena, including • This interaction of tectonic plates is
mountain-building events, volcanoes, and responsible for many different geological
earthquakes. formations such as the Himalayas mountain
• In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, range in Asia, the East African Rift, and the
or lithosphere—made up of the crust and San Andreas Fault in California, United
States.
• Where the plates meet, their relative

motion determines the type of boundary:
1. Convergent
2. Divergent
3. Transform
MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES

1. Antarctica plate
2. North American plate
3. South American plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia plate
6. African plate
7. Eurasian plate
5
6. Cocos Plate – Young oceanic tectonic plate

beneath the Pacific Ocean off the west
MINOR TECTONIC PLATES coast of Central America
7. Indian Plate – A minor tectonic plate that
• Minor tectonic plates are plates that are less
got separated from Gondwana
than 20 million square kilometers in the area
8. Nazca Plate – Oceanic tectonic plate in the
but are larger than one million square
eastern Pacific Ocean basin
kilometers.
9. New Hebrides Plate – Minor tectonic plate
1. Amurian Plate – A minor tectonic plate in
in the Pacific Ocean near Vanuatu
eastern Asia
10. Okhotsk Plate – Minor tectonic plate in Asia
2. Arabian Plate – Minor tectonic plate
11. Philippine Sea Plate – Oceanic tectonic
plate to the east of the Philippines
12. Scotia Plate – Minor oceanic tectonic plate
between the South American and Antarctic
Plates
13. Somali Plate – Minor tectonic plate
including the east coast of Africa and the
adjoining seabed
14. Sunda Plate – Tectonic plate including
Southeast Asia
3. Burma Plate – Minor tectonic plate in 15. Yangtze Plate – Small tectonic plate
Southeast Asia carrying the bulk of southern China
4. Caribbean Plate – A mostly oceanic • Micro plates are tectonic plates that are
tectonic plate including part of Central smaller than one million square kilometers.
America and the Caribbean Sea The Bismark, Mariana, Easter, and Juan
5. Caroline Plate – Minor oceanic tectonic Fernandez are examples of micro plates.
plate north of New Guinea
6
EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF PLATE Gravitational anomalies

TECTONICS • In trenches, where subduction has taken
Pale magnetism place (convergent edge), the value of
gravitational constant ‘g’ is less. This
• Pale magnetic rocks are the most important indicates a loss of material.
evidence. • For instance, gravity measurements around
• The orientation of iron grains on older rocks the Indonesian islands have indicated that
shows an orientation that point to the large gravity anomalies are associated with
existence of the South Pole, once upon a the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.
time, somewhere between present-day
Africa and Antarctica (polar wandering). Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Age of the rocks forming continents and ocean’s • The fact that all plate boundary regions are
surface areas of the earthquake and volcanic
disturbances goes to prove the theory of
• On continents, rocks up to 3.5 billion years plate tectonics.
old can be found while the oldest rock found
on the ocean floor is not more than 75
million years old.
• As we move, towards ridges, still younger
rocks appear.
• These points to an effective spread of
seafloor along oceanic ridges which are also
the plate margins.
INTERACTION OF PLATES
Divergence
• A divergent boundary occurs when two

tectonic plates move away from each other.
• Along these boundaries, lava spews from
long fissures and geysers spurt superheated
water.
• Frequent earthquakes strike along the rift.
Beneath the rift, magma—molten rock—
rises from the mantle.
7
• It oozes up into the gap and hardens into • Thus, at divergent boundaries, oceanic
solid rock, forming new crust on the torn crust, made of basalt, is created.
edges of the plates. • Mid-oceanic ridges are formed due to this kind
• The site where the plate moves away from each of interaction.
other is called spreading sites.
o At the mid-oceanic ridge in the Atlantic
• Magma from the mantle solidifies into Ocean, the American Plate(s) is/are
basalt, a dark, dense rock that underlies the separated from the Eurasian and African
ocean floor. Plates.
Convergence
• When two plates come together, it is

known as a convergent boundary.
• The impact of the two colliding plates
buckles the edge of one or both plates
up into a rugged mountain range, and
sometimes bends the other down into
a deep seafloor trench.
• Himalayan Boundary Fault is one such
example.
• A chain of volcanoes often forms
parallel to the boundary, to the
mountain range, and to the trench.
• Powerful earthquakes shake a wide
area on both sides of the boundary.
• If one of the colliding plates is topped
with oceanic crust, it is forced down subducting plate is heated, and rocks
into the mantle where it begins to melt. are melted as it plunges downward
• Magma rises into and through the into the mantle. As the subducting
plate grinds downward, enormous
other plate, solidifying into a new crust.
friction is produced, which explains
Magma formed from melting plates the occurrence of major Earthquakes
solidifies into granite, a light colored, in these regions.
low-density rock that makes up the o Oceanic-Continental Plate Collision:
continents. Here oceanic crust collides with
continental crust, the oceanic crust,
• Thus, at convergent boundaries, which is denser, is subducted beneath
continental crust, made of granite, is the less dense continental crust.
created, and oceanic crust is o Continental-Continental Plate
destroyed. Collision: Continental crust
converging with the continental crust
• There are mainly three ways in which
is termed continental collision and
convergence can occur. causes two continents or major
landmasses to fuse or join, creating a
o Oceanic-oceanic Plate Collision: Deep new larger landmass.
Ocean trenches occur where oceanic
crust is dragged downward. The
8
Transform • Thus, crust is cracked and broken at

transform margins, but is not created or
• Two plates sliding past each other forms a
destroyed.
transform plate boundary.
• San Andreas Fault along the western coast of
• Natural or human-made structures that USA is the best example of transform margin.
cross a transform boundary are offset—split
into pieces and carried in opposite
directions.
• Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized
as the plates grind along, creating a linear
fault valley or undersea canyon.
• As the plates alternately jam and jump
against each other, earthquakes rattle
through a wide boundary zone.
• In contrast to convergent and divergent
boundaries, no magma is formed.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PLATE TECTONICS
• Almost all major landforms formed are due

to plate tectonics.
• New minerals are thrown up from the core
with magmatic eruptions.
• Economically valuable minerals like copper
and uranium are found near the plate
boundaries.
• From present knowledge of crustal plate
movement, the shape of landmasses in the
future can be predicted.
• For instance, if the present trends continue,
North and South America will separate. A
piece of land will separate from the east
coast of Africa. Australia will move closer to
Asia.
9
• India collided with Asia about 40-50 million

MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE years ago causing rapid uplift of the
Himalayas.
• The Indian plate includes Peninsular India
and the Australian continental portions.
• The subduction zone along the Himalayas
forms the northern plate boundary in the
form of Continent-Continent convergence.
• In the east, it extends through the
Rakinyoma Mountains of Myanmar
towards the island arc along the Java
Trench.
• The Western margin follows the Kirthar
Mountain of Pakistan.
• It further extends along the Makrana coast
and joins the spreading site from the Red
Sea rift southeastward along the Chagos
Archipelago.
• India was a large island situated off the
Australian coast, in a vast ocean.
• The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian
continent until about 225 million years ago.
• India is supposed to have started her
northward journey about 200 million years
ago at the time when Pangaea broke.
10
• About 140 million years before the present, • During the movement of the Indian plate
the subcontinent was located as south as 50 towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that
degrees south latitude. occurred was the outpouring of lava and the
• The two major plates were separated by formation of the Deccan Traps.
the Tethys Sea and the Tibetan block was
closer to the Asiatic landmass.
EARTHQUAKE
• An earthquake in simple words is the shaking

of the earth. It is a natural event.
• It is caused due to release of energy, which
generates waves that travel in all directions.
• The vibrations called seismic waves are
generated from earthquakes that travel
through the Earth and are recorded on •Natural Reasons
instruments called seismographs. 1. Volcanic eruption
• The location below the earth’s surface where 2. Faulting and folding
the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, 3. Upwarping and down warping
and the location directly above it on the 4. Gaseous expansion and contraction
surface of the earth is called the epicentre. inside the earth
• A seismograph, or seismometer, is an 5. Plate Movement
instrument used to detect and record 6. Landslides
earthquakes. • Man-made/Anthropogenic Reasons
FOCUS AND EPICENTRE: 1. Deep underground mining
2. Blasting of rock by dynamites for
• The point where the energy is released is
construction purposes.
called the focus or the hypocentre of an
3. Deep underground tunnel
earthquake.
4. Nuclear explosion
• The point on the surface directly above the
5. Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS)
focus is called epicentre.
(E.g. Koyna Reservoir witnessed
• A line connecting all points on the surface
Earthquake in 1967 due to RIS)
where the intensity is the same is called an
6. Hydrostatic pressure of man-made
isoseismic line.
water bodies like reservoirs and
lakes.
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE:
RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE:
• Earthquakes are caused mainly due to dis-
• Charles F. Richter developed the Richter
equilibrium in any part of the crust of the
magnitude scale (ML) for measuring the
earth.
strength (amount of energy released) of
• A number of causes have been assigned to
earthquakes in 1930s.
cause dis-equilibrium or isostatic imbalance in
the earth’s crust.
11
• Under the Richter magnitude scale, an increase magnitude scale is more effective for large
of one step corresponds to about 32 times earthquakes.
increase in the amount of energy released, MERCALLI SCALE:
and an increase of two steps corresponds to
• The scale represents the intensity of
1,000 times increase in energy.
earthquake by analysing the after effects like
• Thus, an earthquake of Mw of 7.0 releases
how many people felt it, how much destruction
about 32 times as much energy as one of 6.0
occurred etc.
and nearly 1,000 times (~ 32 X 32) one of 5.0.
• The range of intensity is from 1-12.
• Richter scale is only effective for regional
earthquakes no greater than M5. Moment
DEPTH OF FOCUS OF EARTHQUAKE
DEEP (300-700 KM
INTERMEDIATE (70-
SHALLOW DEEP)
300 KM DEEP)
(0-70 KM DEEP)
• The deeper-focus
earthquakes commonly occur
• Majority of the shallow in patterns called Benioff
focus earthquakes are of zones that dip into the Earth,
• It has a focus 70 km to 300
smaller magnitudes indicating the presence of
km deep
(usual range of 1 to 5). a subducting slab.
But a few can be of a • They happen as huge quakes
higher magnitude and with larger magnitudes (usual
can cause a great deal of range of 6 to 8), as a great
destruction. deal of energy is released
with the forceful collision of
the plates.
• But the earthquakes alone
may not cause much
destruction as the foci of the
quakes lie at great depths and
the energy of the quakes
dissipates over a wide area.
12
Distribution of earthquake • There also are striking connected belts of

seismic activity, mainly along oceanic ridges—
• Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts including those in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic
coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates. Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean—and
• The most important earthquake belt is the along the rift valleys of East Africa.
Circum-Pacific Belt
• The seismic activity is by no means uniform
throughout the belt, and there are many
branches at various points.
• Many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is
associated with volcanic activity, so dubbed as
“Pacific Ring of Fire.”
• The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68
per cent of all earthquakes.
• A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt
(Himalayas and Alps). The energy released in
earthquakes from this belt is about 15 per cent
of the world total.
• The mid-world mountain Sea from Alpine-
Caucasus ranges to the Caspian, Himalayan
Mountains and the adjoining lands.
• Zone II has the lowest seismic risk among

these zones, whereas Zone V has the
EARTHQUAKE ZONE IN INDIA greatest.
• According to the seismic zoning map of India created

Wadati–Benioff zone
by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) based on
historical seismic activity and strong ground
movements, the entire nation has been split into • Deep earthquakes (300-700 km) are
four zones, namely zones V, IV, III, and II. produced in this zone.
• It is a zone of subduction, along which
earthquakes are common, which are
produced by the interaction of a down going
oceanic crustal plate against a continental
plate.
• Some of the most powerful earthquakes
occur along this zone.
• These earthquakes can be produced by slip
along the subduction thrust fault or by slip
on faults within the down going plate as the
plate is pulled into the mantle.
13
Effects of earthquake and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil

liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like
1) Shaking and ground rupture
buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink.
• Shaking and ground rupture result in severe
damage to buildings and other rigid 5) Tsunami
structures. • Megathrust earthquakes can produce long-
wavelength, long-period sea waves due to
2) Landslides and avalanches abrupt movement of large volumes of
• Earthquakes, along with severe storms, water.
volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and
wildfires, can produce slope instability 6) Floods
leading to landslides, a major geological • Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam
hazard. rivers, which collapse and cause floods.
3) Fires 7) Ground Lurching

• Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging • Ground lurching is defined as an earthquake
electrical power or gas lines. motion at right angles to nature or artificial
slopes which results in a series of more or less
4) Soil liquefaction parallel cracks separating the ground into rough
• Soil liquefaction occurs when water- blocks.
saturated soil temporarily loses its strength
TSUNAMI
• A tsunami is a series of huge waves that are

often seen on sea or ocean surfaces and
have the potential to cause significant loss
of lives and property.
• The Japanese word "tsunami" is
represented by the letters "tsu" and
"nami." The word "tsu" in Japanese
signifies harbour, while the word "nami"
• As the sub ducting plate plunges beneath the
means wave.
less dense plate, stresses build-up, the locked
• They have extremely low energy loss
zone between the plates give way abruptly, and
because of their extended wavelengths.
the parts of the oceanic crust is then up thrust
•It is usually termed as killer waves. resulting in the displacement of a large column
Mechanism of tsunami of water vertically.
• The tsunami on December 26, 2004, was caused
• Megathrust earthquakes cause a sudden after an earthquake displaced the seabed off
displacement in a seabed sufficient to cause the the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.
sudden raising of a large body of water.
14
• A marine volcanic eruption can generate an

impulsive force that displaces the water column
and gives birth to a tsunami.
• During a submarine landslide, the equilibrium
sea-level is altered by sediment moving along
the floor of the sea. Gravitational forces then
propagate a tsunami.
• Most destructive tsunamis can be caused due to
the fall of extra-terrestrial objects on to the
earth.
Propagation of the waves WARNING SYSTEMS
• Gravity acts to return the sea surface to its • While the earthquake cannot be predicted
original shape. in advance, it is possible to give a three-hour
• The ripples then race outward, and a notice of a potential tsunami.
tsunami is caused. • Such early warning systems are in place
• As a tsunami leaves deep waters and across the Pacific Ocean.
propagates into the shallow waters, it • Post-2004, they were installed in the Indian
transforms. This is because as the depth of Ocean as well.
the water decreases, the speed of the • In 1965, early warning system was started
tsunami reduces. But the change of total by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
energy of the tsunami remains constant. Administration (NOAA).
• With the decrease in speed, the height of • The member states of the NOAA include the
the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which major Pacific Rim countries.
was imperceptible in deep water may grow • NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean
to many metres high, and this is called Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’
the ‘shoaling’ effect. (DART) gauge.
• Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw a o Each gauge has a very sensitive
breath, but then this withdrawal is followed pressure recorder on the sea floor.
by the arrival of the crest of a tsunami wave. o Data is generated whenever changes
Tsunamis have been known to occur in water pressure occur.

suddenly without warning. o Data is transmitted to a surface buoy
• In some cases, there are several great waves which then relays it over satellite.
separated by intervals of several minutes or o Computer systems at the Pacific
more. Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) in

• The first of these waves is often preceded by Hawaii monitor data.
an extraordinary recession of water from o Based on the data, warnings are
the shore, which may commence several issued.

minutes or even half an hour beforehand.
15
INDIA’S PREPAREDNESS: of more than 6 magnitudes in the Indian

Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007 in India.
• The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting o ITEWC was set up by the Ministry of
System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian Earth Sciences at the Indian
Ocean post-2004. National Centre for Ocean
• The Indian government plans to set up a Information Services (INCOIS),
network with Indonesia, Myanmar and Hyderabad.
Thailand etc. • The tsunami warning system would take 10-30
• A IndianTsunami Early Warning minutes to analyse the seismic data following
Centre(ITEWC), which can detect earthquakes an earthquake.
1
VOLCANISM
• Definition – In simple words, Volcano is an fragments erupt from a magma chamber below
opening in the earth’s crust through which lava, the surface.
volcanic ash and gases escape. • This phenomenon of eruption of molten rock,
• It is a vent (an opening) or fissure (a deep crack) pyroclast and volcanic gases from inside the
in the crust from which lava, ash, gases, rock earth’s surface is known as Volcanism.
Volcanism: The flow of magma (molten rocks) towards or onto the surface of earth is referred to as volcanism.
Volcano: It is defined as an outlet or fissure in the earth’s crust from which lava, ash, boulders, and gases spew.
Causes of Volcanism
Generation of Heat – Chemical reactions of ‘radioactive

substances’ deep inside the interior of the earth create
large amount of heat. In addition ‘residual heat’ is also
present in the interior of the earth.
Thus, due to the different amount of radioactivity, a

big temperature difference exists between the ‘inner’
and ‘outer’ layer of earth.
2
This Temperature gradient / difference gives rise to

convectional currents in the mantle
These ‘Convection currents’ create ‘convergent’

and ‘divergent’ boundaries.
At ‘divergent boundary’, molten, semi-molten and

sometimes gaseous material appears on earth. The earth
quakes here expose fault zones via which magma
escapes.
At convergent boundary, the subduction of denser

plate creates magma. This magma created at a high
pressure escapes to the surface in the form of ‘violent
eruptions’.
3
Lava Types in the Earth's crust. The magma which reaches

the surface through a volcano vent is known as
Difference between Magma and Lava? Lava.
• Magma is composed of ‘molten rock’ (rock Composite Volcano lavas (Also known as ‘Andesitic’ or
which has been liquefied by heat) and is stored ‘Acidic’ or ‘Strato-volcanic’ lava)
Lava of composite volcano is highly viscous and has a high melting point
(melts at very high temperature).
Characteristics of the composite volcanoes –
1. Light – Coloured.
2. Low density
3. High percentage of Silica.
4. Cooler and viscous than basalt lavas.
5. Flow is slow and solidify very quickly.
6. Volcanic cone which is formed is stratified (formed or arranged
in layers), steep – sided.
7. This accumulation of layers makes the mountain appear as
composite volcanoes.
8. Volcanic bombs / pyroclasts – Rapid solidification of lava at the
vent causes obstruction of out – pouring of lava. This causes loud
explosion as volcanic bombs or pyroclasts are thrown out.
9. Sometimes lava is so viscous that lava plug is formed at the
crater.
10. This lava flow occurs mostly in convergent boundaries or
destructive boundaries.
Shield lava (Also known as ‘Basic’ or ‘Basaltic’ lava)
The lava of shield volcanoes is the hottest i.e. about 1000 °C and highly fluid.
Characteristics of shield volcanoes –
1. Dark coloured basalt.

2. Largest of all volcanoes in the world
3. Flow out of volcanic vent quietly.
4. Not explosive (only explosive when water gets inside their vent).
5. Highly fluid (they flow with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour).
6. Impacts extensive areas, they spread out as thin sheets over large
distances before they solidify.
7. Volcano formed are not steep they gently sloping with a wide diameter.
8. Cinder cone is observed.
9. They are common along ‘divergent boundary’ or ‘constructive
boundary’.
10. Unique feature- Rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
4
Volcanic Landforms
Volcanic landforms
They are divided based on whether magma cools ‘within’ or ‘above’ the crust
Extrusive Landforms Intrusive landforms
Landforms are formed by Igneous rocks i.e. rocks of volcanic origin
Plutonic rocks i.e., rocks formed by Volcanic rocks i.e., rocks which cooling at the
cooling of magma within the crust surface.
• Volcanic activity creates numerous types of materials. During each eruption, a new layer of
landforms. These landforms are formed either lava and materials are added to the volcano
below the earth or on the earth’s surface. giving it a stratified structure. Hence it is called a
strato-volcano. Fujiyama, Cotopaxi, and
• These landforms are classified into two types- Vesuvius examples of starto-volcano.
Extrusive volcanic landforms and Intrusive
Volcanic landforms.
• Extrusive Volcanic Landforms: These are

formed due to the solidification of lava on the
earth's surface along with the accumulation of
pyroclastic materials, dust, and ashes. The major
extrusive landforms formed due to central and
fissure eruption are discussed below-
Landforms of Central Eruption:

• Crater: A crater is a basin or funnel-shaped
• Cinder Cones: These are low-height mounds of
depression. They are formed at the mouth of the
volcanic dust, ashes, and pyroclastic materials
volcanic vent. When volcanic ash and rock
accumulated near the vent. Examples of such
fragments get ejected, they may build a ring
cones include the cones of Mt Jorullo of Mexico.
around the vent and form a crater. Sometimes a
• Shield Volcano: They are formed by piling up
lava upon one another and the vent. They are
widespread and gentle sloping. It is shaped like
a shield with a convex slope. Mauna Loa in
Hawaii is the largest shield volcano.
• Composite or Strato Volcano: These are steep-
sided conical-shaped volcanoes formed by the
hardening of acidic lava, ash, and pyroclastic
5
crater of an extinct volcano may get filled with

water, forming crater lakes. For example- Crater
Lake in Oregon, and Lake Toba in Indonesia.
• Caldera: A caldera is a large shallow cavity-
larger than a crater. They are formed when a
violent volcanic eruption removes the top of a
former cone. Example: There is a caldera on Mt.
Krakatoa.
Landforms of Fissure Eruption: Yellowstone Plateau of the USA, Deccan Trap of

India. They are formed of highly fluid basaltic
• Fissure eruption generally produces lava lava.
plateaus and lava plains.
• The lava from the fissures accumulates in thick
• Examples include the Columbia River Plateau of layers to form plateaus and plains.
the USA, the Parana plateau of South Africa, the
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms:- • Lopolith: It is a large saucer-shaped mass of

igneous rock. It is produced by rising magma in
• Intrusive volcanic landforms are formed due to a region where rock beds have collapsed. They
the solidification of magma inside the earth. All can be found in the Bushveld Igneous Complex
igneous masses formed when molten material of South Africa and Yellow Stone National Park
solidifies beneath the earth’s surface are called in the USA.
plutonic. These landforms vary largely in shape • Phacolith: They are lens-shaped masses of
and size. igneous rocks. They occupy the crests of
anticlines and troughs of synclines in a folded
• The important intrusive volcanic landforms are structure. Phacoliths can be seen in the foothills
Dyke, sills, Laccolith, Lopolith, Phacolith, and of the Himalayas and the Alps.
Batholith. Dyke is discordant i.e. they are • Batholith: It is a dome-shaped mass of igneous
formed perpendicular to the rock bed. While, rock whose sides plunge deep beneath the
Sills, Laccolith, Lopolith, Phacolith, and Batholith surface. They are formed mainly of granite. They
are concordant i.e. they are at par with the
horizontal beds of rocks.
• Dyke: It is a vertical or highly inclined sheet of

igneous rock that cuts through rock. Dykes are
formed when magma from the earth's interior
forces itself up through an aperture. Most dykes
are composed of dolerites. Dykes are found in
Chotonagpur Plateau, India.
• Sill: It is a sheet of igneous rock formed
horizontally between two layers of sedimentary
rocks. It is formed when magma forces its way
up between two layers of horizontally bedded
rocks and is cooled and solidified. (E.g., Palisade
sill of USA).
• Laccolith: It is a large mound of igneous rock
with the lower surface flat and upper surface
arched up in the form of a dome. It is located at
the deeper depths. An example of Laccolith is
Mt. Holmes in Yellowstone National Park, USA.
6
are revealed on the earth’s surface after the and erosion. Wicklow mountain of Ireland is a
overlying rocks are worn out due to weathering classic example of a Batholith.
VOLCANISM TYPES
• Four types of volcanism can be identified.

1. Exhalative Volcanism (vapours or fumes)
2. Effusive Volcanism (lava outpouring)
3. Explosive Volcanism (violent ejection solid material)
4. Subaqueous Volcanism
Exhalative Volcanism
• This includes the discharge of material in gaseous forms,

such as steam, fumes Hydrochloric acid, Ammonium chloride,
Sulphur dioxide, Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen
sulphide, Hydrogen Nitrogen, etc.
• These gases may escape through vents which are in the
form of hot springs, geysers, fumaroles and solfataras.
• This kind of volcanism indicates the volcano is reaching its
extinction.
• Associated landforms are called sinter mounds, cones of
precipitated minerals and mud volcanoes.
Effusive Volcanism
• An effusive eruption is a type of volcanic

eruption in which lava steadily flows out of
a volcano onto the ground.
• Effusive eruptions are most common in
basaltic magmas, but they also occur in
intermediate and felsic magmas.
• These eruptions form lava flows and lava
domes, each of which varies in shape,
length, and width.
• Basaltic composition magmas are the
most common effusive eruptions because
they are not water-saturated and have low viscosity.
• Silicic magmas most commonly erupt explosively, but they can erupt effusively.
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Explosive Volcanism
• As magma rises and pressure is released, gas bubbles

(mainly of water vapor and carbon dioxide) form and
expand rapidly, causing explosions.
• Magmas with high silica content tend to erupt violently,
because they are vicious.
• They form volcanoes like Krakatau and Tambora in
Indonesia, and Mount Rainier and Mount St. Helens in
Washington State.
• In contrast, basaltic magma (which forms the volcanoes of Hawaii and other oceanic islands) contains less silica,
is more fluid, and does not erupt in gain explosions.
Subaqueous Volcanism
• A subaqueous volcano is a volcano formed beneath

freshwater and which never builds above lake level.
• They are commonly in the form of gently sloping tuff
cones, although they can sometimes have an
unvolcano-like form, such as White Horse Bluff in the
Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field of east-central
British Columbia, Canada.
• Characteristics can be sorted to infer subaqueous
eruption or emplacement of silicic pyroclastic deposits.
Hotspot volcanism
• A hot spot is fed by a region deep within the Earth’s mantle from which heat rises through the process of
convection.
• This heat facilitates the melting of rock at the base of the lithosphere, where the brittle, upper portion of
the mantle meets the Earth’s crust.
• The melted rock, known as magma,
often pushes through cracks in the
crust to form volcanoes.
• Hot spot volcanism is unique because it
does not occur at the boundaries of
Earth’s tectonic plates, where all other
volcanism occurs.
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Geysers and hot springs
Hot spring
• A hot spring is a spring that is produced when

geothermally heated groundwater emerges from
the Earth's crust.
• These hot springs sometimes produce water that
is hot enough to kill animals that enter them.
Geyser
• A geyser is a rare geothermal feature.

• When a large amount of groundwater that is
trapped in underground cavities in a volcanic area
is heated by the presence of magma and magma
heated rocks, the extreme heat turns the water
into steam very quickly.
• This causes sudden and immense pressure, which
forces huge quantities of water up out of the
ground, producing stunning sprays of water
shooting up to hundreds of feet into the air.
• Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at
Yellowstone National Park, USA.
• It involves an outpouring of lava from long

fissures.
ERUPTIVE VOLCANISM TYPES
• This kind of eruption doesn't form large
• Based on the nature of the opening through volcanic cones.
which magma comes out, volcanic eruptions
can be classified into two types: Fissure • The eruptions mainly result in the formation of
Eruption and Central Eruption lava plateaus and plains.
Fissure Eruption or Icelandic Eruption • A good example of a lava plateau is the

Columbia plateau of the USA.
• The eruption took place during the Miocene

epoch.
Central Eruption
• When the volcanic eruption occurs through a

central vent or mouth, it is called a Central
eruption. During such an eruption, rock
fragments, ash and lava are ejected, and they
collect around the mouth, forming cone-like
• These types of eruptions take place along a
structures.
fissure or a series of fissures.
• There is a variation in nature and intensity of the
• There is no explosive activity.
eruption. This variation is because of the
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amount and pressure of gases, lava's viscosity, basaltic lava containing the gas
etc. bubbles, and pyroclastic materials
may go up to hundreds of feet.
• When the lava is basic and less viscous, 3. Vulcanian Type: These eruptions are
eruptions are peaceful. moderately explosive and eject a lot
of gas and ash. When the ash is
• On the other hand, when the lava is acidic and emitted and distributed by the wind,
viscous, eruptions are violent and explosive. it is called an ash shower. Mt. Vulcano
of Lipari Island shows such a type of
• The central eruption has been classified into eruption.
Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean, and 4. Pelean Type: This type of eruption
Plinian types according to the mode and occurs when a large quantity of gas,
intensity of the eruption. ash, and pyroclastic materials are
ejected from a volcano. The type of
1. Hawaiian Type: In this eruption, basic volcanic eruption has been named
lava and gas are ejected. Explosive Pelean after Mt. Pele of West Indies,
activity is rare, and eruption is calm. which in 1902 destroyed the town of
Mauna Loa and Kilauea of Hawaiian St. Pierre located on the slope.
Islands are good examples of this 5. Plinian Type: In this type of eruption,
eruption. the lava is highly viscous, and thus
2. Strombolian Type: It is named after very violent eruption takes place. The
the Strombili Volcano (“Lighthouse of eruption has been named Plinian after
the Mediterranean”) of Lipari Island Pliny the Younger, who witnessed the
in the Mediterranean Sea. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in
eruption is of moderate intensity and 79AD.
is rhythmic or continuous. They eject
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Frequency of Eruption:
Volcanoes may be classified into extinct, dormant, and active based on eruption frequencies.
1. Extinct Volcanoes: Volcanoes in which eruptions have completely stopped and are not likely to occur are
called extinct volcanoes. Example: Mt. Popa of Myanmar, Mt Somma of Italy.
2. Dormant Volcanoes: These are volcanoes that are alive but are not erupting. They are also called sleeping
volcanoes. Example: Krakatoa of Indonesia.
3. Active Volcanoes: These are ones that continue to erupt frequently. Example: Mauna Loa in Hawaii,
Vesuvius in Italy. Barren Island in Andaman Sea is the only active volcano in the Indian subcontinent.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOS
Circum-Pacific Belt
• This belt is popularly known as the Pacific Ring

of Fire as it is dotted with numerous active
volcanoes.
• The zone comprises of the volcanoes of eastern

and western coastal areas, the island arcs along
the east-Asian coast, and other small volcanic
islands in the Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes here are
found on the margins of Pacific, Juan de Fuca,
Cocos, Indian-Australian, Nazca, North Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt
American, and Philippine Plates. The famous
volcanoes of this region include Fujiyama of • Volcanoes are found along the Mid-Atlantic
Japan, Kadovar in Papua New Guinea, and Ridge.
Mayon in the Philippines. • Here, the North-American and Eurasian plates
move away from each other, and a fissure-type
eruption occurs.
Mid-Continental Belt • This belt is formed because of ocean divergence,
resulting in a silent flow of lava on to the oceanic
• It includes the volcanoes of Alpine Mountain surface.
chains, those in the Mediterranean Sea, and
• The most active volcano area is located in
volcanoes of the East African Rift Valley.
Iceland.
• The volcanic eruptions occur due to the collision
of the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and African Intra-Plate Volcanoes
plates.
• There are several volcanic free zones found • Numerous scattered volcanoes are found in the
along the Alps and the Himalayas, which come inner parts of the plates, away from the tectonic
under this belt. plate boundaries.
• The important volcanoes of the Mediterranean
Sea are Stromboli, Etna, etc. Famous East • The Hawaii islands in the Pacific Ocean are the
African Rift valley volcanoes are Kilimanjaro, best example. They are supposedly volcanoes
Meru, etc. that were formed near the mid-oceanic ridges.
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• However, gradually they have migrated from • The lava produced by the hotspots is alkaline
the place of their origin due to the spreading of and the crust thus formed is called Ocean Island
the seafloor. They are associated with hotspots Basalt.
below the mantle.
• These hotspots also result in the formation of
• A hotspot is an area above the mantle plume. A large volcanic provinces.
mantle plume is an area under the crust where
magma is hotter than the surrounding magma. • For example, in the late Cretaceous, the
Reunion Hotspot created the Deccan Traps as
• Volcanic activity occurs above this plume due to the Indian Plate drifted over it. Imagine a thick
very high heat caused by the extra hot magma, sheet of paper being scarred if it moved across a
which causes melting and thinning of the rocky stationary candle. Similarly, tectonic plates get
crust. ocean island basalt trail when it moves over a
hotspot.
EFFECTS OF VOLCANISM
Positive Negative
The dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions Many lives can be lost as a result of a volcanic eruption.
attracts tourists. This brings income to an area.
The lava and ash deposited during an eruption breaks If the ash and mud from a volcanic eruption mix with rain
down to provide valuable nutrients for the soil. This water or melting snow, fast moving mudflows are
creates very fertile soil which is good for agriculture created. These flows are called lahars.
The high level of heat and activity inside the Earth, Lava flows and lahars can destroy settlements and clear
close to a volcano, can provide opportunities for areas of woodland or agriculture.
generating geothermal energy.
Human and natural landscapes can be destroyed and

changed forever.
ROCK TYPES OF ROCKS
• A rock is a natural substance composed of solid • There are three basic types of rock:
crystals of different minerals that have been 1. Igneous
fused together into a solid lump. 2. Sedimentary
• The minerals may or may not have been formed 3. Metamorphic
at the same time. What matters is that natural
processes glued them all together.
Igneous • Some form below Earth's surface.

• Some form on or above Earth's surface.
• Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification • We describe these two basic types:
of molten rock material and known as primary
rocks.
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1. Intrusive igneous rocks crystallize below Earth's

surface, and the slow cooling that occurs there
allows large crystals to form. Examples of
intrusive igneous rocks are: diabase, diorite,
gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.
2. Extrusive igneous rocks erupt onto the surface,
where they cool quickly to form small crystals.
Some cool so quickly that they form an
amorphous glass. These rocks include:
andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice,
rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.
Sedimentary
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the

accumulation of sediments.
• The word ‘Sedimentary’ is derived from the
Latin word sedimentum, which means settling.
• There are three basic types of sedimentary
rocks.
1. Clastic sedimentary rocks form from the
accumulation and lithification of mechanical
weathering debris. Examples include:
breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone,
and shale.
2. Chemical sedimentary rocks form when
dissolved materials precipitate from
solution. Examples include: chert, some
dolomites, flint, iron ore, limestone, and
rock salt.
3. Organic sedimentary rocks form from the
accumulation of plant or animal debris.
Examples include: chalk, coal, diatomite,
some dolomites, and some limestone.
Metamorphic • There are two basic types of metamorphic

rocks.
• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. 1. Foliated metamorphic rocks have a
• Metamorphic rocks have been modified by layered or banded appearance that is
heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually produced by exposure to heat and directed
while buried deep below Earth's surface. pressure. Examples of foliated rocks
• Exposure to these extreme conditions has include: gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate
altered the mineralogy, texture, and chemical
composition of the rocks.
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2. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not

have a layered or banded appearance.
Examples of nonfoliated rocks include:
hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite,
and skarn.
ROCK CYCLE • The rock cycle is driven by two forces:

1. Earth’s internal heat engine, which moves
• Rock cycle is a continuous process through material around in the core and the mantle and
which old rocks are transformed into new ones. leads to slow but significant changes within the
• The rock components of the crust are slowly but crust.
constantly being changed from one form to 2. The hydrological cycle, which is the movement
another and the processes involved are of water, ice, and air at the surface, and is
summarized in the rock cycle. powered by the sun.
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SOIL EROSION
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SOIL EROSION
DEFINITION OF SOIL EROSION This natural process is caused by the
dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is,
• Soil erosion is the denudation of the upper
water, ice (glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants,
layer of soil. It is a form of soil degradation.
and animals (including humans).
Soil erosion
The denudation of the upper layer of soil
caused by the dynamic activity of

erosive agents, that is water, ice
(glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, and
animals (including humans).
DIVISION OF SOIL EROSION
3. FLUVIAL 4. KARST
1. WATER 2. WIND LANDFORMS LANDFORMS
EROSION EROSION AND CYCLE AND CYCLE
OF EROSION OF EROSION
5. MARINE 6. GLACIAL 7. ARID

LANDFORMS LANDFORMS LANDFORMS
AND CYCLE AND CYCLE AND CYCLE
OF EROSION OF EROSION OF EROSION
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1- WATER EROSION • Erosion by water is termed differently

• Water erosion is the removal of soil by according to the intensity and nature of
water and transportation of the eroded erosion, these are followings:
materials away from the point of removal.
Raindrop erosion/Splash erosion

Larger raindrops and gusts of wind hit the soil surface even at higher velocities. The energy of the
raindrop impact is transferred to the soil particles directly under the drop. If the kinetic energy of
the drop is sufficient, soil particles are detached from the surface and fly out in all directions.
Sheet erosion
occurs as a shallow 'sheet' of water flowing over the ground surface, resulting in the removal of a
uniform top layer of soil from the soil surface. Sheet erosion occurs when rainfall intensity is
greater than infiltration (sometimes due to crusting). Rarely seen but accounts for large volumes of
soil loss.
RIll and gully erosion

Rill erosion is the process by which numerous small channels–less than three inches in depth–are
formed. This type of erosion results from concentration of overland water flow associated with
sheet erosion. Gully erosion refers to the cutting of narrow channels called gullies.
Stream bank erosion

Bank erosion is nothing but washing up away from banks of a stream or a river. It is different
from the erosion of the bed of a watercourse, that is referred to as scouring. This type of
erosion is also termed as Stream Bank Erosion.
Landslide
Rapid mass movement of soil, mud and/or rocks downhill due to the pull of gravity. Landslides
are very common and occur in a variety of forms. Land may topple off in a big chunk, or slip down
in bits. Landslide may be composed of mud or may contain rocks and other debris.
Coastal erosion
Loss of coastal lands due to the net removal of sediments or bedrock from the shoreline. Coastal
erosion can be either a: rapid-onset hazard (occurs very quickly, a period of days to weeks) slow-
onset hazard (occurring over many years, or decades to centuries). Coastal erosion may be caused
by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind and water, and other forces, natural
or unnatural.
Glacial erosion
Glacial erosion involves the removal and transport of bedrock or sediment by three main
processes: quarrying (also known as plucking), abrasion, and melt water erosion. There are three
main types of glacial erosion - plucking, abrasion and freeze thaw.
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2- WIND EROSION OR AEOLIAN EROSION • It is a common phenomenon occurring

• Wind Erosion is the natural process of mostly in dry, sandy soils or anywhere the
transportation and deposition of soil by the soil is loose, dry, and finely granulated.
wind at different places. Example- arid and semi-arid areas.
Main mechanism
Wind propelling sand Dirt causing erosion
Types of wind erosion

Saltation Suspension Surface creep Desert pavement
• Saltation is when • Fine particles less • Large particles • Desert pavement, is

wind causes than 0.1 mm in size ranging from 0.5 the surface of
particles of solid is moved parallel to mm to 2 mm in angular,
matter to move the surface and diameter are rolled interlocking
away in a series of upward into the across the soil fragments of
small bounces on atmosphere by surface. pebbles, gravel, or
an uneven surface. strong winds. • This causes them to boulders in arid
• Each bounce causes • The most collide with, and areas.
more solid particles spectacular of dislodge other • Desert pavement
to loosen and erosive processes, particles. forms on level or
potentially erode these particles can • Surface creep wind gently sloping
away. be carried high into erosion results in desert flats, fans, or
• Saltation accounts the atmosphere, these larger bajadas, and lake
for at least half of returning to earth particles moving and river terraces
all soil movement only when the wind only a few meters. dating to the
caused by wind. subsides or they are Pleistocene Epoch
• It occurs among carried downward (2.6 million to
middle-sized soil with precipitation. 11,700 years ago).
particles that range • Suspended particles
from 0.05 mm to can travel hundreds
0.5 mm in of miles.
diameter. Such
particles are light
enough to be lifted
off the surface, but
are too large to
become suspended.
• Particles may be
dropped within a
couple of
kilometres of the
erosion site.
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SOIL EROSION
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3- FLUVIAL LANDFORMS AND CYCLE OF • Erosion- Water dislodges, dissolves, or

EROSION removes surface material in the process
• Fluvial landforms are those generated by called erosion.
running water, mainly rivers. • Streams produce fluvial erosion, in which
• 3-phase work of fluvial processes - Erosion, weathered sediment is picked up for
Transportation and Deposition transport, and movement to new locations.
• Sediments are laid down by another
process, deposition.
1. FLUVIAL
• Alluvium is the general term for the clay, silt,
EROSIONAL and sand deposited by running water.
LANDFORMS
• Fluvial erosive action include- Hydration,
Corrosion, Attrition, abrasion, Down cutting
(vertical erosion), Lateral erosion, Head
ward erosion, and Braiding.
3. FLUVIAL
2. DRAINAGE
DEPOSITIONAL Fluvial erosional landforms
PATTERNS
LANDFORMS
1. River valley formation

• Stream-related processes are called fluvial 2. Waterfalls
(from the Latin word fluvius = river). 3. Potholes
• River systems, fluvial processes and 4. Terraces
landscapes, floodplains, and river control 5. Gullies/rills
strategies are important to human 6. Meanders (Incised or entrenched)
populations as demands for limited water 7. Oxbow lake
resources increase. 8. Peneplane (or peneplain)
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River valley formation
• Valleys are depressed areas of land–

scoured and washed out by the conspiring
forces of gravity, water, and ice.
• Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the
rills will gradually develop into long and
wide gullies; the gullies will further deepen,
widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys.
Process—Rills→Gullies→valleys
• Depending upon dimensions and shape,
many types of valleys like V-shaped valley,
gorge, canyon, etc. can be recognised.
Differences between a gorge and a canyon-

• In contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than
at its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of
• A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to
gorge. A canyon is an extended form of
straight sides and a canyon is characterized
gorge.
by steep step like side slopes and may be as
deep as a gorge.
• Valley types depend upon the type and
structure of rocks in which they form. For
• A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as
example, canyons commonly form in
well as its bottom.
horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and
gorges form in hard rocks.
COURSE OF A RIVER Mature/Middle/Valley Course
Youth/Upper/Mountain Course • Lateral Erosion tends to replace vertical

Erosion.
• This started from the source of the river
near the watershed
• Here the river is very swift due to steep slopes.
• Vertical Erosion predominant over lateral
Erosion.
• Deep, narrow and distinctively V-shaped
valley.
• Gorges are formed where rocks are very
resistant. E.g., Indus Gorge in Kashmir
• Canyons are formed in arid regions. E.g.,
Bryce Canyon, Utah, U.S.A. • The V-shaped valley got widened by active
• Main Features: lateral erosion of banks.
o River Capture • The volume of water increases due to the

confluence of many tributaries.
o Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls
• The river is predominantly doing transpo-
rtation with some deposition.
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• The river predominantly does Valley-cutting,

bed-smoothing and debris-removal.
Waterfalls
• Main Features:
o Meanders
o River Cliffs and Slip-off slopes The fall of an enormous volume of water
o Interlocking spurs from a great height.
Old/Lower/Plain Course Responsible Causes

• Vertical Erosion has almost ceased though • Relative resistance of rocks,
lateral Erosion still goes on to erode. • The relative difference in
• The work of the river is mainly depositional, topographic reliefs,
building up its bed and forming extensive • Fall in the sea level and related
flood plains.
rejuvenation,
• Coarse materials are dropped, and the finer silt • Earth movements etc
is carried down towards the mouth of the
river.
• Large sheets of material are deposited on the
• It is the fall of an enormous volume of water
level plain and may split the river into several
complicated channels so that it can be de- from a great height.
scribed as a braided stream or distributaries. • Mostly seen in the youth stage.
• Main Features: • Relative difference in topographic reliefs is
o Flood Plains responsible for the formation of waterfalls.
• Kunchikal Falls formed by Varahi river in
o Ox-bow lakes
Shimoga district, Karnataka is the highest
o Delta
waterfall in India (455 m).
• Angel Falls in Venezuela is the world's
highest waterfall, with a height of 979 meters
and a plunge of 807 meters.
Potholes and Plunge Pool • Process of formation- Once a small and

• Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or shallow depression forms, pebbles and
less circular depressions called potholes boulders get collected in those depressions
form because of stream erosion aided by the and get rotated by flowing water and
abrasion of rock fragments. consequently the depressions grow in
dimensions.
• A series of such depressions eventually join
and the stream valley gets deepened.
• At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes,
quite deep and wide, form because of the
sheer impact of water and rotation of
boulders.
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• Such large and deep holes at the base of

waterfalls are called plunge pools.
River Terraces • It represents the level of former valley floors

and the remnants of former (older) flood plains.
• River terraces are the narrow flat surfaces on
• Heights of these terraces indicate former river
either side of the valley floor.
bed levels.
Gullies ✓ The Chos of Hoshiarpur in Punjab.
• It results due to the convergence of several rills

towards the steep slope, which forms together
wider channels (grooves) of water, known as
gullies.
• In semi-arid areas Gully is particularly
common.
• Examples
✓ The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central
India
Meanders • These are commonly found in

floodplains and delta plains where
• River meanders refer to the bends of
longitudinal courses of the rivers.
stream gradients are very gentle, but
very wide and deep meanders can also
• The shape of the meander is usually semi-
circular. be found cut in hard rocks.
• Because of active lateral erosion, • Ox-bow lakes formed due to impounding of
water in the abandoned meander loops, also
streams flowing over gentle slopes
called as horse-shoe lakes.
develop sinuous or meandering courses.
Oxbow Lake • A lake forms as the river finds a different,

shorter, course.
• The meander becomes an oxbow lake along
the side of the river.
• Oxbow lakes usually form in flat, low-lying
plains close to where the river empties into
another body of water.
• On these plains, rivers often have wide
meanders.
• An oxbow lake starts out as a curve, or
meander, in a river.
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Peneplane (Peneplain)
• Peneplains represent low featureless plain

having undulating surface and remnants of
convexo-concave residual hills.
• Peneplane is considered to be an end
product of an erosional cycle.
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
• The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the network of such
channels is called a ‘drainage system’.
• The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological time period, nature and structure
of rocks, topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodicity of the flow.
Important Drainage Patterns

1. The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples of
which are the rivers of northern plain.
2. When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is known as
‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range and Chotanagpur plateau present a good
example of it.
3. When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them
at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘trellis.
4. When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, the pattern is
known as ‘centripetal’.
Types of Drainage Pattern

Dendritic Drainage Pattern
• A dendritic drainage pattern is the most

common form and looks like the branching
pattern of tree roots.
• It develops in regions underlaid by
homogeneous material.
• That is, the subsurface geology has a similar
resistance to weathering so there is no
apparent control over the direction the
tributaries take.
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Parallel drainage pattern
Radial Drainage Pattern
• The radial drainage pattern develops around

a central elevated point.
• It is common to conically shaped features
such as volcanoes.
• When the rivers originate from a hill and
flow in all directions.
• The drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’.
• Parallel drainage pattern develops in
• E.g. the Rivers originating from the
regions of parallel, elongated landforms
Amarkantak range; Narmada and Son (a
where there is a pronounced slope to the
tributary of Ganga).
surface.
• Tributary streams have a tendency to Centripetal Drainage Pattern
stretch out in a parallel-like fashion
• Centripetal Drainage Pattern is just the
following the slope of the surface.
opposite of the radial as streams flow
• E.g. The rivers originating in the Western
toward a central depression.
Ghats; Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, and
Tungabhadra.
Trellis Drainage Pattern
• The trellis drainage pattern is the indication

of structural control by varying types of
eroded and folded sedimentary rocks.
• Across a humid region, resistant rocks like • During wetter portions of the year, these
sandstone from the ridges and the non- streams feed ephemeral lakes, which
resistant ones like shale and limestone form evaporate away during dry periods.
the valleys. • Sometimes, salt flats are also created in
• Sometimes, there is the occurrence of a dip these dry lake beds as salt dissolved in the
angle, causing the asymmetric ridges. lake water precipitates out of the solution
Rectangular Drainage Pattern
• Rectangular drainage patterns have rivers

with right-angle bends. They form where the
bedrock is faulted and jointed.
• Streams pursue the path of least resistance
• Concentrated in places where exposed rock
is the weakest.
• The tributary streams make sharp bends and
enter the mainstream at high angles.
• Example – streams found is the Vindhyan and is left behind when the water
Mountains of India.
evaporates away.
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• E.g. Loktak lake in Manipur.
FLUVIAL DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS • Alluvial fans and cones due to

accumulation of materials are always
• Rivers deposit sediments in different parts
formed at the base of foothills where
of their courses and thus form three major
there is abrupt drop (de-crease) in the
types of landforms which are called
channel gradient.
constructional landforms such as alluvial
• Shapes of alluvial fans are usually semi-
fans and cones, natural levees and deltas.
circular or arcuate.
Natural levees
1. 2.
ALLUVIAL
FANS AND
NATURAL 3. DELTA • The narrow belt of ridges of low height built
LEVEES
CONES by the deposition of sediments by the spill
over water of the stream on its either bank
is called natural levee or natural
embankment.
• The depositional action of a stream is

influenced by stream velocity and the
volume of river load.
• The decrease in stream velocity reduces the
transporting power of the streams which
are forced to leave some load to settle
down. Stream velocity is affected by various
factors such as length of the river and slope
of the land surface.
• An increase in river load is affected through
accelerated rate of erosion in the source
catchment areas consequent upon Delta
deforestation.
• The depositional feature of almost
Alluvial fans and cones triangular shape at the mouth of a river
debouching either in a lake or a sea is called
delta.
• The size of the delta of major and small
rivers all over the world varies from a few
square kilometers to thousands of square
kilometers (e.g. Ganga delta in India and
Bangladesh).
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• Conditions for Delta Formation: The ideal suspension Coarse grained- settles
favourable conditions for the forma-tion down at the sea bottom.
and growth of the delta include: 4. Relatively calm or sheltered sea at the
1. Suitable place in the form of shallow mouths of the rivers.
sea and lake shores. 5. Large amount of sediment supply.
2. Long courses of the rivers-so that they 6. Hastened rate of erosion in the
bring enough amounts of sediments. catchment area of the concerned river.
3. Medium size of sediments. If sediment 7. Almost stable condition of sea coast
is Very fine grained- carried in sea by and oceanic bottom etc.
Types of delta
Arcuate or fan- Bird’s foot delta Estuaries Cuspate delta High-constructive High-destructive
shaped (curved) (elongated) deltas deltas
• When light • Limestone • Mouth of the • Pointed • Develops when • Shoreline energy is
depositions give sediment river appears to delta fluvial action and high and much of
rise to shallow, deposits do not be submerged generally depositional the sediment
shifting permit because of a formed along process dominate delivered by the
distributaries descending rise in sea level. strong coasts the system. river is reworked by
and a general seepage of water. and is wave action or
fan-shaped • These are subjected to • Elongate delta is currents before it is
profile. • Currents & tides ideal sites for strong wave represented by finally deposited.
are weak in such fisheries, port & action. the bird-foot delta
• Examples: Nile, areas and the industries of the Mississippi • Sediment is finally
Ganga, Indus. number of because • There are River. deposited as arcuate
distributaries estuaries very few sand barriers near
lesser as provide access distributaries • The Godavari the mouth of river.
compared to an to deep water, in a cuspate River represents
arcuate delta. especially if delta. lobate delta. • Nile and the Rhône
protected from
• Example: currents and • Example:
Mississippi River. tides. Tiber river on
the west coast
• Example: of Italy.
Hudson estuary.
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KARST LANDFORMS AND CYCLE OF EROSION
1. KARST LANDFORMS: • Karst landforms are characterized by underground

drainage systems with sinkholes, fissures, caves.
• Formed from the dissolution and erosion of soluble
rocks such as limestone, dolomite.
Theory • There is the general absence of surface drainage as
the water flow is mostly subsurface.
• In its pure state, limestone is made up of calcium
carbonate, but where magnesium is also present, it
is termed as dolomite.
• Limestone is formed by the decomposition of
calcareous shells and is soluble in rainwater.
• The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is
formed as rain passes through the atmosphere
picking up carbon dioxide (co2).
• Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass
through soil that can provide much more co2 to
form a weak carbonic acid solution, which
dissolves calcium carbonate.
• Surface or subsurface strata made up of porous

Condition water-soluble rocks such as limestone.
• Thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked rock
strata that make it easy for the water to seep in.
• Moderate to abundant rainfall for chemical
weathering of limestone.
• A perennial source of water and a low water table
to erode the weathered rock.
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FEATURES OF KARST LANDFORMS
SINKHOLE/SWALLOW HOLE ARCH / NATURAL BRIDGE
POLJE/BLIND VALLEY SINKING CREEKS / BOGAS
STALACTITE AND STALAGMITE

CAVERN
DRY VALLEY/ HANGING

VALLEY/BOURNE
a) SINKHOLE/SWALLOW HOLE:
• A sinkhole, also known as a cenote, sink, sink-

hole, swallet, swallow hole, or doline, is a
depression or hole in the ground caused by
some form of collapse of the surface layer.
• Most are caused by karst processes – for
1. Black hole – Sea water
example, the chemical dissolutionof carbonate
2. Blue hole- deep under water
rocks or suffosion processes
3. Cenotes- Belize (British
• The surface streams which sink disappear
Honduras)
underground through swallow holes.
4. Sotanos- Mexico
• Local names:
5. Tomo- New Zealand
b) POLJE/BLIND VALLEY: • If the streams lose themselves in these valleys,

then these are called blind valleys.
• Dolines are small depressions dotting a karst
landscape.
• Some adjoining dolines may come together to
form a long, narrow trench called uvala.
• Some uvalas may coalesce to create a ‘U’
shaped valley called polje.
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c) CAVERN: • In India, such caves can be seen in Bastar,

Dehradun, Shillong plateau.
• This is an underground cave formed by water
action by various methods in a limestone
stratum.
• The definition of a cavern is a large cave. An
example of a cavern is Mammoth Cave in
Kentucky. It is like an underground chamber.
• Mechanical action by rock debris and pebbles
and solution action of water may be responsible
for cavern formation.
d) ARCH/NATURAL BRIDGE: • A natural arch, natural bridge or rock arch is a

natural landform where an arch has formed
with an opening underneath.
• Natural arches commonly form where inland
cliffs, coastal cliffs, fins or stacks are subject to
erosion from the sea, rivers or weathering.
• Most natural arches are formed from narrow
fins and sea stacks composed of sandstone or
limestone with steep, often vertical, cliff faces.
) SINKING CREEKS/BOGAS:
• In a valley, the water often gets lost through

cracks and fissures in the bed.
• These are called sinking creeks, and if their tops
are open, they are called Bogas.
f) STALACTITE AND STALAGMITE: o It may take the shape of a column, a disc,

with either a smooth, rounded bulging
• Stalactites hang as icicles of different
end or a miniature crater like
diameters.
depression.
o They are broad at their bases and taper
towards the free ends showing up in a
variety of forms.
• Stalagmites rise up from the floor of the
caves.
o They are formed due to dripping water
from the surface or through the thin
pipe, of the stalactite, immediately
below it.
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• The stalagmite and stalactites eventually

fuse to give rise to columns and pillars of
different diameters.
• Such unique features can easily be seen in

any well-developed limestone caves, e.g.
Postojna Caves (Yugoslavia), Batu Caves
(Kuala Lumpur).
) DRY VALLEY/HANGING VALLEY/ BOURNE:
• Sometimes, a stream erodes so much that it

goes very deep.
• The water table is also lowered. Now the
tributaries start serving the subterranean
drainage and get dried up. These are called dry
valleys or bourns.
• Lack of adequate quantities of water and
reduced erosion leaves them hanging at a
height from the main valley. Thus, they are also
referred to as hanging valleys.
Conditions required for development of Karst • Need perennial source of water.

Topography: • Rocks should be dense, jointed and thinly
bedded.
• Presence of soluble rocks, like limestone at
• Presence of entrenched valleys below the
the surface or sub-surface level.
uplands underlain by soluble and well-
• Rainfall: Neither too high nor too low.
jointed rocks.
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KARST CYCLE OF EROSIONN
YOUTH MATURITY OLD AGE
• Youth begins with the • There is maximum • Large-scale removal

surface drainage on an underground drainage. of limestone mass
initial limestone • Surface drainage is limited to leaves behind a karst
surface. short-sinking cracks ending in plain.
• Gradually, the upper swallow holes or blind valleys. • There is a
impervious layer is • Cavern networks are reappearance of
eroded. characteristic of this stage. surface drainage
• Dolines, sinkholes and • Late maturity marks the with only a few
swallow holes are beginning of the decline of isolated hums as
formed. karst features. remnants of the
• No large caverns exist, • The portions of cavern original limestone
and underground streams are exposed through terrain.
drainage has not yet karst windows.
completed its course. • These expand to form large
uvalas, and detached areas of
original limestone upland
begin to stand out as hums.
• The source of energy for coastal erosion and

sediment transport is wave action.
MARINE LANDFORMS • A number of mechanical and chemical effects
produce erosion of rocky shorelines by waves.
• The various landforms of coastal areas are • Depending on the geology of the coastline, the
almost exclusively the result of the action of nature of wave attack, and long-term changes in
ocean waves. sea level, as well as tidal ranges, erosional
landforms such as wave-cut notches, sea cliffs
• Wave action creates some of the world's most
and even unusual landforms such as caves, sea
spectacular erosional landforms.
arches, and sea stacks, can form.
• Where wave energy is reduced depositional
landforms, like beaches, are created.
MARINE LANDFORMS
MARINE MARINE
COASTLINES
ESROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL
LANDFORMS LANDFORMS
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ESROSIONAL LANDFORMS • Almost all sea cliffs are steep, with heights
ranging from a few meters to 30 meters or
a) CHASMS:
more.
• Chasms (a deep dip or notch on the edge or • The English Channel's Chalk Cliffs and Dover's
surface of anything) are narrow, deep White Cliffs are the most well-known cliffs.
indentations.
• They are formed by the action of waves through
vertical planes of weakness in the rocks,
resulting in headward erosion (downcutting).
• Further, the
headward erosion
is hampered over
time by lateral
erosion of the
d) SEA CAVES:
chasm mouth,
which widens until • Long-term wave attacks against the cliff's base,
a bay is formed. as well as rock debris, blasted against the cliff by
lashing waves, generate holes in vulnerable
areas, which then enlarge and deepen to form
sea caves.
• England's Flamborough Head is an example.
b) WAVE-CUT PLATFORM:
• The narrow flat region frequently found at the

base of a sea cliff or along the shoreline of a
lake, bay, or sea that was generated by
erosion.
• Known as a wave-cut platform, shore platform,
coastal bench, or wave-cut cliff.
• Wave-cut platforms are most noticeable at low
tide when they appear as vast expanses of a flat e) SEA ARCHES:
rock.
• When two caves meet on the opposite side of a
cliff and join together, they produce a bridge-
like structure known as an arch.
• The entrance of these archways might be
arcuate or rectangular, with the opening
reaching below the water level.
c) SEA CLIFF:
• Sea cliffs are the most common erosional

seashore landform.
• Cliffs are formed by exceptionally steep rock
faces that are adjacent to the coast.
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• An arch can reach heights of tens of meters

above sea level.
i) SPOUTING HORNS:
• With every wave, water shoots upward when it

f) STACKS/SKARRIES/CHIMNEY ROCK: is forced through an opening and creates a
sound suggestive of hissing.
• When a portion of the sea
• The spray can shoot as high as 50 feet in the air.
arch collapses, the
• The original Hawaiian name was Puhi, meaning
remaining column-like
blowhole.
structure is called a stack,
skarry or chimney rock.
g) HANGING VALLEYS:
• The rivers appear to be hanging over the sea if

the fluvial erosion of a stream at the beach
does not match the retreat of the sea.
• Hanging valleys are the name given to these j) PENEPLAIN:
river valleys.
• The shapes of valleys, such as U-shaped and V- • A peneplain is a low-relief plain created by long-
shaped valleys, are used to classify them. term erosion in geomorphology and geology.
• This is the broadest concept, though the term
peneplain is often used to refer to a near-final
(or penultimate) stage of fluvial erosion during
periods of prolonged tectonic stability.
• The consequential landforms which stay

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
submerged are called bars. The surrounded
water body so created is called a lagoon.
Beach
Barrier
• This is the temporary veneer of rock debris
• It is the overwater complement of a bar.
on or along a wave-cut platform.
• It is by the sea waves that the deposition of Spit and Hook
rock flour is carried out.
• The narrow coastal land formation that is
Bar tied to the coast at one end.
• Spits frequently form where the coast
• Along the coast at a distance from the
abruptly changes direction and often occur
shoreline the long shore currents, tidal
across the mouths of estuaries; they may
currents and the shore drift deposit rock
develop from each headland at harbour
debris and sand.
mouths.
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Tombolos
• If a bar connecting the islands with each

other’s they called tombolo. These islands
are referred to as the tied islands.
COASTLINES
COASTLINE OF COASTLINE OF NEUTRAL COMPOUND FAULT

REGION
EMERGENCE SUBMERGENCE COASTLINE COASTLINE COASTLINE
a) COASTLINE OF EMERGENCE:
• An emergent coastline is a stretch

along the coast that has been
exposed by the sea by a relative
fall in sea levels by either isostasy
or eustasy.
• Emergent coastlines are the
opposite of submerged coastlines,
which have experienced a relative
rise in sea levels.
• The emergent coastline may have
several specific landforms:
1. Raised beach or machair
2. Wave cut platform
3. Sea cave such as King's Cave,
Isle of Arran
b) COASTLINE OF SUBMERGENCE: • Submergent coastlines are the opposite of

emergent coastlines, which have experienced a
• Submergent coastlines or drowned coastlines
relative fall in sea levels.
are stretches along the coast that have been
• Many submergent coastlines were formed by
inundated by the sea by a relative rise in sea
the end of the Last Glacial Period (LGP) when
levels from either isostasy or eustacy.
glacial retreat caused both global sea level rise
and also localized changes to land height.
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• Features of a submergent coastline include • Such composite features are found in North
rias, which are drowned river valleys and Carolina, West Sussex, and the West Coast
estuaries, and fjords, which are drowned of India.
glaciated valleys. • In this way, sea waves bring many changes
over the surface of the earth.
e) FAULT COASTLINES:
c) NEUTRAL COASTLINES:
• A straight coast formed by a fault, consisting
• Neutral shorelines are those which come
of a seaward facing escarpment and a
into existence neither due to emergence nor
downthrown block below sea level; a
submergence.
straight, steep coastline.
• These are formed by the building of the land
into the sea.
d) COMPOUND COASTLINES:
• Compound Coastlines are those which are

formed by the combination of the above
processes.
or sides of the valleys and cause great

damage through abrasion and plucking.
GLACIAL LANDFORMS • Glaciers can cause significant damage to
even un-weathered rocks and can reduce
high mountains into low hills and plains.
• Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land
• As glaciers continue to move, debris gets
or as linear flows down the slopes of
removed, divides get lowered and
mountains in broad trough-like valleys
eventually the slope is reduced to such an
(mountain and valley glaciers) are called
extent that glaciers will stop moving leaving
glaciers.
only a mass of low hills and vast outwash
• The movement of glaciers is slow unlike
plains along with other depositional
water flow.
features.
• The movement could be a few centimeters
to a few meters a day or even less or more.
• Glaciers move basically because of the force
of gravity.
• Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because
of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice.
• The material plucked from the land by
glaciers (usually large-sized angular blocks
and fragments) get dragged along the floors
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GLACIAL LANDFORMS • Steep-sided and flat bottomed valley

results, which has a ‘U’ shaped profile.
GLACIAL EROSIONAL
LANDFROMS c) HANGING VALLEY:
• The Glacier doesn’t create a new valley like

a) CIRQUE:
a river does but deepens and widens a pre-
• They are deep, long and wide troughs or existing valley by smoothening away the
basins with very steep concave to vertically irregularities.
dropping high walls at its head as well as
• These valleys, which are formed by the
sides.
glacial erosions assume the shape of letter
• They are simply a bowl-shaped depression ‘U’ and hence are called as U-shaped Valleys
formed due to the erosional activity of or Hanging Valleys.
glaciers.
• When these depressions are filled with

water, they are called as Cirque Lake or
Corrie Lake or Tarn Lakes.
d) ARETE:
• It is a thin, jagged crest that separates or

that once separated two adjacent glaciers.
• These rugged ridgelines often look like
serrated knives or saw blades, with steep
sides and a sharp crest.
b) GLACIAL TROUGH:
• Original stream-cut valley, further modified

by glacial action.
• It is a ‘U’ Shaped Valley. It is at a mature

stage of valley formation.
• Since glacial mass is heavy and slow-moving, e) HORN:

erosional activity is uniform – horizontally as
• A horn result when glaciers erode three or
well as vertically.
more aretes, usually forming a sharp-edged
peak.
• Cirques are concave, circular basins carved

by the base of a glacier as it erodes the
landscape.
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• The Matterhorn in Switzerland is a horn f) D-FJORD:

carved away by glacial erosion.
• Fjords are found in locations where current
or past glaciation extended below the
current sea level.
• A fjord is formed when a glacier retreats,
after carving its typical U-shaped valley, and

the sea fills the resulting valley floor.
GLACIAL DEPOSITIONAL
LANDFROMS
OUTWASH ESKER KAME DRUMLIN KETTLE MORAINE

PLAIN TERRACES HOLES
a) OUTWASH PLAIN: b) ESKER:
• The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains • When glaciers melt in summer, the
or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets water flows on the surface of the ice or
are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the seeps down along the margins or even
form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join moves through holes in the ice.
to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and
clay.
• These waters accumulate beneath the
glacier and flow like streams in a channel
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over
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the ground (not in a valley cut in the

ground) with ice forming its banks.
• Very coarse materials like boulders and
blocks along with some minor fractions
of rock debris carried into this stream
settle in the valley of ice beneath the
glacier and after the ice melts can be
found as a sinuous ridge called esker.
e) KETTLE HOLES:
• Depression in a glacial outwash drift made

c) KAME TERRACES:
by the melting of a detached mass of glacial
• Most commonly kame terraces are formed ice that became wholly or partly buried.
by melt water streams flowing towards • The occurrence of these stranded ice masses
glacier snouts, in the shallow hollows that is thought to be the result of the gradual
develop between the lateral margins of accumulation of outwash atop the irregular
valley glaciers and the valley sides. glacier terminus.
• When the ice melts, part of these terraces is
left behind on the valley sides.
f) MORAINES:
d) DRUMLIN:
• A moraine is a material left behind by a
• A drumlin is a hill with an elongated oval or moving glacier.
teardrop shape and smooth surface. On • This material is usually soil and rock.
average, drumlins measure approximately • Just as rivers carry along all sorts of debris
ten meters in height but can reach as much and silt that eventually builds up to form
as fifty meters tall. deltas, glaciers transport all sorts of dirt and
• Length ranges from one hundred meters boulders that build up to form moraines.
to one thousand meters (one kilometre).
• The width is typically half of the length.
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GLACIAL CYCLE OF EROSIONN
YOUTH MATURITY OLD AGE
• Hanging valleys start • The emergence of a

• This stage is marked by
emerging. The opposite ‘U’-shaped valley
the inward cutting
cirques come closer, and the marks the beginning
activity of ice in a
glacial trough acquires a of old age.
cirque.
stepped profile which is • An outwash plain
• Aretes and horns are
regular and graded. with features such as
emerging. The hanging
eskers, kame
valleys are not
terraces, drumlins,
prominent at this stage.
kettle holes etc. is a
prominent
development.
ARID LANDFORMS AND CYCLE OF EROSION
Arid regions are regions with scanty rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall under arid landforms.
ARID LANDFORMS
ARID EROSIONAL ARID DEPOSITIONAL

LANDFORMS LANDFORMS
ARID EROSIONAL
LANDFORMS
WATER ERODED ARID WIND ERODED ARID

LANDFORMS LANDFORMS
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ARID EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
a) RILL:
• A rill is a slender and shallow waterway cut into

the soil by the erosive action of flowing water.
e) BOLSONS:
• A bolson is a desert valley or depression,

usually draining into a playa or salt pan, and
entirely surrounded by recently uplifted hills
b) GULLY: or mountains.
• It is a kind of land form created by running • Bolsons are sites of active deposition of
water. sediments.
• Gullies look like big ditches or small valleys • They are a type of
but are metres to tens of metres in endorheic basin
deepness and breadth. characteristic of basin
and range topography.
f) PLAYAS:
c) RAVINE:
• Also called pan, flat, or dry lake, flat-bottom
• It is a kind of landform which is narrower depression found in interior desert basins
than a canyon. and adjacent to coasts within arid and
• It is often the product of stream cutting semiarid regions.
erosion. • Periodically covered by water that slowly
• Ravines are characteristically classified as filtrates into the groundwater system or
larger in scale than gullies, although smaller evaporates into the atmosphere, causing
than valleys. the deposition of salt, sand, and mud along
the bottom and around the edges of the
depression.
d) BADLAND TOPOGRAPHY:
g) PEDIMENTS:
• Badlands are characterized by a distinctive
badlands topography. • A pediment is a gently sloping erosion
• This is the terrain in which water erosion has surface or plain of low relief formed by
cut a very large number of deep drainage running water in an arid or semiarid region
channels, separated by short, steep ridges at the base of a receding mountain front.
(interfluves). • A pediment is underlain by bedrock that is
• Such a drainage system is said to have a very typically covered by a thin, discontinuous
fine drainage texture, as measured by its veneer of soil and alluvium derived from
drainage density. upland areas.
• Example: Chambal Ravines.
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SOIL EROSION
15
i) BAJADAS: • These fan-shaped deposits form by the

deposition of sediment within a stream onto flat
• A bajada consists of a series of coalescing alluvial
land at the base of a mountain.
fans along a mountain front.
WIND ERODED ARID

LANDFROMS
DEFLATION MUSHROOM INSELBERGS DEMOISELLES ZUEGEN YARDANGS

BASINS ROCKS
a) DEFLATION BASINS: b) MUSHROOM ROCKS:
• Deflation basins, called blowouts, are • A mushroom rock also called rock pedestal
hollows formed by the removal of particles or a pedestal rock, is a naturally occurring
by wind. Blowouts are generally small but rock whose shape, as its name implies,
may be up to several kilometres in diameter. resembles a mushroom.
• Wind-driven grains abrade landforms. • The rocks are deformed in many different
Grinding by particles carried in the wind ways: by erosion and weathering, glacial
creates grooves or small depressions. action, or from a sudden disturbance.
Mushroom rocks are related to, but
different from, yardang.
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SOIL EROSION
16
c) INSELBERG:
• Inselberg is a small, rounded hill, knob,

ridge, or mini-mountain that rises abruptly
from relatively flat surroundings.
• It is also called a monadnock.
f) YARDANGS:
• Yardangs are parallel troughs cut into softer

rock running in the direction of the wind,
separated by ridges.
• The direction of the yardangs can indicate
the direction of the prevailing wind.
d) DEMOISELLES:
• These are rock pillars which stand as

resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result of
differential erosion of hard and soft rocks.
g) WIND BRIDGES AND WINDOWS:
• Powerful wind continuously abrades stone

lattices, creating holes.
• Sometimes the holes are gradually widened
to reach the other end of the rocks to create
the effect of a window—thus forming a wind
e) ZUEGEN:
window.
• It is table shaped landform. • Window bridges are formed when the holes
• Mostly seen in arid and semi-arid regions. are further widened to form an arch-like
• The softer part of the rock is eroded by wind feature.
and the harder part remains as it is.
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SOIL EROSION
17
ARID DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
RIPPLE MARKS LOESS

SAND DUNES
a) RIPPLE MARKS:
• These are depositional features on a
small scale formed by Saltation.
• Ripple marks are caused by water
flowing over loose sediment which
creates bed forms by moving sediment
with the flow.
• Ripples may be either longitudinal or
transverse.
• Bed forms are linked to flow velocity and
sediment size, whereas ripples are
characteristic of shallow-water
deposition and can also be caused by
wind blowing over the surface
b) SAND DUNES: ii.
• Dry hot deserts are good places for
sand dune formation. iii. Transverse dunes: Dunes deposited
• According to the shape of a sand perpendicular (transverse) to the
dune, there are varieties of sand dune prevailing wind direction.
forms like Barchans, Seifs etc. iv. Barchans: Crescent shaped dunes.
• The crescent-shaped dunes are called The windward side is convex whereas
as Barchans and they are the most the leeward side is concave and steep.
common one. v. Parabolic dunes: They are U-shaped
and are much longer and narrower
• Seif is similar to Barchans but has only
than barchans.
one wing or point.
vi. Star dunes: Have a high central peak,
radically extending three or more
i. Longitudinal dunes: Formed parallel arms.
to the wind movement. The windward
slope of the dune is gentle whereas c) LOESS:
the leeward side is steep. These dunes • In several large areas of the world, the
are commonly found at the heart of surface is covered by deposits of wind-
trade-wind deserts like the Sahara, transported silt that has settled out
Australian, Libyan, South African and from dust storms over many
Thar deserts.
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SOIL EROSION
18
thousands of years. These depositions

are called as Loess.
• Extensive loess deposits are found in
northern China, the Great Plains of
North America, central Europe, and
parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
• The thickest loess deposits are near
the Missouri River in the U.S. state of
Iowa and along the Yellow River in
China.
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CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTAINS 1
CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTAINS
Classification of
Mountains
Based on Location Based on the period Based on the mode of

of origin origin
Continental Oceanic Precamrian

Origional or Tectonic Circumerosional or
Relict or Residual
Costal Caledonian
Fold
Inland Hercynian
Block
Alpine system
Volcanic
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BASED ON LOCATION
1. Continental mountains 2. Oceanic mountains
1. Coastal mountains 2. Inland mountains
• Located near a coastline • Situated in a • Located on continental shelves and

• Some examples: landlocked position ocean floor
✓ The Rockies, • The majority of the • If they originated from current tectonic
✓ The Appalachians, mountains are Inland forces, they are often referred to as mid-
✓ The Alpine Mountains ocean ridges.
mountain • Example: • In contrast, if formed by past above-water
systems, ✓ Europe's Vosges, volcanism, they are known as a seamount
✓ The Western The Black Forest, chain.
Ghats, (India) ✓ Asia's Kunlun, • The highest mountain on the ocean bed-
✓ The Eastern Ghats Tienshan, Altai Mauna Kea (9140 m), a dormant volcano
(India) ranges, in Hawaii's volcanic chain.
✓ Russia's Urals
• Inland Mountains in
India
✓ Aravallis
✓ Himalayas
✓ Satpura
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BASED ON THE PERIOD OF ORIGIN
1. Precambrian 2. Caledonian 3. Hercynian 4. Alpine system

mountains mountains mountains
• The pre-Cambrian • Formed due to- • First appeared in • Formed by the

Mountains lasted ✓ Late Silurian and Europe from the collision of the
more than 4 billion early Devonian Carboniferous to African and
years. periods' massive the Permian Eurasian tectonic
• Rocks- upheaved, mountain- periods- plates Tens of
denuded, and building Approximately 340 millions of years
metamorphosed processes million years and ago.
• Remnants look like ✓ Tectonic 225 million years • The Alps- Europe's
residual mountains. movements ago highest and largest
• Few examples: • Approximately 430 • Few examples: mountain range
✓ Laurentian million years and 380 ✓ The Vosges system, covering
mountains, million years ago and Black eight Alpine
✓ Algoman • Few examples: Forest countries: France,
mountains ✓ The mountains Switzerland,
Appalachians ✓ Altai, Asia's Monaco, Italy,
✓ Aravallis Tien Shan Liechtenstein,
✓ Mahadeo Mountains Austria, Germany,
✓ The Ural and Slovenia.
Mountains • High mountain
peaks like Mont
Blanc and the
Matterhorn
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BASED ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF ORIGIN
1. Original or tectonic mountains 2. Circum-erosional or relict or residual mountains
• Formed due to large-scale movements in the • Remains of historic fold mountains that have been
tectonic plates and the resulting collision and exposed due to denudation
folding of plates • Can also form from plateaus that have been carved
• Further classification: into hills and valleys by rivers.
✓ Fold mountains- Formed due to large- • Examples:
scale collision of tectonic plates and ✓ Mountains- the Aravalli, Vindhya, and Satpura
subduction and folding ✓ Hills- Nilgiri, Palkonda, Parasnath, and
✓ Block mountains- formed when a fault Rajmahal
block is raised or tilted
✓ Volcanic mountains- formed when the
hot molten magma rising from the Earth's
mantle into the crust forces the top
sedimentary rock layers upward
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FOLD MOUNTAINS
Fold Mountains are created Two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates are pushed
where- together.
Formation
At these colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and

Facts debris are warped and folded into rocky outcrops, hills,
mountains, and entire mountain ranges.
• Most common type of mountain in
the world. These are Formed due to the force of compression
• The crust beneath the Himalayas, originating from the endogenic or internal forces
the most towering mountain range resulting in synclines (trough) and anticlines (crest).
on Earth, is still in the process of
being compressed. Fold mountains are created through a process called
• The Andes are the world’s longest orogeny.
mountain chain. They stretch along Fold mountains are often associated with continental
the entire west coast of South crust.
America.
• The Alps stretch across Italy, They are created at convergent plate boundaries,
Slovenia, Austria, Germany, sometimes called continental collision zones or
Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Monaco, compression zones.
and France.
• The Appalachians, stretching along
North America’s east coast, are
generally low-lying, gentle slopes.
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Other types of folds • High heat flow often finds expression in

volcanic activity (the Himalayas is an exception,
• Monoclines- A monocline is a type of fold in
because of C-C convergence).
which all rock layers incline, or dip, in the same
• They also contain rich mineral resources such as
direction.
tin, copper, gold, etc.
• Chevron- A chevron is a sharp, straight fold
where rock layers look like zig-zags.
• Slump- A slump fold is a result of slope failure (a BLOCK MOUNTAINS
type of mass wasting or landslide).
• Ptygmatic- Ptygmatic folds are a type of slump • Block Mountains are formed as the result of
fold created where the folding material is much damage caused by the tensile and
more viscous than the material surrounding it. compressive forces caused by endogenous
• Disharmonic-Disharmonic folds describe rock forces from the Earth's interior, also known
formations in which different rock layers have as fault-block Mountains.
different fold shapes. • The Block Mountains represent an upright
portion of the land between two faults or on
Characteristics of Fold Mountains either side of a valley or canyon gap.
• The Great African Rift Valley, The Rhine
• Loftiest mountains
Valley and the Vosges Mountains in Europe
• Concentrated along continental margins.
are examples.
• Youngest mountains on the earth.
• Presence of fossils Formation
• Extend for great lengths but width is
• Formed due to the upward movement of
considerably small.
the middle block between two normal
• Concave slope on one side and a convex slope
faults.
on the other.
• The up-thrown block is also called a horst.
• Mostly found along continental margins facing
• The submittal area of such a block mountain
oceans (C-O Convergence).
is of the flat surface but the side slopes are
• Characterized by granite intrusions on a
very steep.
massive scale.
• May be formed when the side blocks of two
• Recurrent seismicity is a common feature in
faults move downward whereas the middle
folded mountain belts.
block remains stable at its place.
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VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS Island, Mount Popa in Myanmar, Mount Fuji

Yama in Japan.
• A volcanic mountain starts out as a simple
crack in the Earth called a volcanic vent.
• Magma erupts out of the ground as lava
flows, clouds of ash, and explosions of rock.
• This material falls back to Earth around the
vent and piles up around it.
• Over time a volcanic mountain builds up,
with the familiar cone shape.
• Examples are Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii
PLATEAUS
• A plateau is a raised flat area of land.

• It is a flat-topped tableland that rises above
the surrounding terrain.
• A plateau may have one or more steeply
sloping sides.
• Plateaus can range in height from a few
hundred meters to several thousand
meters.
• Plateaus, like mountains, can be either new
or ancient.
The economic significance of Plateaus
A storehouse of minerals Generation of Animal rearing and agriculture

hydel power
• The major portions of industrial
raw materials are obtained
from plateaus. • Plateaus have large grassland areas
• We get suitable for animal rearing, especially
✓ gold from the plateau of • The edges of sheep, goats, and cattle.
Western Australia; plateaus form • The lava plateaus when compared to
✓ copper, diamond and gold waterfalls that other plateaus are richer in minerals and
from the plateaus of Africa; hence used for agriculture as the soil is
provide ideal
✓ coal, iron, manganese, and very fertile.
mica from the Chottanagpur sites for
Plateau in India. generating hydel
power.
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PLATEAU FORMATION
Tectonic plateaus are formed from processes that create mountain ranges - volcanism (Deccan Plateau),
crustal shortening (thrusting of one block of crust over another and folding occurs. Example: Tibet), and
thermal expansion (Ethiopian Highlands).
Thermal expansion • The great heights of some plateaus are due

to crustal shortening such as the Plateau of
• Thermal expansion of the lithosphere -
Tibet.
replacement of cold mantle lithosphere by
hot asthenosphere. • Found in North Africa, Turkey, Iran, and
• Related with hot spots. Tibet, where the African, Arabian, and Indian
• Examples: continental masses have collided with the
Eurasian continent.
o In the United States the Yellowstone
Plateau,
o In France the Massif Central
o In Africa the Ethiopian Plateau
Crustal Shortening
• It is the process of plateau formation by the

thrusting of one block or slice of crust over
another or by the folding of layers of rock.
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Volcanic flood basalts • The thickness of the volcanic rock can be

tens to even hundreds of meters, and the
• This type of plateau can form where top surface of flood basalts is typically
extensive lava flows (called flood basalts or very flat but often with sharply incised
traps) and volcanic ash buries preexisting canyons and valleys.
terrain.
• Examples
o Columbia Plateau
o Deccan Traps
o Laurentian Plateau
o The Canadian Shield
o The Siberian Traps of Russia.
• Volcanic plateaus are commonly associated
with Cenozoic or Mesozoi.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLATEAUS • Lava plateaus are formed by highly fluid

basaltic lava during numerous successive
Dissected Plateau eruptions.
• Forms as a result of upward movement in • Pyroclastic plateaus are produced by
the Earth's crust. massive pyroclastic flows and they are
underlain by pyroclastic rocks.
• The uplift is caused by the slow collision of
tectonic plates. • Examples:
o The Columbia Plateau in the
• Examples:
o The Allegheny Plateau, northwestern United States of
America
o The Cumberland Plateau,
o Deccan Traps
o Hornsby Plateau in Australia
o Deccan Plateau in India
Intermontane Plateaus
Volcanic Plateau • A plateau that is enclosed or surrounded by
• Produced by volcanic activity. mountain ranges.
• There are two main types: lava plateaus • Examples:
and pyroclastic plateaus. o The Plateau of Tibet
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o The Plateau of Mongolia • Example: Chhibber Garhwal plateau of India.

Fluvial Plateaus
• Formed due to continuous deposits of fluvial
sediments brought by the rivers.
• The sediments are gradually consolidated and
stratified into sedimentary rocks of great
thickness.
• These sedimentary are raised upward due to
earth movement.
• Example:
o Kaimur Plateau
Continental Plateaus o Bhander Plateau
• Formed due to the deposition of thick covers o Rewa Plateau

of basaltic lava.
• These are extensive plateaus and are
Piedmont Plateaus
generally away from mountainous areas but
are surrounded by coastal plains. • Also known as Plateaus of denudation as being
• Example: formed due to various agents of erosion,
o Colorado Plateau reducing the level of the mountain.
o The Ozark Plateau • Such mountains are situated at the foot of a
o The Grand Canyon mountain and are locked on the other side by a
o Deccan Plateau plain or a sea/ocean.
• Example:
o Malwa Plateau
o Appalachian Plateau
Dome Shaped Plateaus
• Dome-shaped plateau are generally formed due

to endogenetic forces mainly during volcanic
activities.
• Batholithic and laccolithic intrusions of magmas
Glacial Plateaus beneath the crustal rocks cause large scale
doming in the ground surface.
• When mountains are greatly modified and
• Example: Chotanagpur Plateau.
transformed by glacial erosion, they are lowered
in height, and their sharp reliefs are rounded to
such an extent that they resemble as a plateau.
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MAJOR PLATEAUS OF THE WORLD
Name of Plateau Location Characteristics
Tibetan Plateau Central Asia • Roof of the World"

• Surrounded by imposing mountain ranges
• Formed due to the collision of the Indo-Australian and
Eurasian tectonic plates
Columbia – Snake Washington, • Formed due to the volcanic eruptions
Plateau Oregon, and • Flood Basalt Plateau
Idaho (USA)
Colorado Plateau Southwestern • Surrounded by the Rocky Mountains from north and
part of USA east, in the west by the Great Basin, and from the south
by the Sonoran Desert.
Deccan Plateau India • Largest plateau in India
• Located between Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
• It is volcanic basalt beds of the Deccan.
Kimberley Plateau Australia • Formed by the volcanic eruption
• Mineral deposits, including kimberlite.
Katanga Plateau Democratic • Famous for copper and uranium deposits
Republic of the
Congo
Laurentian Plateau Canada • 'Canadian Shield'

• Famous for exposed Precambrian igneous and high-
grade metamorphic rocks
• Fine quality of iron-ore is found here
Mexican Plateau Mexico • Mexican Altiplano
• ‘Mineral Store’
• World's biggest silver mine i.e. Chihuahua
Patagonian Plateau Argentina • It is semi-arid scrub and rain shadow desert plateau.
Anatolian Plateau Turkey • Asia Minor

• Region is famous for best quality wool producing goat
Iberian Plateau Spain • Formed by the volcanic eruption and lava
Loess Plateau China • 'Huangtu Plateau'

• Highly erodible soil on the Earth
Pothohar Plateau Pakistan • Bounded on the east by the Jhelum River, on the west by
the Indus River, on the north by the Kala Chitta Range and
the Margalla.
STUDYIQ.COM CLIMATOLOGY 1
CLIMATOLOGY
Climate: Climate can be defined as the sum total of hydrogen and helium, is thought to have
the weather conditions and changes over a large been torn away by solar winds.
area over a long period of time (more than thirty • In the second stage the warm interior of the
years). earth led to the evolution of the
atmosphere. Water vapour and gases were
Weather:The term “weather” describes the
released from the inner solid earth during
condition of the atmosphere over a region at any
cooling. This triggered the current climate’s
given time.
development.
Atmosphere • Finally, the living world altered the
composition of the atmosphere through the
Atmosphere:The Earth is covered by a massive process of photosynthesis.
blanket of air or a mixture of gases known as the
atmosphere. The height of the atmosphere is Composition of Atmosphere
estimated between 16 to 29 thousand kilometers
from the sea level. The air is an integral part of the Gases, Water Vapour, and Aerosolsmake up the
earth’s mass, and it is estimated that 99% of the atmosphere.
total mass is up to a height of 32 km from earth’s
surface. Gases
The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere The gaseous composition of the atmosphere

consists of two categories of gases
The current atmosphere is developed in three • Constant

stages. • Variable gases
o A variable element of the atmosphere
• The first stage is characterized by the
concentration decreases with increasing
disappearance of primordial (in original
altitude in the atmosphere.
state).The early atmosphere, which included
Aerosols Water Vapour
• Suspended particulate matter (SPM) which • More than 90 percent of the total atmospheric
include dust particles from volcanic eruptions, vapors is found up to the height of 5 km. It
exposed (ploughed) soil cover, salt particles decreases with height.
from seas and oceans; meteoric particles, • Absorbs parts of the insolation from the Sun and
organic matter (bacteria, seeds, spores, pollen, preserves the Earth's radiated heat. It thus acts
etc.); smoke and soot. like a blanket allowing the Earth neither to
• Higher concentration of dust particles is found in become too cold nor too hot.
subtropical and temperate regions due to dry • As water vapour is a good absorber of Earth's
winds in comparison to equatorial and polar outgoing radiation, it is considered a
regions. greenhouse gas.
• Water vapour also contributes to the stability
and instability in the air.
Following table showing the presence of the gases in the atmosphere:
Sr. No. Gas Chemical Formula Percent by volume
1 Xenon Xe 0.00009
2 Hydrogen H2 0.00005
3 Helium He 0.0005
4 Neon Ne 0.002
5 Krypto Kr 0.001
6 Carbon dioxide CO2 0.036
7 Argon Ar 0.93
8 Oxygen O2 20.95
9 Nitrogen N2 78.08
Structure of Atmosphere • This layer is made up of dust particles

and water vapour. This layer is
responsible for all climatic and weather
The atmosphere is divided into strata with varied
fluctuations such as fog, rainfall and hail-
densities and temperatures. Density is greatest at
storms.
the earth’s surface and decreases with increasing
• Height of troposphere changes (decreases)
altitude.Depending on the temperature, the
from the equator towards the poles and from
atmosphere’s structure is separated into five one season of a year to another season (height
distinct strata. The troposphere, stratosphere, increases during summer and decreases during
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the winter) because heat is transported to greater
five layers of the atmosphere. heights by strong convection currents at the
equator.
Layers of the Atmosphere • The temperature in this zone drops by 1°
C with every 165m of height.
• This is the foundational sphere of all
biological activity.
• Tropopause: The tropopause is the zone
that separates the troposphere from the
stratosphere. The tropopause air
temperature is around minus 800C over
the equator and approximately minus
450C over the poles. Because the
temperature here is relatively constant,
so, it is known as the tropopause.
2. Stratosphere
• The stratosphere is located above the

troposphere. It reaches a height of 50
kilometres.
• This layer is almost completely devoid of
clouds and related meteorological
phenomena, providing the best
1. Troposphere circumstances for flying aeroplanes.
• Ozonosphere: The presence of an ozone
• The troposphere is the atmosphere’s
gas layer in the stratosphere is one of its
lowest layer.
key characteristics.This layer filters
• It has an average height of 13 km and its ultraviolet radiation and protects life on
elevation ranges from 8 km nearby poles Earth from dangerous forms of energy.
to 18 km towards the equator. The
equator has the thickest layer
3. Mesosphere
of troposphere because heat is carried to
ample heights by powerful convectional
currents.
• The mesosphere is located above the radio transmission. This layer, in

stratosphere, which reaches a height reality, reflects back to the ground
of 80 kilometres. radio waves received from the
• Temperature decreases with earth.
increasing altitude in this zone as
well like as in the Troposphere, 5. Exosphere
reaching minus 100° C at a height of
80 kilometres. • The exosphere is the uppermost
• Meteorites that enter from layer of the atmosphere.
space burn up in this zone. • The air in this stratum is extremely
• Characterized by very low air thin.
pressure. • From here, light gases such as
• The Mesopause is the top limit of the helium and hydrogen drift into
mesosphere. space.
• In the exosphere, many weather
4. Thermosphere satellites orbit the Earth.
• Low-Earth orbit is located in the
• Temperature rises fast with lower exosphere, whereas medium-
increasing height in the Earth orbit is located higher in the
thermosphere. atmosphere.Satellite photos of the
• Air pressure becomes extremely low Earth show the upper exosphere
due to very low atmospheric density. threshold. The hazy blue glow that
• This layer includes the Ionosphere encircles the Earth is known as the
which lies above the Mesopause. It “Geocorona.”
stretches between 80 and 400
kilometres. This layer facilitates
Significance of Earth’s Atmosphere atmosphere, air pressure cannot be
maintained.
• Because marine species rely on dissolved
• Since human rely solely on the oxygen
oxygen, which would not evaporate
contained in the atmosphere if it ceased to
instantly if the atmosphere simply vanished
exist, we would have no hope of surviving
but would surely terminate later.
because of the difference in air pressure
• Our atmosphere defends our planet’s life
between the lungs and the air outside the
from the effects of dangerous solar
body.
radiations by blocking tonnes of damaging
• The loss of the Earth’s atmosphere would be
rays from the sun.
devastating not just to mankind, but also to
• Sky would turn black, as no scattering
the majority of the planet’s flora and
phenomenon of light would be possible.
animals.
• There would be no sound as no medium
• Birds, flying aircrafts or airborne creature
would be there for its travelling.
would crash to the Earth’s surface since
• There would beno rain.
they require air pressure to fly and may
• However, in the absence of the atmosphere,
move in the air by producing pressure
all those fast-flying meteorites and
differences. Without the earth’s
asteroids would break loose and savagely
slam into the Earth with no protective

barrier to stop them.
Heat &Temperature
Heat is produced through the interaction of

insolation with the atmosphere and the earth’s
surface, which is measured in terms of temperature.
• Heatreflects the molecular movement of the

elements that comprise a substance.
• Temperatureis the measurement in degrees
of how hot (or cold) something (or a
location) is.
• Insolation is the incoming solar energy
intercepted by the earth.
Transfer of Heat Energy
In terms of Physics, the Heat and Temperature
can be explained in following manners:
1. Conduction
• Heat is a mode of energy that transfers Conduction is defined as mechanism of transfer

from a hot object to a cold object; of heat between two adjacent parts of a body
Temperature is a measurement of because of their temperature
coldness or hotness of something. difference.InConduction heat is transferred
• Heat is a combination of potential and
from the hotter end of an item to the colder end.
kinetic energy (K.E) gained by molecules in
a material; Temperature is the average K.E In general, conduction is the mechanism that
of molecules in anobject. transfers heat in solids.
• Heat transfers from heated to cold objects; • Conductors:Conductors are materials that
Temperature increases when body heated allow heat to readily travel through them.
and declines when cooled down. Aluminum, iron, and copper are a few
• The Calorimeteris used to calculate heat; examples.
Thermometer is used to measure it.
• Insulators: Poor conductors of heat include
• Heat’s SI unit is Joule; Temperature’s SI
unit is Kelvin. materials like plastic and woodthat make it
• Heat is denoted by ‘Q’; Temperature is difficult for heat to go through them.
denoted by ‘T.’ Insulators are classified as poor conductors.
Heat Transfer
2. Convection
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual

motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids.
The water (liquid) closest to the flame heats up
when water is heated and warm water rises. The 2. Vertical Temperature Distribution:Increase
cold water from the sides goes down towards in elevation causes a reduction in
the heat source. Additionally, heated water temperature. It is known as the Normal
rises, whereas water from the sides continues to Lapse Rate.Under some situations, the
go downward. This process keeps on until the normal lapse rate inverts and the
water is heated throughout. This type of heat temperature rises with elevation, this
transmission is known as Convection. For phenomenon known as Inversion of
example, colder water near the poles moves Temperature.
towards the equator whereas hot water
surrounding the equator travels towards the Factors Controlling the Temperature
poles. Distribution
3. Radiation
Radiation mode of heat transfer does not Latitude:The temperature of a location is

require any medium to transfer heat like determined by the amount of insolation received.
conduction or convection; and the energy Because insolation changes with latitude, so does
radiated by the electromagnetic waves is called the temperature.
Radiant energy. All bodies emit radiant energy,
Altitude:Terrestrial radiation from below heats the
whether they are solid, liquid or gases.
atmosphere indirectly. As a result, regions near the
Electromagnetic waves can have different
sea level have warmer temperatures than places at
wavelengths and can travel in vacuum with the
higher altitudes. In other words, with the rises in
same speed that of light. This is how heat is
elevation, the temperature drops. The normal lapse
transferred to the earth from the sun through
rate is the rate at which temperature decreases with
empty space.
height. It is 6.5 degrees Celsius every 1,000 metres.
Distribution ofTemperature • The layers of air are denser near the
earth's surface and become lighter with
• The global temperature distribution may be increasing altitudes. Therefore, the
places near the sea-level record higher
effectively understood by observing the
temperature than the places situated at
temperature distribution in January and higher elevations.
July.
• Isotherms are commonly used to depict the
temperature distribution on a map.The Distance from the Sea:Another element that affects
Isotherms are lines joining places having temperature is a location’s proximity to the sea. In
equal temperature. comparison to land, the water heats up and cool
• Temperature distribution varies both down slowly. The land immediately warms up and
vertically and horizontally. cools down. As a result, the temperature variance
over the sea is lesser than that over land.The places
1. Horizontal Temperature Distribution:The situated near the sea come under the moderating
horizontal distribution of temperature is the influence of the sea and land breezes which
distribution of temperature across latitudes moderate the temperature.
over the earth’s surface.
• Sea Breeze: The ground heats up faster than
the sea throughout the day. The air over the
ground heats up and rises. To take its place, slowly.

cool air from the water rushes in from the Day Breeze and the Land Breeze
sea. To complete the cycle, warm air from
the land travels towards the sea. The air
from the sea is referred to as the Sea
Breeze.
• Land Breeze: To receive the cooling sea
breeze the windows of homes in coastal
locations are constructed towards sea. In
the evening, it is precisely the opposite.
Compared to the land, the water cools off
more slowly. Thus, the cold air from the land
goes in the direction of the ocean. The air
from the land is referred to as the Land
Breeze. Air-Mass and Ocean Currents:The movement of air
masses impacts temperature in a similar way land
Nature of Ground Slope and ocean breezes do. Higher temperatures are
•
Sun-facing ground surfaces (Adret) record experienced in areas under the influence of warm
higher temperature than the opposite air masses, whereas lower temperatures are felt in
slopes (ubac) where sun's rays reach more areas under the influence of cold air masses. In a
obliquely.
similar manner, locations along the coast where
Natural vegetation and soil warm ocean currents flow experience greater
• Trees lose water by evapotranspiration, so the temperatures than those along the coast where
air above is cooled. Dry soils are sensitive to
cold currents flow.
temperature changes whereas wet soils like clay
retain moisture and warm up or cool down more
The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution
Seasonal Temperature distribution: January and

Isotherm July in Northern and Southern Hemisphere
The Distribution of Surface Air

• An isotherm is a hypothetical line
Temperature in January
connecting places with the same
temperature on a map or chart.
• In meteorology, isotherms are frequently
used to depict the temperature distribution
at the Earth’s surface or to represent
constant level or constant pressure on a
chart.
• They are also used to reveal the periodic
fluctuation of temperature with altitude in
the atmosphere or depth in soil or water.
equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics

and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes and –
• The land surface area of the northern 18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian Continental
hemisphere is way larger than that of the interior.
southern hemisphere. As a result, the • The ocean has a strong influence on the
impacts of land mass and ocean currents are southern hemisphere. The isotherms are
quite noticeable. In January, the isotherms more or less parallel to the latitudes here,
diverge to the north over the ocean and to and the temperature fluctuation is more
the south over the continent. On the North gradual than in the northern hemisphere.
Atlantic Ocean, this may be observed. The The isotherms of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C
presence of warm ocean currents, such as correspond to latitudes of 35° S, 45° S, and
the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, 60° S, respectively.
warms the Northern Atlantic Ocean and
causes isotherms to bend northward. In • In July, the isotherms often run parallel to
Europe, the temperature drops dramatically the latitude. Temperatures in the equatorial
over land, and the isotherms shift oceans increases, exceeded 27° C. More
southward. than 30°C is observed over land in Asia’s
• It is much pronounced in the Siberian plain. subtropical continental region along the 30°
The mean January temperature along 60° E N latitude. The isotherm of 10°C runs along
longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N and 40° N, while the temperature is 10°C along
50° N latitudes. The mean monthly 40° S.
temperature for January is over 27° C, in
The Distribution of Surface Air

Temperature in July • A map below shows the range of
temperature between January and July.
The highest range of temperature is more Range of Temperature between January

than 60°Cover the north-eastern part of and July
Eurasian continent. This is due to
continentality. The least range of
temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S
and 15° N.
• The reflected amount of radiation is called

the albedo of the Earth. Thus, this 35
Heat Budget percent of radiation neither heats the
atmosphere nor the Earth’s surface.
• The remaining 65 units are absorbed as:
• The average temperature of the Earth ✓ Absorbed by the atmosphere - 14
overall does not change despite the units
continuous supply of sun rays. This is ✓ Absorbed by the earth - 51 units
possible only when an equal amount of (Scattered + direct radiation)
energy is sent back to space by the Earth’s ✓ Total - 65 units
system. There is a balance between
incoming solar radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation. This balance is known
• Scattering takes place by gas molecules
as the heat budget of the Earth.
and dust particles. This takes place in all
• Let's consider that the insolation received
directions, some of it earthwards and
at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per
some towards space. Overall, earth
cent. While passing through the
receives 51 units of radiation, which
atmosphere, some amount of energy is
radiates back in the form of terrestrial
reflected, scattered, and absorbed. Only the
radiation. The details of this reflected
remaining part reaches the Earth’s surface.
radiation are as under:
• Roughly 35 units are reflected back to
✓ Radiated to space directly - 17
space even before reaching the Earth’s
units
surface. The detail break-up of this
✓ Radiated to the atmosphere - 34
reflected radiation are as under:
units
✓ Reflected from the top of clouds - 27
• The details of 34 units of radiation
units
absorbed by the atmosphere from
✓ Reflected by ice-fields on earth - 02
terrestrial radiations are:
units
✓ Absorbed directly - 06 units
✓ Reflected by the atmosphere - 06
✓ Absorbed through convection
units
and turbulence - 09 units
✓ Total - 35 units
✓ Absorbed through Latent heat of
condensation5 - 19 units; (Latent
heat refers to the energy ✓ Radiated back by the

released or absorbed by a body) atmosphere - 48 units
✓ Total - 34 units ✓ Total - 65 units
• Total units absorbed by the atmosphere
are 48 (14 units of insolation + 34 units of • These returning 65 units balance the
Terrestrial radiation). These are radiated total of 65 units received from the sun.
back into space. Thus, the total radiation • This account of incoming and outgoing
returning from the earth and the radiation always maintains the balance of
atmosphere respectively are: heat on the earth's surface. This is termed
✓ Radiated back by earth - 17 the heat budget or heat balance of the
units earth.
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TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION 1
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION-VERTICAL
TEMPERATURE while temperature refers to the
degree of hotness of that
• Temperature is a relative measure or
substance.
indication of hotness or coldness.
• A hot utensil is said to have a high
temperature, and an ice cube to have a low
temperature.
• An object with a higher temperature than
another is said to be hotter. Which has higher heat, and which has a
• Temperature is a measure of how fast the higher temperature: a candle flame or a
atoms in a material are vibrating. bathtub full of hot water?
• High-temperature particles vibrate faster ✓ The flame has a higher
than low temperature particles. temperature, but less heat,
• Rapidly vibrating atoms smash together, because the hot region is very
which generates heat. small.
• As a material cools down, the atoms vibrate ✓ The bathtub has a lower
more slowly and collide less frequently. As a temperature but contains much
result, they emit less heat. more heat because it has many
more vibrating atoms. The bathtub
has greater total energy.
What is the difference between heat and
temperature?
HEAT
✓ Heat is a form of energy while
temperature denotes the intensity • Heat is the form of energy transferred
of hotness or coldness of any between two (or more) systems or a system
substance. and its surroundings by virtue of
✓ Heat denotes the quantity of temperature difference.
energy present in any substance
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• Heat is taken in or released when an object Example:

changes state, or changes from a gas to a
Imagine a pot of boiling water on a stove
liquid, or a liquid to a solid.
burner: That water is at 100° C (212° F). If you
• This heat is called latent heat. When a
increase the temperature of the burner, more
substance changes state, latent heat is
heat enters the water. The water remains at its
released or absorbed.
boiling temperature, but the additional energy
• A substance that is changing its state of
goes into changing the water from liquid to gas.
matter does not change temperature.
With more heat, the water evaporates more
• All of the energy that is released or absorbed
rapidly. When water changes from a liquid to a
goes toward changing the material’s state.
gas it takes in heat. Since evaporation takes in
heat, this is called evaporative cooling.
Evaporative cooling is an inexpensive way to cool
homes in hot, dry areas.
The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in joule (J) while the SI
unit of temperature is Kelvin (K), and °C is a commonly used temperature
unit.
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LAPSE RATE 1. Dry adiabatic lapse rate
• The atmospheric lapse rate refers to the Since the atmospheric pressure
change of an atmospheric variable with a decreases with altitude, the volume of
change of altitude, the variable being an air parcel expands as it rises.
temperature unless specified otherwise
(such as pressure, density or humidity). Conversely, if a parcel of air sinks from a
• While usually applied to Earth's atmosphere, higher altitude to a lower altitude, its
the concept of lapse rate can be extended to volume is compressed by the higher
atmospheres (if any) that exist on other pressure at the lower altitude.
planets.
• Lapse rates are usually expressed as the
amount of temperature change associated An adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at
with a specified amount of altitude change, which the temperature of an air parcel
such as 9.8 °Kelvin (K) per kilometer, 0.0098 changes in response to the expansion or
°K per meter or the equivalent 5.4 °F per compression process associated with a
1000 feet. change in altitude, under the assumption
that the process is adiabatic (meaning
If the atmospheric air cools with
that no heat is added or lost during the
increasing altitude, the lapse rate
process).
may be expressed as a negative
number. If the air heats with
increasing altitude, the lapse rate
may be expressed as a positive • Saturated air- Earth's atmospheric air is
number. rarely completely dry. It usually contains
some water vapor and when it contains as
much water vapor as it is capable of, it is
referred to as saturated air (i.e., it has a
Types of lapse rates
relative humidity of 100%).
• There are three types of lapse rates that are • The dry adiabatic lapse rate refers to the
used to express the rate of temperature lapse rate of unsaturated air (i.e., air with a
change with a change in altitude, namely- relative humidity of less than 100%).
1. The dry adiabatic lapse rate • It is also often referred to as the dry
2. The wet adiabatic lapse rate adiabatic, DALR or unsaturated lapse rate.
3. The environmental lapse rate • It should be noted that the word dry in this
context simply means that no liquid water
(i.e., moisture) is present in the air; water
vapor may be and usually is present.
• The troposphere is the lowest layer of the
Earth's atmosphere and almost all human
activity takes place in the troposphere.
• Since g and cpd vary little with altitude, the
dry adiabatic lapse rate is approximately
constant in the troposphere.
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2- Wet adiabatic lapse rate • In the troposphere, the rate can vary from
about 4 K / kilometre (2.2 °F / 1000 ft) in
An unsaturated parcel of air will rise from Earth's
regions where the ambient temperature is
surface and cool at the dry adiabatic rate of – 9.8
about 25 °C (77 °F) to about 7 K / kilometre
K / kilometer until it has cooled to the temperature,
(3.8 °F / 1000 ft) in regions where the
known as the atmospheric dew point, at which the
ambient temperature is about – 10 °C (14
water vapor it contains begins to condense (i.e.,
°F).
change phase from vapor to liquid) and release the
• After the air parcel has reached its dew point
latent heat of vaporization.
and cooling has decreased to the wet
adiabatic lapse rate, it will eventually rise to
a point where all of its water vapor has
At that dew point temperature, the air parcel is condensed and its rate of cooling will then
saturated and, because of the release of the heat of revert back to the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
vaporization, the rate of cooling will decrease to
what is known as the wet adiabatic lapse rate.
3- Environmental lapse rate

• The dry adiabatic lapse rate and the wet
This rate is also often referred to as the wet adiabat, adiabatic lapse rate are both theoretical
saturated lapse rate, SALR, moist adiabatic lapse rates.
rate or MALR. • The actual real-world profile of
temperature versus altitude that exists at
• The wet adiabatic lapse rate is not a constant
any given time and in any given
since it depends upon how much water
geographical location is called the
vapor the atmospheric air contained when it
environmental lapse rate, also often
started to rise, which means the amount of
referred to as the ELR, prevailing lapse rate
heat of vaporization available for release is
or ambient lapse rate.
variable.
INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE • The heat of the day is radiated off during the
night, and by early morning hours, the earth
is cooler than the air above.
✓ Normally, temperature decreases with • Over polar areas, temperature inversion is
increase in elevation. It is called normal normal throughout the year.
lapse rate.
✓ At times, the situations are reversed FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR TEMPERATURE
and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It INVERSION
is called Inversion of temperature. • Long winter nights: Loss of heat by terrestrial
radiation from the ground surface during night may
exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.
• Cloudless and clear sky: Loss of heat through
• Inversion is usually of short duration but terrestrial radiation proceeds more rapidly without
quite common nonetheless. any obstruction.
• A long winter night with clear skies and still • Dry air near the ground surface: It limits the
air is ideal situation for inversion. absorption of the radiated heat from the Earth’s
surface.
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• Slow movement of air: It results in no transfer or • The unmixed air above is not cooled and
mixing of heat in the lower layers of the atmosphere. eventually is warmer than the air below; an
• Snow covered ground surface: It results in maximum inversion then exists.
loss of heat through reflection of incoming solar
radiation. Subsidence inversion
• Develops when a widespread layer of air

descends.
• The layer is compressed and heated by the
resulting increase in atmospheric pressure,
and as a result, the lapse rate of temperature
is reduced.
• If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at
higher altitudes becomes warmer than at
lower altitudes, producing a temperature
inversion.
Frontal inversion
Types of temperature inversions
• Occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a
Ground inversion warm air mass and lifts it aloft;
• The front between the two air masses then
• Develops when air is cooled by contact with has warm air above and cold air below.
a colder surface until it becomes cooler than
• This kind of inversion has considerable slope,
the overlying atmosphere;
whereas other inversions are nearly
• This occurs most often on clear nights, when horizontal.
the ground cools off rapidly by radiation.
• If the temperature of surface air drops below
its dew point, fog may result.
Effects of Temperature inversion
Turbulence inversion
➢ Dust particles hanging in the air
• Often forms when quiescent air overlies ➢ Stops the movement of air
turbulent air. ➢ Less rainfall
• Within the turbulent layer, vertical mixing ➢ Lower visibility
carries heat downward and cools the upper ➢ Thunderstorms and tornadoes
part of the layer.
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Valley Inversion or Advectional inversion

• Mostly seen in the mountainous valleys due to
radiation and vertical movement of air also called
Vertical/Advectional Inversion of temperature
• The temperature of the upper parts of the valleys in
mountainous areas becomes exceedingly low during
winter nights because of the rapid rate of loss of heat
from the surface through terrestrial radiation.
Consequently, the air coming in contact with the cool
surface also becomes cool.
• On the other hand, the temperature of the valley
floor does not fall considerably because of the
comparatively low rate of loss of heat through
terrestrial radiation. Thus, the air remains warmer
than the air aloft and hence the warm and light air of
the valley floor is pushed upward by the descending
cold and heavier air of the upper part of the valley.
Thus, there is warm air aloft and cold air in the valley
floor and inversion of temperature is caused.
• This situation is responsible for severe frost in the
valley floors causing great damage to fruit orchards FACTORS INFLUENCING ATMOSPHERIC
and vegetables and agricultural crops whereas the PRESSURE
upper parts of the valleys are free from frost.
1- The Ideal Gas Law: The relationship between

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE pressure, temperature, and density can be
summarized by an equation called the ideal
• The weight of a column of air contained in a gas law: P = nRT where P is pressure, n is
unit area from the mean sea level to the top of density, R is the constant of proportionality,
the atmosphere is called the atmospheric and T is temperature. This equation says that
pressure. pressure “P” will increase if density remains
• The atmospheric pressure is expressed in constant, but temperature “T” increases, and
units of milibar. that pressure will increase if the temperature
• At sea level the average atmospheric remains constant, but density “n” increases.
pressure is 1,013.2 milibar. 2- Density and pressure relationships: Density
• Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser is the mass of matter in a unit volume. While
and hence has higher pressure. the density of solid remains the same across
• Air pressure is measured with the help of a space (be it on the Earth or on the Moon or
mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer. anywhere else), the density of fluids varies
• The pressure decreases with height. from place to place. Among the fluids, the
• At any elevation it varies from place to place density of gases varies extensively with
and its variation is the primary cause of air changes in location. Gas density changes
motion, i.e. wind which moves from high easily because gas is free to expand as far as
pressure areas to low pressure areas. the environmental pressure allows.
3- Temperature and pressure relationships: If
air is warmed, the molecules become get
energized, (the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases with increasing
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temperature), and their speed increases. This • Atmospheric pressure is measured by

increase in speed in the molecules leads to an barometers in hectopascals (hPa), and there
increased number of collisions thus resulting is a 4hPa difference between isobars.
in the development of greater pressure. • The pressure can range from about 870hPa
Therefore, if other conditions remain the to 1080hPa.
same, an increase in gas temperature • Where data is not available the isobars are
produces an increase in pressure. drawn to represent smooth curves to fit the
4- Dynamic influences on pressure: Surface air actual data. Isobars can never touch each
pressure may also be influenced by other.
“dynamic” factors. In other words, air • Isobars are used to represent the pressure at
pressure may be influenced by the sea level so differences caused by altitude
movement of the air—especially the vertical are ignored.
movement of air. Air when heated up at the • There is some cross-isobar flow — the air
surface, tends to rise up (as the density of air generally spirals gently outward from the
reduces) and a vacuum is created. The centres of high pressure and spirals in
vacuum created by the rising air is then towards the centres of low pressure.
occupied by the surrounding air which rushes • In the northern hemisphere the flow is in the
in to fill the void. opposite direction around highs and lows.
• The spiraling is caused by the Earth’s
ISOBARS rotation and is known as the Coriolis Effect.
• Contrary to popular opinion it does not
• Isobars are lines on a weather map that join
affect water going down the drain.
places of equal pressure.
• Meteorologists collect information from
PRESSURE CELLS
• When the isobars form a closed loop, a cell
is produced.
• The air flows anticlockwise in high pressure
cells (H) and the weather is generally stable.
• The air flows in a clockwise direction in low
pressure cells (L).
• Lows often bring unsettled weather.
weather stations, buoys and ships and then

draw smooth curves to join the dots.
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FACTORS AFFECTING GLOBAL AIR 2- The Coriolis Effect is proportional

CIRCULATION to the speed of the object. Thus, a
fast-moving object is deflected
The Sun more than a slower one.
3- The Coriolis Effect decides the
• Sun being the ultimate source of all forces
direction of movement only and
that propels wind causes unequal
does not change the speed of an
heating of the earth’s surface.
object. Thus, it affects the
• This plays a major role in determining the
direction of wind flow.
speed and movement of the wind.
Pressure Gradient
• If there is higher pressure in one area than

in another, air will move from the higher
pressure toward the lower pressure in
response to the pressure gradient force.
• In other words, the rate of change of
pressure with respect to distance is the
pressure gradient.
• The pressure gradient force remains
operational from the high-pressure area to
the low pressure, while causing the wind
movement.
• The pressure gradient is found to be strong
when the isobars are close to each other,
while the pressure gradient is weak when
the isobars are apart.
The Coriolis Effect
• Any object moving freely near Earth’s

surface appears to deflect to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to its left in the
Southern Hemisphere due to earth’s
rotation.
• The following are significant aspects of the
Coriolis effect: 4- The Coriolis effect deflection acts
1- The apparent deflection is at right angles from the direction
strongest at the poles and of movement. Thus, the Coriolis
decreases progressively toward effect keeps the wind from
the equator, where deflection is directly following the pressure
zero. gradient force.
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• If these two factors are in balance, as in the • Most winds in the atmosphere are
upper atmosphere, the wind moves parallel geostrophic or nearly geostrophic.
to the isobars. It is called geostrophic wind.
Frictional Forces • Over the sea surface, the friction is

• Frictional force is mainly strongest in the minimum.
lower portions of the troposphere.
• It slows wind movement and reduces the Centripetal Force
influence of the Coriolis Effect.
• Frictional force reduces the wind speed.
This, in turn, reduces the Coriolis effect • This force applies when the isobars are
deflection. curved, as within cyclones.
• The frictional influence is greatest near • The fact that air follows a curved path means
Earth’s surface and reduces progressively that in addition to the pressure gradient and
upward. the Coriolis force, a third force acts
• The frictional force is highest at the surface centripetally, pulling air inwards.
and its influence generally extends upto an • The wind in balance with these three forces
elevation of 1-3 kilometers. is known as the gradient wind.
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VERTICAL VARIATION OF PRESSURE • Horizontal distribution of pressure is

studied by drawing isobars at constant
• In the lower atmosphere the pressure levels.
decreases rapidly with height. The decrease • Isobars are lines connecting places having
amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m equal pressure.
increase in elevation. • In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on
• It does not always decrease at the same rate. pressure, it is measured at any station after
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much being reduced to sea level for purposes of
larger than that of the horizontal pressure comparison.
gradient. 1- Low-pressure system is enclosed by
• But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal one or more isobars with the lowest
but opposite gravitational force. pressure in the centre.
• Hence, we do not experience strong upward 2- High-pressure system is also
winds. enclosed by one or more isobars
with the highest pressure in the
centre.
DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE BELTS ACROSS

THE LATITUDES
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE
Small differences in pressure are highly significant

in terms of the wind direction and velocity.
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Equatorial low-pressure belt • These belts are formed due to the rising air
of the equatorial region, which is deflected
• This belt extends from the equator to 10 towards the poles because of the earth’s
degrees N and 10 degrees S latitudes. This rotation. After becoming cold and heavy, it
belt is thermally produced due to heating by descends in these regions and piles up.
the Sun. • This results in the formation of a high-
• As the sun shines almost vertically on the pressure zone.
equator throughout the year, it heats the air • Horse latitudes-These belts are also called
and the warm air rises over the equatorial Horse latitudes. In older days, vessels with a
region and produces equatorial low cargo of horses passing through these belts
pressure. found it difficult to sail under these
• Due to excessive heating, the horizontal conditions. They used to throw the horses
movement of air is absent here, and only into the sea to make the vessels light.
vertical conventional currents of air blow in • These are the regions of divergence as the
this belt. winds from these areas blow towards
• This belt is called doldrums (the zone of equatorial and subpolar low-pressure
calm) because of the virtual absence of belts. In these belts' upper atmosphere, the
surface winds. upper-level westerlies and anti-trade winds
• This belt is also called as-Inter Tropical converge. This sets up descending currents
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) because the trade in the atmosphere.
winds or the winds flowing from subtropical
high-pressure belts converge here. Sub-polar low-pressure belt
Sub-tropical high-pressure belts • It extends along 60 degrees latitudes (55-65

degrees) in both hemispheres.
• These belts extend roughly between 25 • These belts are not thermally induced like
degrees and 35 degrees latitudes in both equatorial low-pressure belts, rather are
Hemispheres. formed by the rotation of the Earth.
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• The winds from the subtropics and the Polar Polar high-pressure belt
Regions converge in this belt and rise
• Air compresses, and its density increases
upward.
due to low temperature. Hence, high
• The great temperature contrast between
pressure is found here throughout the year.
the subtropical and the Polar Regions gives
• This is more marked over the land area of
rise to cyclonic storms in this belt.
the Antarctic continent than over the
• In the Southern hemisphere, this low-
northern oceans.
pressure belt is more pronounced due to the
• In the northern hemisphere, high pressure is
vast ocean presence and also referred to as
not centered at the pole, but it extends from
the sub-Antarctic low.
Greenland to Islands situated in the
northern part of Canada.
MAJOR FACTORS INFLUENCING • Convergence and divergence results in low

HORIZONTAL PRESSURE and high pressure respectively.
The Temperature of Air Presence of Water vapor
• Earth does not heat up uniformly because of • The presence of water vapor in higher
unequal distribution of insolation. Due to quantities in air results in low pressure while
differential heating and cooling of land and water vapor in lower quantities results in
water surfaces. high pressure.
• The inverse relationship between air • Continents are cool in winter, thus the air
temperature and air pressure within the has a lower capacity to hold water vapor
atmosphere leads to regional variations in thus developing high-pressure centers.
pressure. • In summer the continents are warmer and
• The hotter the air temperature, the lower tend to form low-pressure centers as hot air
the air pressure and vice-versa in an open has a higher capacity to hold water vapor or
system. moisture.
The Rotation of the Earth PRESSURE BELT- JANUARY CONDITIONS
• The centrifugal force generated due to the • In the month of January the Sun drifts in the
Earth’s rotation results in the deflection of southward direction of the equator. This
air from its original place thereby causing a
reduction in the pressure difference.
• The low-pressure belts of the sub Polar
Regions and the high-pressure belts of the
subtropical regions are formed because of
Earth’s rotation.
• The Earth’s rotation also results in
convergence and divergence of air.
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results in the shift of the equatorial belt PRESSURE BELT- JULY CONDITIONS
south of the mean equatorial position.
• South America, South Africa, and Australia • The equatorial low-pressure belt shifts little
become the areas of low pressure as the north of the mean equatorial position
land heats up more rapidly than the water. because of the northward movement of the
• The subtropical high-pressure cells are Sun in the month of July.
centered over the ocean in the southern • In Asia, a low pressure is developed as the
hemisphere. lands are rapidly heated up than the ocean.
• The belt of high pressure is interrupted by • The subtropical highs are more developed
the continental landmasses where the over the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean in
temperature is significantly high. the northern hemisphere.
• The subtropical high-pressure cells are well
developed in the eastern part of the ocean,
where the cold ocean currents dominate.
• While in Asia, high pressure is developed.
This is due to the fact that land cools more
rapidly than the oceans.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION ascend along the boundaries between the

cool polar air and the warm subtropical air
Hadley cell that generally occurs between 60 and 70
degrees north and south.
• The largest cells extend from the equator to
between 30 and 40 degrees north and south.
• Within the Hadley cells, the trade winds
blow towards the equator, then ascend near
the equator as a broken line of
thunderstorms, which forms the Inter-
Tropical-Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• From the tops of these storms, the air flows
towards higher latitudes, where it sinks to
produce high-pressure regions over the
subtropical oceans and the world's hot
deserts, such as the Sahara desert in North
Africa.
Ferrel cell
• In the middle cells, which are known as the

Ferrel cells, air converges at low altitudes to
STUDYIQ.COM
• The circulation within the Ferrel cell is Polar cell

complicated by a return flow of air at high
altitudes towards the tropics, where it joins • The smallest and weakest cells are the Polar
sinking air from the Hadley cell. cells, which extend from between 60 and 70
• The Ferrel cell moves in the opposite degrees north and south, to the poles.
direction to the two other cells (Hadley cell • Air in these cells sinks over the highest
and Polar cell) and acts rather like a gear. latitudes and flows out towards the lower
• In this cell the surface wind would flow from latitudes at the surface.
a southerly direction in the northern • At polar latitudes the cold dense air
hemisphere. subsides near the poles and blows
• However, the spin of the Earth induces an towards middle latitudes as the polar
apparent motion to the right in the northern easterlies.
hemisphere and left in the southern
hemisphere.
STUDYIQ.COM CIRCULATION OF ATMOSPHERE 1
THE GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
TYPES OF WINDS
• The wind is the result of a pressure gradient,
largely caused by the differential heating of
the earth. • The winds are categorized or classified
• Winds in the atmosphere do not follow the under following categories:
same pattern as we go up in the atmosphere. 1. Surface Winds
In fact, winds may change their direction and
❖ Planetary winds
intensity multiple times within the same day. ▪ Trade winds
• Largely, wind movement in the atmosphere ▪ The Westerlies
can be classified into three broad categories:
1. Primary circulation: It includes
planetary wind systems, which are
related to the general arrangement
of pressure belts on the earth’s
surface. The primary circulation
patterns prepare the broad
framework for the other circulation
patterns.
o Example: Trade Winds, Westerly
Winds, and Polar Winds etc.
2. Secondary circulation: Consisting
of cyclones, anticyclones,
▪ The Easterlies
seasonal circulation like ❖ Periodic winds
monsoons and air masses. ▪ Monsoons
3. Tertiary circulation: It includes all ▪ Mountain and valley breeze
the local winds produced by local ❖ Local winds
causes such as topographical ▪ Loo
features, sea influences, etc. Their ▪ Mistral
▪ Foehn
impact is visible only in a particular
▪ Sirocco
area.
▪ Bora
o Example: Harmattan, Chinook,
▪ Chinook
Sirocco, Norwester, Buran etc.
2. Upper Air Winds
❖ Geostrophic Winds
❖ Jet Stream
Planetary Winds • Thus, winds originating at ITCZ come back

in a circular fashion. Such a tropical cell is
called Hadley Cell.
• Primary or planetary winds blow from
high-pressure belts to low-pressure belts
in the same direction throughout the year.
• They blow over vast areas of continents
and oceans. Trade winds, Westerlies, and
polar easterlies together form the
planetary wind circulation.
• The air in the Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection
current due to high insolation and a low
The Westerlies
pressure.
• In the middle latitudes (30 degrees -60
Trade winds
degrees) the circulation is that of sinking
• The winds from the tropics converge in this
cold air.
pressure zone (ITCZ).
• This air comes from the poles and the
• The converged air rises along up. It reaches
rising warm air that blows from the
the top of the troposphere.
subtropical high-pressure belt.
• Gradually, it moves towards the poles
• These winds are deflected due to Coriolis
resulting in the accumulation of air at
force and become westerly in both the
about 30 degrees North and South. Part of
hemisphere. The deflected wind is called
this accumulated air sinks to the ground. It
westerlies.
forms a subtropical high. Sinking is also
• These winds meet along the sub-polar low-
due to the cooling of air at 30 degrees N
pressure belt to raise high in the
and S latitudes.
troposphere. From here, air moves away in
• The air flows towards the equator near the
both directions – towards the pole and
land surface as the trade winds. Because
equator.
of Coriolis force, their direction becomes
• These winds start descending down above
north-east and south-east in the northern
the sub-tropical high pressure belt and
and southern hemispheres respectively.
polar high pressure belt to form cells.
• Easterlies from either side of the equator
These cells are called Ferrel cells and Polar
converge at the Inter Tropical
cells respectively.
Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• The prevailing westerlies are relatively The Polar Easterlies

more variable than the trade winds both in • Winds move away from polar high pressure
direction and intensity. to sub-polar low pressure along the surface
• The westerlies are stronger in the cold. of the earth in the Polar cell.
• In the southern hemisphere, westerlies • Their direction becomes easterlies due to
are so powerful and persistent due to the Coriolis force. These are called polar
absence of land between 40 – 60 degrees easterlies.
S that these are called ‘roaring forties’, • Winds coming from the subtropical and the
‘furious fifties’ and ‘screaming sixties’ polar high belts converge and produce
along 40 degree S, 50 degree S, and 60 cyclonic storms/low pressure conditions.
degree S latitudes. • This zone of convergence is called the polar
front.
Secondary winds or Periodic winds • It is caused due to the differential heating

of land and water, which produces low and
high pressures.
Monsoons • The land gets heated more quickly than
• The monsoons are characterized by
surrounding water during daytime which
seasonal reversal of wind direction. results in the rising of warm air and low-
• They are explained as land and sea breezes
pressure area created over land. And, due
on a large scale. to the high specific heat of water it gets
• A detailed description has been provided
heated slowly and a high pressure zone
on the topic on the monsoon chapter in created over the surface of the water.
the Indian climatology section. • As the water heats up slowly a thermal
high pressure is developed over the water.
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
Thus, the pressure gradient is developed
• It is a diurnal cycle of local wind in coastal
and this causes the air to blow from high
areas.
pressure to low pressure i.e. from sea to • The wind blows from the valley to the
land. This is called Sea breeze, which slopes to fill the resulting void created due
causes a cooling effect on coastal lands. to the heating of the slopes.
• The land and the surrounding air cool • This wind is called the valley breeze or
more quickly than the nearby water body. anabatic wind.
Thus, land has high pressure while the sea • The valley breeze is accompanied by a
has comparatively a low-pressure area. cumulus cloud formation near mountain
Gentle wind blows from land towards the peaks to cause orographic rainfall.
sea. This is known as a land breeze. • During the night, the slopes get cooled.
The dense air descends into the valley as
mountain wind.
• The cool air of higher places (high
plateaus and ice fields) draining into the
valley is called mountain breeze or
katabatic wind.
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze
• The mountain and valley breezes are

another class of daily wind reversals.
During the daytime, the slopes get heated
up more than the valleys.
• Hence, the pressure is low over the slopes
while comparatively high in the valleys
below. Air moves up from the slope.
Local winds • These local winds play an important role in

the weather and climate of a particular
locality.
• They affect smaller areas and are restricted
• Certain types of winds are produced by
to the lowest levels of the troposphere.
purely local factors and, therefore, are
called local winds.
Hot Local Winds

Loo It is hot and dry. It blows very strongly over the northern plains of India and Pakistan in the
summers. Their blow from west to east. They are usually experienced in the afternoons and
the temperature varies between 45°C to 50°C.
Foehn ‘Foehn’ is the strong, dusty, dry and warm local wind. It develops on the leeward side of the
Alps mountain ranges. It occurs due to a regional pressure gradient that forces the air to
ascend and cross the barrier.
Chinook ‘Chinook’ is the name of a hot and dry local wind. It moves down the eastern slopes of the
Rockies (the U.S.A. and Canada). The meaning of chinook is ‘snow eater’ as they help in early
melting of the snow.
Sirocco ‘Sirocco’ is a hot, dry dusty wind. It originates in the Sahara desert. It is the wind of spring.
After crossing the Mediterranean sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the moisture from the
sea. Some of its local names are- Leveche in Spain, Khamsin in Egypt, and Gharbi in the
Aegean Sea area.
Harmattan Harmattan is a strong dry wind that blows over northwest Africa from the northeast. It blows
directly from the Sahara desert. Thus, it is hot, dry, and dusty. It provides a welcome relief
from the moist heat and is beneficial to people's health hence also known as ‘the doctor’.
Cold Local Winds

Mistral ‘Mistral’ is a cold wind of the Alps. It moves over France towards the Mediterranean Sea through
the Rhone valley. They are cold, dry, and of high velocity. They reduce the temperature below
the freezing point.
Bora ‘Bora’ is a cold, dry, high-speed north-easterly wind blowing down from the mountains in the
Adriatic Sea region.
Blizzard ‘Blizzard’ is a violent wind. It is freezing, wind laden with dry snow. It is prevalent in north and
south polar regions, Siberia, Canada, and the USA.
UPPER AIR CIRCULATION
Geostrophic Wind
In the free atmosphere, above the level of airflow affected by surface topography, winds generally blow
at right angles to the pressure gradient: this indicates that the pressure gradient force is exactly balanced
by the Coriolis force acting in a diametrically opposite direction. This sort of air motion is known as the
geostrophic wind. It follows that the speed of the geostrophic wind depends on the factors that govern its
balancing forces, principally the pressure gradient and latitude, and knowing these, the meteorologist is
able to predict geostrophic wind forces with reasonable accuracy.
Jet Streams elevation decreases as autumn

approaches and the jet stream's average
• Jet streams are narrow belts at high latitude moves toward the equator.
altitude near the top of the troposphere. • On occasions, the jet stream breaks
Their speed varies from about 110 km per through the tropopause. It then enters
hour (kmph) in the summer season to into the lower stratosphere. A certain
more than 180 kmph in the winter season. amount of water vapor also reaches the
• Their shape is circular. Speed in the jet lower stratosphere with jet streams, and
streams decreases radically outwards. this layer exhibits occasional cirrus clouds.
They are several hundred kilometers wide • At times, the jet stream effect extends
and about 2 km to 5km deep. down to an altitude of about 3 km from the
• The flow of jet streams is not in the form earth’s surface.
of a straight line. Their circulation path is
wavy and meandering.
• These meandering winds are called Rossby
waves. Rossby waves dip and rise in
altitude/latitude.
• They split at times and form eddies. They
even disappear completely to appear
somewhere else.
• Jet streams "follow the sun". This means
that as the sun's elevation increases each
day in the spring, the average latitude of
the jet stream shifts pole ward. The sun's
Types of jet streams Subtropical jet stream

• It runs between 25 degrees and 30 degrees
Two permanent jet stream zones occur in each latitudes in both hemispheres.
hemisphere. One is a subtropical jet stream, and • It blows constantly. It has a lower speed
another is a polar front jet stream. There is than polar jet streams.
another jet stream that moves seasonally near the • The air currents arising near the equator
equator. descend at 30 degree N and S latitudes. A
part of these air currents blows as
Polar front jet stream Subtropical Jet streams.
• It originated because of temperature
differences. It is associated with the polar
front zone in each hemisphere and
meanders more than the Subtropical Jet
Stream.
• Further, it extends between 40 degree and
60 degree latitudes in both the
Hemispheres.
• It is found at a height between 6 km and 9
km in the atmosphere. It swings towards
the poles in summers and towards the
equator in winter.
• When moving to the south, it takes very
cold air to subtropical regions.
• Further, it swings to the north of the • It runs in the eastern direction. It is located
Himalayas in summer in North India and comparatively at a higher height between
plays a significant role in the monsoons. 14km and 16km. Its speed is around 180
km per hour.
Eastern Tropical Jet Stream
• It is a seasonal Jet Stream. The Somali Jet
• It blows between the equator and 20
degrees N latitude during the South-West • The Somali jet occurs during the summer over
northern Madagascar and off the coast of
Monsoon in summer over south-east Asia,
Somalia. The jet is most intense from June to
India and Africa. August.
• Its direction is opposite to that of the other
two jet streams.
WATER VAPOUR IN ATMOSPHERE • The atmosphere's temperature is the most

critical factor, as the capacity of the warm
air to hold water vapour is more than that of
• Water vapour is the gaseous form of water.
the cold air.
• The water vapour constitutes about 2 per
• The amount of water vapour present in the
cent of the total composition of the
atmosphere influences the nature and
atmosphere.
amount of precipitation, the amount of heat
• The percentage of water vapour varies from
loss through radiation from the earth’s
zero percent in the cold, dry air of the Arctic
surface, the surface temperature, and the
regions during the winter season to as much
stability and instability of the air masses.
as 5 percent of the volume in warm, humid
equatorial areas.
2. Specific Humidity
Hydrological Cycle: It can be defined as the ✓ The specific humidity is the weight
movement of water from one part of the general of the actual amount of water
earth system to another. It is a conceptual model vapour present in a unit weight of
that describes the storage, transformation, and air.
movement of water between the lithosphere, ✓ Generally, it is expressed as grams
biosphere, atmosphere, and the hydrosphere per kilogram of air.
through the processes of evaporation, 3. Relative Humidity,
transpiration, condensation, and precipitation, with ✓ The percentage of moisture
transformation into gaseous, liquid, and solid present in the atmosphere
states. Although water cycles into and out of the compared to its full capacity
atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, the total ✓ At a given temperature is the
amount of water in the hydrosphere remains relative humidity.
constant. ✓ The Relative Humidity is
expressed in percentages.
Humidity ✓ Generally, the capacity to hold
water vapour increases with
an increase in temperature
• Water vapour present in the air is known as
and decreases with a
humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in the
decrease in temperature.
following ways:
✓ Thus, the relative humidity of
1. Absolute Humidity
the air decreases with an
✓ It is the weight of the actual amount
increase in temperature and
of water vapour present in a unit
vice versa.
volume of air.
✓ The equatorial region has the
✓ Generally, it is expressed in grams
highest relative humidity.
per cubic meter of air.
✓ The absolute humidity varies from
place to place and from time to
time. It decreases from the equator
towards the poles.
✓ Generally, the absolute humidity
changes as air temperature or
pressure changes.
Difference between Absolute Humidity and Relative Humidity

Absolute Humidity Relative Humidity
Weight of the actual amount of water vapor Percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere
present in a unit volume of air compared to its full capacity
at a given temperature
Expressed in grams per cubic meter of air Expressed in percentages.

Independent of temperature Decreases with an increase in temperature and vice

versa.
It remains relatively constant, Subjected to changes in water vapor.
Determines the amount of precipitation. Tells us about the possibility of rainfall
• Condensation takes place due to the loss of

heat and can occur in one of the following
PHASE CHANGES OF WATER ways:
✓ Warm moist air rises upwards and
• The great majority of the world’s water is in expands.
a liquid state, which can be converted to the ✓ Warm and moist air comes in
gaseous form (water vapor) by evaporation contact with the cold surface.
or the solid form (ice) by freezing. ✓ Warm moist air mixes with the air
• Water vapor can be converted to liquid coming from the colder regions.
water by condensation or directly to the ice
by sublimation. Related Concepts of Condensation
• Latent Heat: At the time of
Evaporation evaporation, heat is absorbed and

conserved in water vapour. It is known
as latent heat.
• Evaporation is the process of conversion of
• Saturated Air: The air containing
water into a gaseous state by use of heat
moisture to its full capacity at a given
energy.
temperature is said to be saturated.
• The amount and rate of evaporation at a
• Hygroscopic Nuclei: Condensation
particular place depend on upon the aridity,
always takes place around some
temperature, and air movement.
particles present in air. These may be
• Evaporation is faster in dry air than in wet
dust particles, smoke, oceanic salts or
air. There is more evaporation from the
carbon dioxide which act as nuclei to
ocean than from the land.
hold water. They are thus called
• The temperature at which the water starts condensation nuclei or hygroscopic
evaporating is the latent heat of nuclei.
vaporization. • Dew point: The temperature at which
• A special case of evaporation is transpiration saturation occurs in a given sample of
which entails the loss of water from the air is known as the dew point. The
leaves and stems of the plants. nucleus for the condensation of the
moisture in the atmosphere is
Condensation provided by the smoke and the dust
• The transformation of water vapour into particles.
water is called condensation.
• If water vapour directly condenses into solid
form, it is known as sublimation.
Forms of Condensation • It can be found on solid surfaces of the

earth’s crust as ice or snow crystal.
Dew
• When moisture is deposited in the form of
Fog
water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid
• It is a cloud with its base at or very near the
objects, it is known as dew.
ground.
• Here, the deposition occurs on surface
• It is formed when the temperature of an air
objects rather than nuclei in the air above
mass containing a large quantity of water
the earth’s surface.
vapour falls suddenly.
• The ideal conditions for its formation are the
• The condensation of water vapor takes place
clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity,
around the dust and smoke particles that
and cold and long nights.
remain suspended in the air.
• The dew point should be above the freezing
• It is formed under conditions such as low
point for dew formation.
temperature and high relative humidity. The
visibility is greatly reduced (less than one
km).
Frost
• Frost is frozen dew. • Types of fog:
• It is formed when the dew point 1. Radiation Fog: It is also called ground fog.
temperature falls below the freezing point. The fog is formed surface is cooled at night
• Under such conditions, droplets of due to terrestrial radiation, and the air
condensation near or on the ground are which comes into contact with it also gets
frozen. cooled.
• Generally, the conditions are similar for dew 2. Advection Fog: It is formed when there is
and frost formation. a fall in the temperature of warm moist air
• The only difference is that the temperature moving horizontally over a cold surface.
should fall below the freezing point for frost 3. Frontal or Precipitation Fog: The dividing
formation. line separating cold and warm air masses
is known as a front. Warm and cold air
converges at these fronts, and fog is
formed.
4. Valley Fog: Such fog are forms where cold
dense air settles into the lower parts of a
valley condensing and forming fog. Usually, it
is the result of a temperature inversion with
warmer air passing above the valley. Valley fog
is confined by local topography and can last
for several days in calm conditions during the
winter.
5. Upslope Fog: Upslope fog or hill fog forms

when winds blow air up the slope (called
orographic uplift). The air cools as it rises, Haze
allowing moisture in it to condense. • It is a phenomenon that occurs when dust,
Mist smoke, and dry particles reduce visibility.
• It is also a type of fog but is relatively less • In case of haze, the visibility is reduced from
dense. 2 kilometers to 5 kilometers.
• The difference between mist and fog is
density and its effect on visibility.
• The fog reduces visibility to less than 1 km,
whereas it's called mist if the visibility range
is between 1 and 2 km.
• Mists are frequent over mountains as the
rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold
surface.
• Fogs are drier than mist.

• Mist can occur as part of natural weather or
volcanic activity or could be created
artificially.
re-radiate it back to the Earth’s

CLOUDS surface.
Types of Clouds
• Clouds are droplets of water or tiny ice
crystals which collect around the dust
particles present in the atmosphere. Luke Howard, an English biologist, was the first to
• Importance of clouds: classify clouds in 1803. They exist at various
1. No precipitation is possible without the elevations from sea level to about 20 km above sea
clouds. level.
2. The clouds play a significant role in the
heat budget of the Earth and the
atmosphere, as they reflect, absorb and
diffuse some part of the incoming solar
radiation. They also absorb some of the
outgoing terrestrial radiation and then
Cirrus clouds:
• These are clouds that form at high altitudes
(8,000 - 12,000m).
• They are detached, fibrous, and feathery.
• These clouds are formed of ice crystals and
therefore are white and thin.
Cumulus clouds
• They are formed at the height of 4,000 -
7,000 m.
• They resemble cotton wool and exist in
patches.
• Their appearance and structure are like that
of a Cauliflower.
Stratus Clouds:
• These are layered clouds covering large
portions of the sky.
• These clouds are generally formed due to
heat loss or the mixing of air masses with
different temperatures.
Nimbus Clouds
• These are formed at the middle level or near
the earth’s surface.
• They are black or dark grey.
• They are rain-bearing clouds.
• A combination of these four types of

clouds gives rise to other sub-types.
✓ Cirrus, Cirrostratus, and

Cirrocumulus are high clouds.
✓ Altostratus (watery look) and
Altocumulus (fine weather) are PRECIPITATION
middle clouds.
✓ Stratocumulus and nimbostratus
(rain cloud) are low clouds. • Precipitation is water in liquid or solid forms
✓ Clouds with extensive vertical falling on earth.
development include cumulus and
• It happens when continuous condensation in
cumulonimbus.
the body of air helps the condensed particles to
contract in size and weight. Eventually, the air
cannot hold them anymore.
• They start falling on earth under the force of
gravity. This process of release of moisture
after condensation is known as precipitation.
Forms of precipitation • There should be a sufficient amount of

evaporation from the water bodies.
1. Drizzle and Rain: Drizzle is composed of tiny • There should be wind to carry the water
droplets of water with a diameter of less than vapour from one place to another
0.5 mm. Drizzle is generally associated with • There should be some way of decreasing the
fog and poor visibility. When the diameter of temperature of the moist air.
the drops of water is greater than 0.5mm, it is • Rainfall occurs when the cloud droplets
called rain. Rain is the most widespread form change to raindrops.
of precipitation.
2. Snow: Solid precipitation in the form of ice Types of Rainfall
crystals, small pellets, or flakes is known as
snow. It is formed when water vapor is
Convectional Rainfall
converted into ice through sublimation
• Because of unequal heating of different
without an intermediate liquid stage.
surface areas, a parcel of air near the ground
3. Sleet: It is frozen rain. It is created when rain,
may be warmed by conduction more than
before falling on the earth, passes through a
the air around it.
cold layer of air and freezes. This results in the
• As the warm air is less dense, it rises to the
formation of solid particles of clear ice.
upper strata of the atmosphere. When the
4. Hail: It is the precipitation of small balls or
temperature of the warm, humid air
pieces of ice. The diameter ranges from 5 to
decreases below the dew point,
50mm. Hail is produced in cumulonimbus
condensation takes place, and clouds are
clouds due to great instability and strong
formed.
vertical air currents.
• These clouds cause thunder and heavy
5. Virga: If the relative humidity of the air below
rainfall. This type of rainfall is called
a precipitating cloud is relatively low, falling
convectional rainfall.
precipitation may evaporate before reaching
• It is common in equatorial regions and in
the surface. The streaks of rain that disappear
interior parts of continents mainly in the
before hitting the ground under these
northern hemisphere.
circumstances are called virga.
Orographic Rainfall
Rain • It occurs when warm air rises and cools

because of a topographic barrier.
Necessary conditions for rainfall • As the warm air rises, it cools and the
temperature falls below the dew point,
forming clouds.
• These clouds cause widespread rain on the
windward slopes of the mountain range.
This type of rain is called orographic rainfall.
• When the air crosses over the mountain
range, it descends along the leeward slopes.
• After descending, they get warm and cause
little rain on the leeward side.
• The region on the leeward side that receives
less rain is called the rainshadow area.
• Orographic rainfall occurs in Cherrapunji on

the southern margin of the Khasi Hills in GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
Meghalaya, India.
• Rainfall is not uniformly distributed on earth.
• Different regions of the world receive
different amounts of rainfall depending
upon their location and seasons.
• The world can be divided into the following
areas based on the rainfall received.
1. Areas of Heavy Rainfall: These regions
receive more than 200 cm of annual
precipitation. The main areas include
the equatorial belt, the mountain
Frontal Rainfall slopes of the western coasts in the cool
• When two different air masses meet, they temperate zone and the coastal areas
do not mix. Instead, a zone of discontinuity of monsoon lands.
called a front is established between them. 2. Areas of Moderate Rainfall: The
• The warmer air rises over, the cooler air regions receive 100 cm to 200 cm of
along this front. annual precipitation. The main areas lie
• As the warmer air is forced to rise, it may be near the regions of heavy rainfall. The
cooled to the dew point resulting in the coastal areas in the warm temperate
formation of clouds and rainfall. This rainfall zone also receive moderate
is known as frontal rainfall. precipitation.
3. Areas of Low Rainfall: These regions
receive 50 cm to 100 cm of annual
precipitation. The main areas lie in the
central part of the tropical lands, in the
eastern and the interior parts of the
temperate lands.
4. Areas of Scanty Rainfall: These regions
receive less than 50 cm of annual
precipitation. The main areas are the
leeward slopes of the mountain ranges,
the continental interiors, the western
margins of the continents in the
tropical areas and the arid deserts.
Seasonal distribution of precipitation and dry winters as the wind blows

• The conditions, which can cause offshore.
precipitation, do not exist in the same 4. Seasonal variation, due to the
combination throughout the year. monsoons, is well-developed in the
• This leads to variations in the seasonal Indian Subcontinent and in Southeast
distribution of rainfall. Asia.
• However, most of the areas in the world 5. Most of the western coastal areas in
receive a significant part of the precipitation the mid-latitudes have dry summers
during the summer season. and wet winters due to the presence of
• The main characteristics of the seasonal the subtropical high-pressure belts.
distribution of rainfall 6. In the temperate region, the
1. Heavy rainfall occurs throughout the precipitation is cyclonic in nature and
year in the equatorial region. the cyclones are more common in the
2. A few degrees north or south of the winter season. Thus heavy rainfall
equator have wet summers and dry occurs in winters and not in summers.
winters.
3. The monsoon circulation brings more
seasonal contrasts resulting in wet
summers as the wind blows onshore
STUDYIQ.COM THUNDERSTORM 1
THUNDERSTORM
A thunderstorm is an intense atmospheric

circulation associated with large, dense
cumulonimbus clouds in which there is a strong
upward movement of air. Thunderstorms cause
heavy downpours, and therefore, they are called
‘cloud burst,’ but the rainfall is of very short
duration.
Structure of Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm consists of several convective cells Three Stages of Thunderstorm

characterized by strong updraft air. Each cell passes
Types of Thunderstorms
through a life cycle. These phases of life cycles
consist of youth, maturity, and old stage. 1. Single cell:
• Also known as a “Pulse” thunderstorm.
Stages of Thunderstorm
• Single-cell thunderstorms are small,
First Stage: It is the Cumulus Stage when warm air transient, weak storms that form and
rises strongly upward and helps in the formation of dissipate within an hour or so.
clouds. • On a summer day, they are often driven
by heating.
Second Stage: It is a Mature Stage characterized by • Single-cell storms can produce
both upward and downward movement of winds significant rain and lightning for a short
and the occurrence of rainfall. period of time.
• However, if the atmospheric
Third Stage: It is Dissipating Stage, characterized by
circumstances are favourable and the
the downward movement of winds that spread over
single/ordinary cell is powerful enough,
the ground surface and stop the vertical movement
more than one cell may develop,
of winds.
resulting in microburst winds (typically
less than 70 mph/112 km/h) and weak • Super cells are responsible for the
tornadoes. majority of large and severe tornadoes.
The tornado is just a minute extension
2. Multiple cell of the Super Cell Thunderstorm.
• A multi-cell thunderstorm is a typical
thunderstorm in which fresh updrafts Ideal Super Cell Thunderstorm
originate along the leading edge of rain-
Super Cells Thunderstorms are often classified into
cooled air (the Gust Front).
• Individual cells typically have a lifespan
of 30 to 60 minutes, while the system as
a whole can endure for several hours.
• Hail, severe winds, short tornadoes,
and/or flooding are all possible during
multi cell storms.
Multi Cell Thunderstorm
three types based on their appearance.
1. Rear Flank Super cell - Low precipitation (LP): In

low precipitation super cells, the updraft is on
the storm's back flank, giving the cloud a barber
• A Squall Line (Multi Cell Line) is a cluster pole or corkscrew look. Precipitation is either
of storms that are frequently scarce or far distant from the updraft, and it is
accompanied by “squalls” of strong usually clear.
wind and heavy rain. Squall lines move
swiftly and are less likely to spawn Rear Flank Super cell – Corkscrew Shape
tornadoes than super cells. They can be
hundreds of miles long but only 10 to 20
miles broad.
3. Super cell
• A Super cell is a long-lived (more than
one hour) and highly structured storm
that feeds off a tilting and rotating
updraft (a rising stream of air).
• This swirling updraft, which may be as
vast as 10 miles in diameter and as high
as 50,000 feet, can be present 20 to 60
2. Classic (CL): The vast majority of super cells are
minutes before a tornado starts.
classified as “classic.” The traditional super cells
• When observed by Doppler radar, this have a big, flat updraft base with markings or
rotation is referred to as a Meso- banding visible around the updraft’s edge. Heavy
Cyclone. precipitation falls adjacent to the updraft,
bringing huge hail and the possibility of severe, • Extremely strong rainfall with flash floods.
long-lasting tornadoes.
Wall Cloud: The spinning of the storm is
3. Front Flank Supercell - High precipitation (HP) frequently evident beneath the Super cell. It
appears as a lowering, revolving cloud known as
It has following features: a Wall Cloud that forms under the rain-free base
and/or beneath the main storm tower updraft. A
• The updraft remains on the storm’s front tornado is occasionally preceded by a wall cloud.
edge. Tornadoes are more likely to form within the
• At times, precipitation nearly surrounds the wall cloud.
updraft.
• the probability of a wall cloud (but it may be
obscured by the heavy precipitation)
• Tornadoes mostly covered by rain (hence,
visibility is limited).
Thunderstorm & Weather million lightning bolts daily. A lightning flash heats
the air along its path to as much as 10,000°C
Surface heating through intense insolation, mainly (18,000°F). Raindrops that are high up in the
during summer on land surfaces, causes a atmosphere turn to ice. When many small pieces of
convective mechanism resulting in an updraft of air these frozen raindrops collide with each other in a
and condition for precipitation. cumulonimbus cloud, they create an electrical
charge. Eventually, the entire cloud fills with an
Thundering, Rainfall & Lightening electrical charge. The negative charges (electrons)
concentrate at the bottom of the cloud. The positive
Thundering: Sound is produced due to sudden and and neutral charges (protons and neutrons)
rapid expansion of air columns caused by intense accumulate at the top of the cloud. These positive
heat resulting from lightning strokes. and negative charges attract each other. These
connections between the positive and negative
Rainfall: It is in the form of a heavy downpour with charges are visible as lightening.
the greatest intensity of all other forms of
precipitation but of a short duration.
Thundering, Rainfall & Lightening
Lightening: Electric discharge centers are developed

in a mature thunderstorm. Positive and negative
electric charges develop in the upper and lower
portions of clouds. Lighting is produced when the
electrical potential gradient between the electrical
charges becomes steep.
Tornado
At any given moment, some 2000 thunderstorms
exist over Earth. These storms produce about 6000 Formation: Tornadoes are funnel-shaped storms
flashes of lightning every minute, or more than 8.5 with very low pressure at the center. They are the
smallest but most violent and disastrous of all the Hailstorm

storms.
Hail’s Formation: When condensation occurs below
• Tornadoes generally occur in middle
freezing point, ice particles of big size are formed.
latitudes. Steep pressure gradients result in
Not every thunderstorm produces hail. Hail falls on
fast movement of air towards the center.
the ground surface when they are capable of
• The inward coming air is caught in the vortex
of the storm and is rapidly uplifted. As it
ascends, the air cools and forms
thunderstorms.
Features of Tornadoes:
• Tornado's funnel can have a size of 90-460 m

in diameter.
• Tornadoes generally occur in middle
latitudes.
• Tornadoes are the most violent of all the
storms.
• They are very small in size and of short overcoming the force of rising convection currents.
duration which makes weather prediction
difficult.
• The velocity of winds revolving tightly
Damages Due to Thunderstorm
around the core reaches more than 300 km
per hour.
• It causes massive destruction on its way. Thunderstorms are related with a variety of severe
natural disasters.
• When looked at from the ground, the funnel
appears dark because of the presence of
• Rainfall from thunderstorms generates flash
condensed moisture and the dust and debris
floods under the appropriate circumstances,
picked up from the ground by the whirling
killing more people each year.
tornado.
• Every year, lightning causes fires throughout
• Tornadoes may be found to be moving singly
the world and kills people.
or in families of several individual tornadoes.
• Softball-sized hail smashes vehicles and
• These generally move in straight paths.
windows and kills cattle caught out in the
Formation of Tornado open.
• Straight-line winds associated with
thunderstorms can reach more than 120
Waterspout: The tornadoes over the sea are called mph, causing trees, electricity lines, and
waterspouts. It usually occurs over warm tropical homes to fall.
ocean waters. It is a rotating column of water that • Tornadoes (with gusts of up to 300 mph) may
contains an intense vortex. Dark spots on the oceans demolish all but the most well-built man-
are the first stage in water sprout formation. made structures.
Cyclones Bjerkens, which was propounded during the world

war-I
Cyclones are local low-pressure systems with Stage I- Frontogenesis

converging air from surrounding areas. The Coriolis
force deflects the cyclone and provides a whirling Two air masses converge along the sub-polar low-
motion. Cyclones spiral motion is in a counter- pressure belt in the northern hemisphere. The cold
clockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and air mass moves southward and warm air mass
in a clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere. moves northward and form a boundary where the
The isobars (imaginary lines joining similar pressure winds blow parallel but in opposite directions.
gradients) are closely looped- near-circular or Stage II- Cyclogenesis
elliptical.
The contrasting air masses start intruding into each
Cyclones are broadly divided into two types: other’s territory. The warm air mass intrudes into
1. Temperate Cyclones the area occupied by the cold air and the cold air
2. Tropical Cyclones mass intrudes into warm air mass. This is how the
wave formation begins and sets the stage for a full-
1. Temperate Cyclone fledged cyclonic circulation.
The temperate cyclone is one of the most important Stage III: Mature Stage
atmospheric phenomena affecting weather in the After the circulation sets in, the wave forms. There
middle latitudes. They are also known as Extra- is a greater intrusion and the occupation of the air
Tropical Cyclones (beyond tropics) or Mid-Latitude mass into each other’s territory. The warm air mass
Cyclones or Frontal Cyclones. They are low-pressure intrudes further, and the cold air mass moves
systems with associated cold fronts, warm fronts towards the equator along the cold front boundary.
and occluded fronts. This is the mature stage of cyclonic circulation.
They are an integral part of the global air circulation Stage IV-Occlusion Stage
involved in the heat transfer thus maintaining the
heat budget of the Earth. The cold front having a greater speed of intrusion
than the warm front intrudes into the warm sector.
Salient features of Temperate Cyclones This results into the shrinkage of warm sector and
● Temperate cyclones emerge in mid and high gradually the cold front over-takes the warm front.
latitudes between 35-65 degree latitude in The two air masses eventually mix across the front.
both the hemispheres. The occluded front is eliminated. Eventually, the
● The temperate cyclones emerge by the cyclone dies out.
process of front formation from two
Temperate Cyclone and its Distribution
contrasting air masses.
● Their shapes vary from circular, semi-circular The temperate cyclones extend over Sierra Nevada,
to elliptical and elongated. The temperate Colorado region, Great Lakes region of North
cyclones can stretch over 500-600kms. America, Mediterranean, Russia, and even India
(Western disturbances).
Formation of the Temperate Cyclone
The formation of the Temperate Cyclone is

explained by the Polar Front theory by Bjerkens and
Favorable Conditions for the Formation of

Tropical Cyclones
● Continuous Supply of Moisture: There must be

a continuous supply of a large quantity of
moisture. For supplying such large amounts of
moisture, only ocean surfaces are suitable.
Hence, most tropical cyclones are developed
only over oceans.
● Warm Oceans: For the supply of moisture, the
temperature of ocean water must be sufficiently
2. Tropical Cyclone
high. That is around 27 degrees Celsius. This
requirement makes the cyclone spatially
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate confined between the tropics. If the ocean's
over oceans in tropical areas. They are responsible temperature is higher than normal, it will
for bringing large-scale destruction in coastal areas produce cyclones with higher frequency and
lying between the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of greater intensity.
Capricorn. ● Presence of Coriolis Force: Tropical cyclone
requires a sufficient Coriolis force to achieve the
They are known by different names in various required circular movement to set in the whirling
regions, such as Hurricanes in America, Willy-willies motion. This is one of the major reasons why
in Australia, Typhoons in China, and Cyclones in tropical cyclones do not develop along the
India. equatorial region, where the Coriolis force is
absent.
Salient features of Tropical Cyclones ● Presence of a Weak Low Pressure Zone: A weak
low pressure is always required to intensify
● Cyclones are confined between the tropics
depression and transform it into a cyclone. Once
and are considerably smaller as compared to
a low pressure is developed, the rising air gets
temperate or extra-tropical cyclones. saturated and releases latent heat of
● The cyclonic wind movements are counter- condensation to intensify the upper air
clockwise in the northern hemisphere and divergence. Continuous supply of moisture and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere due to generation of latent heat of condensation
the Coriolis Effect. sustains and intensifies the existing low pressure
● The diameter of a cyclone can vary from 30 to form a cyclone.
km to 300 km. ● Presence of Upper Air Circulation: The presence
● The velocity varies from 32 km per hour to of upper air vortices creates favorable cyclone
more than 180 Km per hour. formation conditions. However, the presence
● In a Temperate Cyclone, the energy is of (high speed) horizontal wind flow above
supplied from the contrasting air masses to discourages cyclone formation. The presence of
sustain. However, a Tropical Cyclone an anti-cyclonic condition above the weak low-
behaves like a self-generating heat engine pressure helps in the growth of cyclones.
propelled by the release of latent heat of

Structure of Tropical Cyclone
condensation.
● The Tropical Cyclones travel from east to The structure of a tropical cyclone is primarily
west under the influence of trade winds. dominated by the eye, eyewall, and rain bands.
Eye: The eye constitutes the central region of the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone
cyclone. The tropical cyclone rotates around the
eye. It is characterized by low surface pressure, calm • Tropical cyclones develop in a continuous
conditions, descending air, and clear skies. The size process and not in separate and distinct
of an eye of the cyclone can vary from 8km to 200km stages. Each stage may occur more than
in diameter. The lesser the diameter of a cyclone, once during the life cycle as the strength of
the greater is the intensity of the cyclone. the cyclone rises and falls.
o It may reach the land surface and
Eye Wall: A circular ring-shaped air envelope that weaken and then go back out to sea
surrounds the eye of the cyclone is known as the eye where it strengthens once more.
wall. The eye wall is characterized by violent blowing • Favorable conditions like large, still, warm
winds, heavy rainfall, and deep convective cloud ocean waters with a temperature above 27
rise. While the eye of cyclone experiences slowly degree Celsius allows a body of warm air to
sinking air, the eye wall has a net upward flow of air. evaporate from the ocean surface. The warm
The wind has maximum velocity in this region, and air being lighter rises.
heavy rain is experienced here. o The rising air contains a large amount
of moisture content. As the air rises,
Rain Bands: Narrow rain bands aligned in the
it cools and condenses to form clouds
direction of horizontal winds radiate from eyewalls,
spanning a large area in the
and cumulonimbus clouds drift into the outer
troposphere. Surrounding air rushes
regions. These rain bands seem to spiral into the
in and rises. The rising column of air
center of a cyclone and are called “Spiral Bands.”
carries moisture high into the
atmosphere so that these clouds
Structure of a Tropical Cyclone with Eye, eventually become thick and heavy.
Eye-Wall and Rising Cloud Bands • Energy is released by the latent heat of
condensation stored in the water vapor,
thus, providing the cyclone with more Meteorological Organization (WMO) of a

energy. The Coriolis forces cause the rising specific region.
currents of air to spiral around the center of • For the Indian Ocean region, the naming of
the tropical cyclone. cyclones started in 2000. Eight countries of
o At this stage, the cyclone matures, the Indian Ocean Region – India, Bangladesh,
and the eye of the storm is created. Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri
As the air rises and cools, some of the Lanka, and Thailand, contribute a set of
dense air descends to form the clear names accorded whenever a cyclonic storm
still eye. develops.
o Once the cyclone is formed, it follows
Significance of Naming of Cyclones
a track or pathway away from its
source under the influence of the • Helps in the identification of cyclones
trade winds. As the warm ocean and removes confusion in case of
water keeps providing heat and simultaneous occurrence of tropical
moisture, the cyclone continues to cyclones over a region.
enlarge. • It helps the scientific community to
• Once the cyclone reaches the continent, it identify the cyclone and heightens the
starts dying because of the frictional force on warnings and community preparedness.
the ground and supply cut-off of the • It helps the local and international media
moisture. to disseminate warnings to a much wider
Formation of Cyclones range of audiences.
TROPICAL CYCLONES TEMPERATE

CYCLONES
Tropical cyclones are Temperate cyclones

limited to smaller areas affect a much larger
as compared to area and are formed
temperate cyclones and beyond the tropics (35-
form within the tropic of 65 degree N & S),
Cancer and Capricorn (5- hence, known as extra-
30 degree N & S). tropic cyclones.
Tropical cyclones are of Temperate cyclones

Tropical Cyclones and their Nomenclature
thermal origin. are of frontal origin.
• Tropical cyclones can last for a week or more.
The tropical cyclone The temperate cyclone
Therefore, there can be more than one
behaves as a self- gets energy from the
cyclone at a time. Hence, weather
sustaining heat engine, contrasting air masses.
forecasters give each tropical cyclone a
with continuous supply
name to avoid confusion.
of moisture with release
• Each year, tropical cyclones receive names in of latent heat of
alphabetical order. The name list is proposed condensation.
by the National Meteorological and
Hydrological Services (NMHSs) of World
The wind velocity in a The temperate 2. Tropical Depression: They are low-pressure
tropical cyclone is more cyclones move from centers surrounded by more than one closed
violent and is more west to east. isobars and are very small in size. Wind
destructive. velocity ranges from 40 to 50 km per hour.
Their direction and velocity are highly
Tropical cyclones form Temperate cyclones variable. They usually develop in the vicinity
only on oceans with a can be formed on both of intertropical convergence but seldom
steady temperature of continental land and develop in the trade wind belt. Sometimes
27 degrees Celsius. oceans. they become very strong, causing heavy
A tropical cyclone does Temperate cyclones rainfall.
not last more than seven can last for duration of
days. 15 to 20 days. 3. Tropical Storm: They are low-pressure
centers with closed isobars where wind
moves towards the center with a velocity of
40 to 120 km per hour. They can be
Recurving Cyclones
disastrous as they cause heavy rainfall and
The cyclones that cross 20° N latitude generally inundate low-lying areas. They frequently
recurve and are more destructive. In a recurving develop in the Arabian sea and the Bay of
cyclone, the cyclone gets a second wind when it is Bengal during the summer season.
on the wane. They come under the influence of
Westerlies after recurving. They flow from west to
east direction. Recurving cyclones do not give much
rain as compared to normal tropical cyclones. For
example, Ockhi Cyclone in 2017 in India.
Types of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Cyclones are generally divided into four

major types based on wind speed, spacing of
isobars, and type of clouds associated with the
cyclone
4. Hurricanes or Typhoons: Extensive tropical
1. Tropical Disturbance: They are migratory
cyclones marked by several closely spaced
wave-like cyclones and are associated with
isobars are called hurricanes in the USA and
easterly trade winds. Most of them develop
typhoons in China. Their size ranges from
between 5° to 20° north latitudes in the
160 to 600 km. They have more symmetrical
western part of the oceans. They are very
and circular isobars. Closely spaced isobars
extensive and widespread and influence
suggest that pressure increases sharply from
weather conditions of both tropical and
the center to the outer margin resulting in a
subtropical areas. They are associated with
steep pressure gradient. Rainfall occurring
heavy cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds
from hurricanes is in the form of heavy
which yield moderate to heavy rainfall with
downpours and is widespread.
thunderstorms
.
Mid-latitude Anti-Cyclones Winds are violent and Winds are mild and not
destructive destructive
They are extensive, migratory high-pressure cells of
the mid-latitudes. Typically, it is larger than a mid- Winds blow in anti- Winds blow in clock-wise
latitude cyclone and generally moves west to east clockwose in northern direction in the northern
with the westerlies. hemisphere and clockwise hemisphere and anti-
in the southern clockwise in the southern
Characteristics hemisphere hemisphere
• It has air converging into it from above They present cloudy They present calm and
while air subsiding and diverging at the weather accompanied by clear weather
surface. thunder, lightning and
• Winds blow clockwise in the Northern heavy rain
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• No air-mass conflict or surface
convergence is involved, and so anti- IMD Warning System
cyclones contain no fronts.
• The weather is clear and dry, with little or There are basically four colour codes for the various
no opportunity for cloud formation. types of warning, are given below:
• Wind movement is very limited near the
center of an anticyclone but increases Colour Coding for Hazardous Conditions
progressively outward.
• In winter, anti-cyclones are characterized
by very low temperatures.
• Anti-cyclones are occasionally prone to
stagnate and remain over the same
region for several days. This may lead to
stagnation of air pollutants in the air.
Actual Hazard Data Flow
Difference between Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones
Cyclones Anti-Cyclones
They have low pressure at They have high pressure at

the centre, surrounded by the centre, surrounded by
high pressure on all sides low pressure on all sides.
Winds blow towards the Winds radiate out from

centre the centre
STUDYIQ.COM JET STREAMS 1
JET STREAMS
Jet streams are small bands of high wind that travel into Japan, their velocity dropped dramatically
across the globe from west to east. There are four and their fuel consumption surged. On the
major jet streams on Earth: two polar jet streams contrary, as they returned to their bases, these
close to the north and south poles, and two aircraft reported a significant rise in velocity. The
subtropical jet streams near to the equator. planes’ unfettered movement was hampered by
an air circulation in the upper troposphere that
Jet streams flow high in the sky. These narrow bands moved from west to east. Because this air
of strong winds have a significant impact on climate circulation interfered with plane movement, it
since they can displace air masses and alter weather was given the term Jet Streams.
systems.
Polar Jet Stream: A jet stream that is situated

adjacent to the polar front at an elevation of around
Interesting Fact about the Jet Stream 9 km.
The history of jet streams may be traced back to Subtropical Jet Stream: A jet stream that is located
the Second World War. When the American jet near 30° latitude and at a height of about 12 km.
bomber fighters’ jets moved from east to west
also known as circumpolar whirls since they

circle both hemispheres’ poles.
Prime Characteristics of Jet Streams • The circulation of the jet stream stays limited
in the upper troposphere between 7.5 km
• The jet stream has a width of a few hundred and 14 km.
kilometers, a length of a few thousand • The velocity of the jet stream doubles during
kilometers, and a depth of 2-4 kilometers. the winter season that to the summer
• In both hemispheres, jet streams are visible season.
between the poles and 20° latitude. They are
• The jet stream stretches up to 20° latitudes

in winter, but narrows and remains limited
to the poles in summer.
• The jet stream’s the lateral wind shear is
approximately 18 km/hr while vertical
shearing is around 18-36 km/hr. The
maximum velocity of the jet stream may
reach up to 480 km/hr.
Jet Stream Formation
Three types of gradients contribute to the formation

of jet streams:
1. Thermal gradient between pole and equator The position of high-pressure and low systems,
2. Pressure gradient between pole and equator seasons as well as air temperature, all influence
3. Pressure gradient between surface and when and where a jet stream moves. Jet streams
subsurface air over the poles. define the boundary between hot and cold air.
Because air temperature affects jet streams, they
Jet streams on Earth – (other planets, including are more active in the winter when the temperature
Jupiter and Saturn, have jet streams) normally travel differences between contending tropic and Arctic air
from west to east and are quite narrow in masses are greater.
comparison to their length. Jet streams are normally
active around 6,100 metres to 9,144 metres, or
approximately 11 kilometers above the surface, and
flow through the troposphere of Earth’s multi-
layered atmosphere.
While narrow, they cover broad latitude travelling

north to south and can traverse a very winding
course; at times, they can even fade away or split
into smaller "rivers" of air that combine again
“downstream.”
Types of Jet Streams travel through. They occasionally move northward

and collide with a polar-front jet.
Jet Streams fall under following three categories: Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: During the summer, the
tropical Easterly Jet Stream located near the tropo-
Sub Tropical Jet Stream: Subtropical jet streams
pause across Africa, India and Southeast Asia. This
emerge best in the winter and early spring. Their
jet suggests a deep layer of warm air to the north
maximum speed exceeds 300 knots due to the
and cooler air to the south over the Indian Ocean.
fusion with polar-front jets. Subtropical jets are
The pressure gradient caused by the differential in
accompanied by a subsidence motion, which
heating and cooling is what propels this jet.
produces mostly good weather in the areas they
Polar Front Jet Stream: A jet stream that flows from

east to west in the polar cell and is caused by the
temperature difference between the poles and the
tropical zone.
Rossby Waves locations that aren’t used to climate change.

If the jet stream turns south, for example, the
colder air masses follow.
The Rossby waves form in the narrow polar front
• El Nino and La Nina also have an impact
zone of contact between two opposing massive
on jet streams. Precipitation in California
volumes of air, cool towards poles and warm on the
often increases during El Nino because the
equator-side. Rossby waves are named after C.J.
polar jet stream shifts further south, bringing
Rossby, who found them, initially (1937). These
more storms with it. Similarly, during La
waves are particularly important in regulating
Nina periods, California dries out and
weather conditions in the middle latitudes, and they
precipitation shifts into the Pacific Northwest
are notably related with the formation of temperate
as the polar jet stream pushes north.
cyclones and anticyclones.
• Jet streams are responsible for the fierce
Jet Streams and Weather strong and freezing winds that whip Mt.
Everest, the highest mountain in the world.
Climbers may be unable to leave the warmth
• Jet streams are important in determining
of their tents due to jet streams that can be
weather because they split colder and
extremely cold and powerful.
warmer air. Jet streams often push air masses
about, relocating weather systems and even
Jet Streams and Aviation
causing them to stall if they go too far away.
• While jet streams are commonly used to
predict weather, they do not normally follow Jet streams are so rapid and strong that planes
a straight course - the patterns are known as struggle to fly against them. Pilots either fly with or
peaks and troughs - and can vary, prompting above the jet stream; they never try flying against it.
some to blame meteorologists’ poor Jet streams influence air travel and are utilised to
forecasting ability. define flight patterns. By being "sucked up" in the jet
• It also has a huge influence on global stream, an aero plane may go significantly quicker
weather patterns and catastrophic weather and use less fuel. This can also result in a turbulent
events such as droughts and floods. flight since the jet stream can be unexpected and
Climatologists believe that changes in the jet cause rapid movement even when the weather
streams, particularly the polar jet streams, are
appears calm and clear.
intimately linked to global warming since
there is a lot of evidence that the North and Jet Stream & the Monsoon
South poles are warming faster than the rest
of the earth. When the jet streams warm up,
their ups and downs become more intense, The Sub-Tropical Jet Stream is important in both
bringing various forms of weather to delaying monsoon winds and hastening the advent
of Indian monsoons.
Winter Season: During the winter, upper air westerly Summer Season: During the summer season, when
jet streams are located throughout Asia. There are the sun sets vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, the
multiple distinct jet streams over the Indian polar surface high pressure weakens and the upper
subcontinent, with speeds ranging from 110 km/h in air circumpolar whirl shifts northward, causing the
summer to 184 km/h in winter. Because to the Tibet upper air westerly jet to recede from the Himalayan
Himalayan barrier, these are divided into two southern slopes. The disappearance of the jet
branches. The North Branch of the wind blows north stream to the north of the Tibetan plateau causes
of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. The the curving of the flow of free air to the north and
southern branch blows south of the towering north-west of the subcontinent to reverse. This
mountains. In the winter, subtropical westerly jet occurrence might very well be the catalyst for the
streams bring rain to western India, particularly monsoon's 'burst.' The Easterly Jet Stream formed as
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Punjab. During the a result of the Tibetan Plateau growing hot in the
summer, a subtropical easterly jet flows over summer.
Peninsular India at 140 N, bringing rain and storms.
Air Masses characteristics-primarily temperature,

humidity, and stability-are relatively
homogeneous.
Air-mass as a concept developed during World War-
3. It must travel as a unit. It must be distinct
I by Bjerkens & Bjerkens. It was established in 1930s
from the surrounding air, and when it moves
to predict short-range forecasting (around 24-36
it must retain its original characteristics and
hours). Air mass concept helps in better
not be torn apart by differences in airflow.
understanding of weather phenomena especially in
high and mid-latitudes. Although the troposphere is Source region of Air-Masses
a continuous body of mixed gases that surrounds the
planet, it is by no means a uniform blanket of air.
Instead, it is composed of many large parcels of air Properties of the air masses are derived from the
that are distinct from one another. Such large Earth’s surface called a source region. Air masses
parcels are referred to as air masses. tend to retain their identity even after moving away
from their source regions. Such original identity is
Air masses can be defined as a large body of air, retained only in the upper part of air masses while
usually, 1600 kms or more, characterized by the lower surface is modified due to the heat
Homogenous Physical Properties like temperature, transfer by the process of convection. Air masses
moisture content at a given height. develop only in the regions having:
To be recognized as a distinct air mass, a parcel of ● Extensive uniform topography.

air must meet three requirements: ● Divergent airflow, thus providing a condition
of high pressure.
1. It must be large. A typical air mass is more
● The area should have a comparatively gentle
than 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) across
and divergent air flow so that air stays in that
and several kilometers deep (from Earth’s
region for a longer period.
surface to the top of the air mass).
2. It must have uniform properties in the Thus, high barometric pressure is ideal for the
horizontal dimension. This means that at any development of air masses.
given altitude in the air mass, it’s physical
Source regions are broadly divided into continental Classification of Air-Masses

(c) and maritime (m) source regions. Source regions
of air-mass are either continental interiors in
temperate latitudes or large-maritime regions in Air masses are classified based on their temperature
higher latitudes. Six major source regions are and humidity characteristics. Broadly, the air masses
identified. are classified into polar and tropical air masses. Both
● Continental interiors of Siberia. the polar and the continental air masses can either
● Vast regions of Sahara. have maritime or continental source regions. The
● Continental regions of Canada. following types of air masses are recognized:
● The Atlantic Ocean. ● Maritime tropical (mT)
● Pacific Ocean. ● Continental tropical (cT)
● Southern Indian Ocean. ● Maritime polar (mP)
● Continental polar (cP)
If the air mass moving over a region causes stability
● Continental arctic (cA).
or dry conditions then it is known as stable air mass
(s). If it promotes precipitation then it is known as Tropical air masses are warm, while polar air masses
Unstable Air Mass (u). are cold.
Important Air Masses
Air Mass Source Region Features Weather

Continental Polar Air Arctic basin, Dry, cold, and stable Winter: Frigid, clear, and stable.
Masses (cP) northern North conditions Summer: Less stable with the lesser
America, Eurasia, prevalence of anti-cyclonic winds,
and Antarctica. warmer landmasses, and lesser
snow.
Maritime Polar Air Oceans between These continental Winter: high humidity, overcast
Masses (mP) 40° and 60° polar air masses skies, and occasional fog and
latitudes with have moved over precipitation.
cool, moist, and the warmer oceans, Summer: clear, fair, and stable.
unstable got heated up, and
conditions. have collected
moisture.
Continental Tropical Tropical and sub- Dry, hot and stable Dry throughout the year.
Air Masses (cT) tropical deserts of and do not extend
Sahara in Africa, beyond the source
West Asia and
Australia
Maritime Tropical Air Oceans in tropics warm, humid, and Winter: Mild temperatures, overcast
Masses (mT) and sub-tropics unstable skies with fog.
such as Mexican Summer: High temperatures, high
Gulf, the Pacific humidity, cumulous clouds, and
and the Atlantic convectional rainfall.
oceans.
Continental Arctic Air Radiational These are cold, dry, Low dew points, cold temperatures,
Masses (cA) cooling causes and travel south, Surface high pressure characterise
these air masses east of the Rockies the Continental Arctic (cA).
into the Plains, and
to form over
then eastward.
northern Canada
and Alaska.
Modification of Air-Masses Thermodynamic modification
The modification of air-mass that results from the

Modification of air mass involves heating or cooling
thermodynamic action of heating and cooling as the
of air mass that changes the moisture content of the
air mass travels from one source region to other
air mass either by decreased evaporation or
source regions is called as thermodynamic
increased evaporation. Modification of air mass may
modification. Thermodynamic modification
also be caused by the process of subsidence or
depends upon:
ascent that also alters the moisture content by
precipitation. Two types of modification of air ● The initial characteristics of the air mass.
masses mostly occur.
● The nature of the surface it visits (either land
or water).
● Path followed by the air-mass.

● Time taken by the air mass to reach the Types of Air Mass
destination surface.
(c)-Continental, (m)-Maritime, (T)-Tropical, (P)-
Mechanical modification Polar, (w)-Warm, (k)-Cold, (u)-unstable, (s)-Stable
The modification is also known as dynamic

modification. Mechanical modification of air mass
involves vertical uplift or downward subsidence due
to mountain/orographic barriers, cyclonic
conditions, anti-cyclonic conditions, turbulence and
eddies.
Based on above modifications two types of air Role of Air-Mass in Impacting The Weather
masses arise
After the formation of air masses by acquiring the
Cold Air Mass (k): The temperature of the air-mass is
properties of the source region they move out and
colder than the surface temperature it visits.
interact with new regions with different surface
Example: Arctic Ocean, Siberia, Northern Canada.
properties. In the process, the air-mass modify the
Warm Air Mass (w): The temperature of the air-mass weather of the visited region and they themselves
is warmer than the surface temperature it visits. too get modified. The interacting air masses result in
Example: Sahara Desert, Tropical Oceans. the creation of fronts and frontal weather patterns.
Based on these mechanical and thermodynamic

modifications there are 16 types of modifications in
air-masses arises:
Case Study
The cold and drier continental polar air mass from Siberia in the winters bring cold conditions while moving
over Central Asia and heading towards South Asia. While moving over relatively warmer regions of Central,
air mass becomes unstable. In contrast, when the continental polar air mass from Siberia moves over a
relatively colder surface i.e. the Arctic region, the air mass covers into an air mass which is warmer and
stable.
Thus, an air mass passing over warmer surface converts to a relatively colder and unstable air mass, and air
mass passing over a colder surface always converts to a warm and stable air mass.
Fronts Cold Front:
• It is a front in which the cold air is moving

When two different air masses meet, the boundary towards the warm air zone. As the cold air mass
zone between them is called a front. The cold air is dense, it remains at the ground. The cold air
mass tends to sinks, the warm air mass tends to rise mass forcibly uplifts the warm and less dense air
and this explains why fronts are always inclined. mass. The front is associated with narrow band
Front development can mostly be found in the mid- of clouds and precipitation. The cold front has a
latitude region i.e. between 30-65 degrees in both steeper slope than the warm front. It has a
the hemispheres. The process of formation of the
fronts is known as frontogenesis. The process of
dissipation of a front is known as Frontolysis.
The concept of fronts was propounded by the

Norwegian meteorologists- V Bjerkens and J
Bjerkens during World War I. Fronts can be broadly
classified into four types depending on their
interaction.
Stationary Front:
When two contrasting air masses converge and form

a boundary without intermixing of winds is a
stationary front. Both the wind parcel fails to push slope of 1 km of rise for 50 or 100 km of
each other and remains stationary. The wind flow is distance.
parallel to the front but in opposite direction. Such
• A cold front is associated with bad weather
fronts are temporary fronts and are mostly short-
characterized by thick clouds, a heavy
lived.
downpour with thunderstorms, lightning, etc.
Warm Front: Sometimes cold frontal precipitation is also
associated with snowfall and hailstorms. Cold
• When a warm air mass moves towards the cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm
fronts. Frontolysis begin when the warm air
air mass, the contact zone is a warm front. As
mass is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.
the warm air ascends the slope it condenses and
causes precipitation. The warm front has a
gentle slope of 1 km of rise for every 100 or 200 Occluded Front:
km of distance.
An occluded front is formed when a cold front
• Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when the overtakes a warm front. As the cold front moves
warm air mass makes way for cold air mass on faster than the warm front, the warm sector is
the ground, i.e., when the warm air mass
reduced in size. Eventually, the warm air is
completely sits over the cold air mass.
completely displaced. Ultimately, the cold and warm
front merge into one to form a long, backward
swinging front. This is called an occluded front. The
weather conditions in the occluded front are more
variable with erratic rain fall.
STUDYIQ.COM POLAR VORTEX 1
POLAR VORTEX
• Polar vortexes are referred to as whirling checks the polar vortex from sliding south of
cones of low pressure over the poles that the northern hemisphere.
are strongest in the winters due to stark • The polar vortex at times gets stronger and
differences in the temperature between the pushes jet-stream south and invades the
Polar Regions and the mid-latitudes. northeast regions of the USA and Europe
• The polar vortex spins in the stratosphere, bringing severe cold.
above 10 to 48 kilometers above the ground • Retreating winters and the advent of
and the troposphere. summers weakens the polar vortex.
• A strong jet stream contains the polar vortex • This leads the polar vortex to withdraw and
behaving as a boundary wall. The strong jet retreat back to the poles.
Arctic vortex Polar vortex and ozone hole
• When the tropospheric vortex of the

• The annually occurring ozone hole over the
Arctic is strong, it is well defined and
Antarctic had rapidly grown from mid-
nearly circular in shape, there is a single
August and peaked at around 24 million
vortex with a jet stream that is well
square kilometers one of the largest so far in
constrained near the polar front, and the
early October 2020.
Arctic air is well contained.
• The expansion of the hole was driven by a
• When the northern tropospheric vortex
strong, stable and cold polar vortex and very
weakens, which it generally does, it will
cold temperatures in the stratosphere.
break into two or smaller vortices, the
• The same meteorological factors also
strongest of which are near Baffin Island,
contributed to the record 2020 Arctic ozone
Nunavut, and the other over northeast
hole, which has also closed.
Siberia.
• A polar vortex is a wide expanse of swirling
• When it is fragile, the flow of Arctic air
cold air, a low-pressure area, in Polar
becomes more disorganized, and masses
Regions.
of cold Arctic air can push equator ward,
• During winters, the polar vortex at the North
bringing a rapid and sharp temperature
Pole expands, sending cold air southward.
drop.
• An ozone hole is the thinning of the ozone
layer boosted in size by colder
Antarctic vortex
temperatures.
• As the temperature high up in the
• The Antarctic vortex of the Southern stratosphere starts to rise, ozone depletion
Hemisphere is a single low-pressure zone slows, the polar vortex weakens and breaks
that is found near the edge of the Ross Ice down.
Shelf, near 160 west longitudes. • By the end of December, ozone levels return
• When the polar vortex is strong, the mid- to normal.
latitude Westerlies (winds at the surface
level between 30° and 60° latitude from the
west) increase in strength and are
persistent.
• When the polar vortex is weak, high-
pressure zones of the mid-latitudes may
push pole ward, moving the polar vortex, jet
stream, and polar front equator ward.
• The jet stream is seen to "buckle" and
deviate south.
• This rapidly brings cold dry air into contact
with the warm, moist air of the mid-
latitudes, resulting in a rapid and dramatic
change of weather known as a "cold snap".
• It is an abnormal condition in which there is

unusual warming of sea surface
EL-NINO AND SOUTHERN OSCILLATION temperature of central and eastern pacific
(ENSO) resulting in heavy rainfall in eastern pacific
and drought in Australia and South East
Asia.
• El-Nino refers to the Christ Child coined by
the fishermen along the coasts of Ecuador
and Peru.
• The term is used to describe the unusual

warming of the central and eastern Pacific
during the Christmas season.
• While Southern Oscillation describes the

change in atmospheric pressure over the
Pacific Ocean accompanying El-Nino.
• ENSO or El-Nino Southern Oscillation

describes a combined oceanic-atmospheric
disturbance.
El-Nino
• El-Nino occurs due to the change in the

normal patterns of trade wind circulation.
• Normally these winds move westward while • As the warm water piles up at the eastern
driving the warm surface water off the coast part of Australia cold water up wells from
of Peru and Ecuador in South America below near the South American coast.
towards the east coast of Australia in During El-Nino conditions weakening of
Western Pacific. This westward movement easterly trade winds occurs resulting in
of winds results in upwelling of cooler water piling of warm water in the central and east
along the coast of South America and piling Pacific instead of eastern Australia.
up of warm water across Australia. This
results in low pressure conditions in western • The warm water later leads to rise of warm
Pacific and high-pressure conditions in air and results in convective rainfall. Hence,
Eastern Pacific. there is drought in Australia and rainfall
occurs in Peru and Ecuador region.
• El-Nino events are the result of weakening
Easterly Trade winds. The Easterly trade Consequences of El-Nino
winds are driven by a surface pressure
• Increased rainfall across the southern part
pattern of higher pressure in the Eastern
of the USA and in Peru, which causes
Pacific and lower pressure in the west.
destructive flooding.
• When the pressure gradient weakens, so do
• Drought in the west Pacific, sometime El-
the trade winds. The weakening of easterly
Nino is associated with devastating fires in
trade winds allows warmer water from the
Australia.
western Pacific to surge eastwards and
replace the cold Peruvian currents, so the • Drought in India and parts of eastern Africa
sea levels flatten out. and mild winters in western Canada.
• Warmer water causes heat and moisture to • El-Nino conditions tend to suppress the
rise from the ocean off Ecuador and Peru, development of tropical storms and
resulting in more frequent storms and hurricanes in the Atlantic, but increase the
torrential rainfall over these normally arid number of tropical storms over the eastern
countries, while drought-like conditions are and central Pacific Ocean.
formed in Australia.
Impact of El-Nino on Indian Monsoon
• Easterly trade winds drive warm waters
towards the Eastern part of Australia. Piling • Monsoon in India is often weaker during El
up of warm water after being driven by the Nino. But this is not always so. It is estimated
trade winds towards the coast of Eastern that 60% of all droughts in India in the last
Australia raises the temperature and results 130 years have coincided with an El Nino.
in a low pressure zone. • These have been years when rainfall was
over 10% less than normal. However, not
• This causes the warm air to rise, leading to every El Nino has caused a drought or bad
convection and resulting in convective monsoon.
rainfall. Contrastingly cold air sinks and • The negative effect of El Nino is negated by
leads to high pressure conditions in the west the Indian Ocean Dipole. This is when there
of Southern America. is a positive difference in the sea
temperatures of the western and eastern
Indian Oceans.
• Together La-Nina and El-Nino are the cold

and warm phases of the ENSO or El-Nino
La-Nina Southern Oscillation.
• La-Nina occurs due to an increase in the

strength of the normal patterns of trade
wind circulation.
• Under normal conditions, these winds move

westward, carrying warm surface water to
Indonesia and Australia and allowing cooler
water to up well along the South American
coast.
• These trade winds are strengthened,

increasing the amount of cooler water
• La-Nina refers to the “Girl Child”. Unusual towards the coast of South-America and
cooling takes place in the central and
reducing water temperature.
eastern Pacific in contrast to EL-Nino’s
unusual warming. Consequences of La-Nina
• La-Nina usually brings colder winters to the • La-Nina is characterized by lower than
Canadian west and Alaska, and drier, normal air pressure over the western
warmer weather to the American southeast Pacific. These low pressure zones contribute
coast. to increased rainfall.
1. Positive Indian Ocean

Dipole
Indian Ocean Dipole
2. Negative Indian Ocean
• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is the Dipole
difference in the sea surface temperature
between two areas or poles (Dipole is a Positive IOD
temperature gradient between two poles or
• With positive IOD, the eastern Indian Ocean
points). It is also known as the Indian Nino.
(Bay of Bengal and oceans parts off Sumatra
• IOD can be defined as a periodic oscillation in Indonesia) becomes colder than normal
of sea-surface temperature between while the western tropical part of Indian
“positive”, “negative” and “neutral” phases, Ocean (Arabian Sea) near the African coast
where the western Indian Ocean becomes becomes warmer.
alternatively warmer and colder than the
• Such an event strengthens the south-west
eastern part of Indian Ocean.
monsoon. It will have a positive impact on
• Two types of dipoles are seen over the Indian Monsoon season causing more than
Indian Ocean. average rainfall in India.
Negative IOD
• With negative IOD, the eastern Indian • Indian monsoon is interplay of ENSO, IOD,
Ocean (Bay of Bengal and oceans parts off circumpolar whirl and jet stream.
Sumatra in Indonesia) becomes abnormally
warm and the western tropical part of the • The most suitable conditions for a good
Indian Ocean (Arabian Sea) near the African monsoon would be a positive IOD, La-Nina,
coast becomes relatively colder. a strong tropical easterly jet and a strong
thermally induced Mascarene high.
• This is not considered beneficial as the
Indian south-west monsoon gets a severe
hit. This will weaken the Indian Monsoon. It
may cause droughts or less than average
rainfall.
A - Tropical Moist Climates: all months have

average temperatures above 18° Celsius.
KOEPPEN’S SCHEME OF
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATES B - Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation
during most of the year.
• The climatic classification by Koeppen is C - Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild

most widely used. It is based on Winters.
temperature, precipitation, and seasonal
D - Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold
characteristics. Winters.
• The relationship of climate with the
vegetation is also included with it. E - Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters
• According to this scheme, the world has and summers.
been divided into five climatic groups.
Four of them are based on temperature • The seasons of dryness are indicated by
and one on precipitation. the small letters: f, m, w, and s.
• Each type is designated by a capital letter: ✓ f -No dry season
✓ m – Monsoon climate
✓ w- Winter dry season • The small letters a, b, c, and d refers to the

✓ s – Summer dry season degree of severity of temperature.
Climate types according to Koeppen
Group Type Letter Characteristics

Code
A-Tropical Humid Tropical wet Af No dry season
Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
Tropical wet and Aw Winter dry season
dry
B-Dry Climate Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi-arid or dry
Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
Mid-latitude BSk Mid-latitude semi-arid or dry
steppe BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
Mid-latitude
desert
C-Warm Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
temperate(Mid Latitude) Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
Climates Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool
summer
D-Cold Snow forest Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter
Climates Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
E-Cold Climates Tundra ET No true summer
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover
Group A: Tropical Humid Climates (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; (iii) Aw-
Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical Wet Climate (Af):-
• Tropical humid climates exist between ➢ The tropical wet climate is found near
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. the equator.
• In this region, the sun shines vertically ➢ The major areas are the Amazon Basin in
throughout the year. The Inter-Tropical South America, western equatorial
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is also present Africa, and the islands of the East Indies.
here, making the region's climate hot and ➢ The annual distribution of rainfall is
humid. almost uniform. The temperature is
• This region witnesses a low range of uniformly high, and the annual range of
annual temperature and high annual temperature is negligible.
rainfall. ➢ The nature of rainfall here is
• The tropical group is divided into three convectional and occurs on a daily basis
types, namely (i) Af- Tropical wet climate; in the afternoon.
➢ This region is characterized by the ➢ Extensive Aw climate is found to the north

presence of tropical evergreen forests and south of the Amazon forest in Brazil
with a dense canopy and high and adjoining parts of Bolivia and
biodiversity. Paraguay in South America, Sudan and
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am):- south of Central Africa
➢ This climatic region witness reversal of ➢ The annual rainfall in this climate is
prevailing winds. considerably less than that in Af and Am
➢ Tropical monsoon-like conditions are climate types and is variable also.
found over the Indian Sub-continent, ➢ The region witness a longer dry season
Northern Australia, and North-Eastern and shorter wet season with the drought
South America. being more severe.
➢ This region receives rainfall in summer ➢ The region experiences high temperature
while winter is mostly dry. throughout the year, and the diurnal
Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw):- range of temperature is greatest in the dry
➢ Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north season.
and south of Tropical wet type climate (Af) ➢ This climatic region is characterized by
regions. deciduous forests and tree-shaded
grasslands.
Group B : Dry Climate rainfall often causes famine in steppe

regions.
➢ Fog is common in coastal deserts
• In this climatic region, rainfall is not enough bordering cold currents.
to support the growth of plants. ➢ These climatic regions are classified as
• These climatic regions are extended over a middle latitude cold steppe climate
vast area of the planet, i.e., from 15° - 60° (BSk), and middle latitude cold desert
north and south of the equator. (BWk)
• In middle latitudes, from 35° - 60° north and
south of the equator, they are confined to
the interior of continents where maritime- Group C: Warm Temperate Climates
humid winds do not reach and to areas often
surrounded by mountains.
• Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert
extend from 30° - 50° of latitude, mainly in
(BWh) Climates:-
the eastern and western margins of
➢ Both types of climate have common
continents.
temperature and precipitation
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
characteristics.
➢ It is found poleward from the tropic of
➢ The subtropical steppe is situated in the
Cancer and tropic of Capricorn, mainly in
transition zone of the humid and dry
North Indian plains and South China
climate and receives little more rainfall
interior plains.
than the desert, which supports the
➢ The climate is similar to Tropical wet and
growth of sparse grasslands.
dry climate, except that the temperature
➢ The rainfall in these climatic regions is
in winter is warm.
highly variable, and the variability in
Mediterranean Climate (Cs) Southern Chile, Southern Australia, and

➢ Mediterranean climate occurs around the New Zealand.
Mediterranean sea, along with the west ➢ Average temperature in summer is 15°-
coast of continents in subtropical latitudes 20°C, and in winter average temperature is
between 30° - 40° latitudes. e.g. — Central 4°-10℃. Precipitation varies from 50-
California, Central Chile, along the coast of 250cm.
southeastern and southwestern Australia.
➢ Here, the climate is characterized by hot,
dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Group D: Moist Mid-Latitude Climates
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa) with Cold Winters
➢ Humid subtropical climate lies on the
eastern parts of the continent in subtropical
Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)
latitudes. Frontal rainfall occurs due to
unstable air masses. ➢ It occurs poleward of marine west coast climate
➢ They occur in the eastern United States of and mid latitude steppe.
America, southern and eastern China, ➢ Here winters are cold and snowy and frost free
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, season is short.
coastal South Africa, and eastern coast of ➢ The weather changes are abrupt and short.
Australia. Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb) ➢ Occurs mainly over Northeastern Asia.
➢ Marine west coast climate is located ➢ Monsoon-like reversal of wind occurs in
poleward from the Mediterranean climate this region, i.e., anticyclonic conditions
on the west coast of the continents. The develop in winter and weaken during
temperature is comparatively warmer in summer.
these regions due to the moderating effects ➢ The annual precipitation is around 12-
of the sea. 15cm.
➢ Main areas of Cfb are coastal regions of
North America, north of California,
Group E: Polar Climates ➢ Tundras are found in the Arctic region

and on top of the mountains. These
are treeless biomes characterized by
• It exists from 70° latitudes toward the high wind speed and scanty rainfall.
pole. ➢ Here the soil is frozen permanently
• A polar climate consists of cool and is known as the permafrost
summers, and very cold winters, which region.
results in treeless tundra, glaciers, or a Ice Cap Climate (EF)
permanent or semi-permanent layer of ➢ Here temperature does not exceed
ice. 0℃, even in summer.
Tundra Climate (ET) ➢ This area receives very little rainfall.
➢ Tundras are one of the coldest, and ➢ This climatic region occurs over the
harshest biomes of the world. interior of Greenland and Antarctica.
Group H: Highland Climates areas of high elevation such as the

Plateau of Tibet.
➢ In high mountains, large
Highland Climates (H) changes in mean
➢ This climate is found in high mountain temperature occur over
areas. short distances.
➢ It is found on single mountains such ➢ Precipitation types and
as Mount Kilimanjaro and on large intensity also vary spatially.
STUDYIQ.COM OCEAN RELIEF 1
OCEAN RELIEF
• The ocean water conceals a considerable • The Ocean basins are broadly divided into
variety of landscape very similar to its four major sub-divisions. They are:
counterpart on the continents. 1. The Continental Shelf
• There are mountains, basins, plateaus, 2. The Continental Slope
ridges, canyons and trenches beneath the 3. The continental Rise
ocean water too. 4. The Abyssal plain
• These relief features found on the ocean
floor are called submarine relief.
The Continental Shelf

• Besides these, there are many other
associated features like ridges, hills,
seamounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc. • The continental shelf is the submerged part
• Oceanic relief features result from the of the land adjoining the coast.
tectonic, erosional, depositional, and • Most of the continental shelves represent
volcanic activities on the ocean surfaces. continental land that has been inundated by
• Ocean reliefs have a marked effect on the the rise in seawater level.
motion of the seawater, and they also • Geologists regard their formation for the
impact human activities like fishing and following reasons:
navigation. 1. Submergence of boundaries of the
continent
2. Erosional work of the waves
3. Extension of land from the sediments

deposited by rivers The Continental Slope
Features of the Continental Shelf • The slope becomes much steeper at the
• Continental shelves comprise about 7.5 seaward edge of the continental shelf. The
percent of the total ocean bottom. gradient of the slope region varies between
• It is shallow with water above the shelf, 2 and 5°. This declining gradient is called the
usually 60 to 100 fathoms deep (1 fathom = continental slope; it forms the edge of the
6 feet). continental block. The slope links the
• It is broad where the mountains are away continental shelf and the deep seafloor.
from the coast, for example, north-west • The continental slope resembles a cliff
Europe and eastern North America; it is where heavy rains have eroded. These
narrow where the mountains are nearer to canyons are thought to have been formed
the coast, for example, Western North (or cut out) by dense turbidity currents,
America and South America. sediment-laden currents that flow along the
• The average width of the continental shelf ocean floor.
is 70 km. • Its most striking features are the submarine
• The widest shelf is found along the canyons prevalent along the slope face.
glaciated coast of Siberia, where it extends • Some of these canyons are equal in size to
out roughly 800 miles. the Grand Canyon.
• Shallow seas and gulfs are found along the • At the seaward end of these canyons, large
continental shelves. amounts of sediment are deposited and
• The shelf usually ends at a steep slope, spread out in a fan-like manner to form the
called the shelf break. continental rise.
• The shelf region is a transition zone
between freshwater runoff from land and Features of the continental slope
the more saline water of the sea; • The depth of the slope region varies
consequently, it is an area of great mixing between 200 and 3,000 m.
of water with generally unstable water • It is made up of thick sediment deposits
conditions. that cover irregular relief features.
• Due to limited depth, the oceanic currents • The continental slope deposits gently
usually run parallel to the shore in this seaward, forming the abyssal plains of the
region. deep ocean basins.
• The presence of shallow water over the
shelf enables sunlight to penetrate, The Continental Rise
encouraging the growth of microscopic
plants and animals called planktons. These
planktons are food for the fish. • The continental slope loses its steepness
• Continental shelves provide rich fishing with depth. When it reaches a level of
grounds, e.g., Grand Bank, off New between 0.5 to 1 degree, the slope is
Foundland in North America, and Dogger referred to as the continental rise.
Bank in the North Sea. • The continental rise becomes virtually flat
• Apart from minerals, sand, and gravel, with the increasing depth. It merges with
continental shelves are a great source of the abyssal plains.
petroleum and natural gas. E.g., Bombay
High, Persian Gulf, North Sea, Gulf of The Abyssal Plains or Deep Sea Plain
Florida, etc.
• Around 20% of the petroleum and gas • The Abyssal plains start beyond the
production comes from the shelves. These continental rise. They are formed by the
sites are also rich in placer and phosphorite accumulation of sediments on the seafloor.
deposits.
• Superimposed on this very flat plain are Features of Abyssal Plains

many rugged relief features, such as • The ocean basins account for 76 percent of
seamounts, guyots, atolls, sills, and the ocean floor.
trenches. • Its depth varies from 3000 to 5000 m.
• This convergence can be an ocean–ocean

MINOR OCEANOGRAPHIC RELIEF convergence or ocean-continent
convergence.
FEATURES
• The trenches are formed along the edges of
the deep sea plains.
• They run parallel to the Fold Mountains or
Trenches the island chains.
• They are usually associated with active
volcanoes and strong earthquakes like in
• Trenches are long, narrow, and relatively
Japan.
steep-sided depressions. The trenches are
• The trenches of the Pacific Ocean stretch for
the sites of subduction zones in plate
as long as 2,500 miles (Peru-Chile Trench).
tectonics, i.e., they are of tectonic origins
and formed during platonic convergence. • The Mariana Trench of the Guam Islands is
the deepest trench with a depth of 35,600
feet (11200 m); the Tonga Trench is 35,430
feet deep; and the Mindanao Trench is
34,428 feet deep.
Submarine Ridges
• Submarine Ridges or Mid Oceanic Ridges

are elongated steep-sided elevations of the
seafloor.
• They are also called oceanic mountain
ranges.
• These are narrow, elongated mountain

ranges that rise steeply from the abyssal
plain.
• They are of tectonic origin and are evidence
of the theory of plate tectonics. They are a
few hundred kilometers wide and
thousands of kilometers in length.
• These sub-oceanic mountain systems
extended for a total length of 75000 km and
form the largest mountain systems.
• The Atlantic Ridge is about 16,000 km long.
It is the longest ridge in the world.
• The peaks of some of the ridges may rise
above sea level to form islands, e.g., Azores,
Ascension, and Philippine islands.
• The oceanic ridge is the site of frequent
earthquakes. Volcanism is common in ocean
ridges, and it produces many relief features.
Abyssal Hills Submarine Canyons
• These are elevated features of volcanic • Submarine Canyons are a class of narrow
origin. steep-sided valleys that cut into continental
• These can be classified as seamounts and slopes and continental rises of the oceans.
guyots. • Submarine canyons originate either within
➢ Seamounts are submerged, continental slopes or on a continental shelf.
isolated, pinnacled mountains • They are rare on continental margins with
rising 3,000 feet or more above the extremely steep continental slopes or
seafloor. escarpments.
➢ Guyots or Table mounts are • Submarine canyons are so-called because
submerged, isolated, flat-topped they resemble canyons made by rivers on
mountains that rise 3,000 feet or land.
more above the seafloor. Hawaii • Unlike deep-sea trenches, which are found
and Tahiti Islands are the exposed in areas where one tectonic plate slides
tops of volcanoes. beneath another, undersea canyons are
found along the slopes of most continental
margins.
• They are formed due to erosion by elevations since they are produced upon features of
sediments brought down by rivers that cut diastrophic origins.
across continental shelves, slopes, and
rises. Bank
• The sediments are subsequently deposited • A bank is a flat-topped elevation, usually
on the abyssal plains. located in the continental margins.
• There are broadly three types of submarine • Erosional and depositional activities are the
canyons: major factors for the formation of banks.
• There is a thin layer of water over the bank;
1. Small gorges that start at the edge of however, the depth is sufficient for
the continental shelf and extend to navigation.
greater depths. Example - • They are the productive sites for fisheries:
Oceanographer Canyons Example - the Dogger Bank in the North Sea
2. Some canyons begin at the mouth of and the Grand Banks of North-Western
the river and extend over the shelf. Atlantic.
Example- the Zaire, the Mississippi, and
the Indus Canyons. Shoal
3. There are canyons with a dendritic • Shoal is an accumulation of sediment in a
appearance and they cut into the edge river channel or on a continental shelf that
of the continental shelf. Example- is potentially dangerous to ships.
Hudson Canyon • It is conventionally taken to be less than 10
m (33 feet) below water level at low tide on
Atoll the continental shelf.
• These are low islands found in the tropical Reef
oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a • A Reef is a predominantly organic deposit made
central depression. by living or dead organisms that form a mound
or rocky elevation like a ridge.
• It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or
• A coral reef is a ridge or hummock formed in
sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh,
shallow ocean areas by algae and the
brackish, or highly saline water. calcareous skeletons, usually coral polyps.
• A coral reef may grow into a permanent
Bank, Shoal, and Reef coral island.
• Often called the “rainforests of the sea,”
coral reefs are home to a spectacular variety
of organisms.
These marine features are formed due to • Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the
erosional, depositional and biological activity. They Pacific Ocean, associated with seamounts
are usually found in the upper parts of the and guyots.
Coral reefs degrees Celsius. Therefore, corals are

• Coral reefs are marine landforms formed by mostly confined to tropical waters.
the continuous accumulation of skeletons of
coral polyps.
• Coral polyps or corals are lime secreting
marine micro-organisms that live in large
colonies comprising a coral reef.
• Coral reefs cover less than 1% of the world’s
ocean surface area but are home to a third
of all marine life.
• They create the most diverse and richest
ecosystem of the ocean; hence, they are
popularly known as the rainforest of the
ocean.
• Unfortunately, coral reefs are now among
the most threatened ecosystems due to
unprecedented global warming and climate
change with anthropogenic pressures.
• Corals are translucent marine organism
that satisfies their nutritional requirement
in two ways:
1. Corals have pores on their body Significance of the study of Oceanic Relief
through which they absorb nutrients Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater. The
from the ocean. oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn,
2. Corals have a symbiotic relationship causes many variations in both oceans and the
with algae (Zooxanthellae algae- atmosphere. The bottom relief of oceans also influences
responsible for imparting color to navigation and fishing.
corals), which helps feed them. The
algae perform photosynthesis which
attracts other life forms on which
corals prey using their tentacles. MAJOR OCEANS AND SEAS
• Under stress conditions, when the algae are
expelled from the corals, they turn white
and are bleached, and eventually die. Rank Ocean Area (million km2) (%)
Hence, an ideal condition is required for the Average Depth (m)
symbiotic relationship to thrive and for
1 Pacific Ocean 168 (46.6%)
corals to survive.
3,970
• Corals cannot survive if exposed to the
atmosphere for longer periods. The ocean 2 Atlantic Ocean 85 (23.5%)
water depth must be shallow enough to
3,646
avail the required insolation. The depth
should not exceed 180 feet because the 3 Indian Ocean 70 (19.5%)
sunlight becomes weak for photosynthesis 3,741
to take place beyond this. It is essential for
the algae's survival on which the coral 4 Antarctic Ocean 21 (6.1%)
polyps survive. 3,270
• Ocean water should be around 27 degrees
Celsius for corals to thrive. Also, the 5 Arctic Ocean 15 (4.3%)
temperature should not fall below 20 1,205
• It stretches for more than 10,000 km

Pacific Ocean between the southern tips of Africa and
Australia and has an area of about
70,500,000 square km (excluding the
• The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest marginal seas).
of all the oceans. • The Indian Ocean is bounded by Iran,
• It covers around 1/3rd of the world's total Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh to the
ocean area. It has an area of 165,200,000 sq. north; the Malay Peninsula, the Sunda
km. Islands of Indonesia, and Australia to the
• It extends for 16000km from the east coast east; the Southern Ocean to the south; and
of Asia to the west coasts of the Americas. Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the west.
• It extends for 14880 km from north to south • In the southwest, it joins the Atlantic Ocean
between the Bering Strait in the north to south of the southern tip of Africa, and to
Cape Adare (Antarctica). the east and southeast, it’s waters mingle
• The average depth is around with those of the Pacific Ocean.
4000metres. The Pacific Ocean has the
largest number of islands (around 2500). The Indian Ocean differs from the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans in the following aspects:
Do You Know:
1. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is
The deepest point on earth is the Challenger landlocked and does not have a
Deep. It is located beneath the western Pacific temperate-to-cold zone.
Ocean at the southern end of the Mariana 2. It has fewer islands and narrower
continental shelves.
Trench. It is approximately 35,876 feet deep.
3. It is the only ocean with an asymmetric
semiannually reversing surface
circulation (in the northern
Atlantic Ocean hemisphere).
4. The ocean's water is extremely low in
oxygen below the surface layers,
• It is the second-largest ocean, covering an
especially in the north.
area of 106,460,000sq.km.
• It is located between North and South
Americas in the west and Europe and Africa
in the east.
• It was formed due to the drifting of North
and South Americas to the west due to plate
tectonics.
• The Atlantic Ocean is S-shaped. It has an
average depth of 3,646 meters. Antarctic Ocean
• Milwaukee Depth is the deepest point
(8,380m) in the Atlantic Ocean.
• The Southern Ocean, also known as the
Antarctic Ocean, comprises the
Indian Ocean southernmost waters of the World Ocean,
generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude
and encircling Antarctica.
• The Indian Ocean covers approximately one-
• As such, with 20,327,000 square kilometers,
fifth of the world's total ocean area.
it is regarded as the second-smallest of the
• It is the smallest, geologically youngest of
five principal oceanic divisions: smaller than
the world’s three major oceans (Pacific,
the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans but
Atlantic, and Indian).
larger than the Arctic Ocean.
• It spans an area of approximately

Arctic Ocean 14,060,000 square kilometers and is known
as the coldest of all the oceans.
• The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and

shallowest of the world's five major oceans.
IMPORTANT SEAS OF THE WORLD
South China Sea • There are representatives from China, Vietnam, Hainan, Malaysia, and the
Philippines here. China is involved in a number of disputes with countries in
this region. Paracel, Scarborough Shoal, and The Spratly Islands are among
the disputed areas.
East China Sea • The East China Sea is a marginal sea in the Western Pacific Ocean located just
offshore from East China, with the Japanese islands of Kyushu and Ryukyu to
the east, the South China Sea to the south, and the Asian peninsula to the west.
• The sea connects with the Sea of Japan via the Korea Strait and expands up to
the north into the Yellow Sea. The countries that border the sea are South
Korea, Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan), and the People's Republic of
China.
Caribbean Sea • The Caribbean Sea, located southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and part of the
Atlantic Ocean, is a tropical sea in the Western Hemisphere.
• Its boundaries: South: Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama; west: Central
America (Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, and Belize); north: the
Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Dominica, and Puerto Rico); east: the Lesser
Antilles.
• The eastern Caribbean Sea, Anguilla is a British overseas territory.
The • The Mediterranean Sea flows to the Atlantic Ocean and is almost fully encircled
Mediterranean by land: in the north, Southern Europe and Anatolia; in the south, North Africa,
Sea and in the east, the Levant.The
Bay of Bengal • The Bay of Bengal is bounded on three sides by India (west and northwest),
Bangladesh (north), and Myanmar (east). A line traced from Sangaman Kanda
in Sri Lanka to the northwesternmost point of Sumatra in Indonesia is its
southern limit. It is a bay, which is the world's largest body of water.
The Arabian Sea • The Arabian Sea is an area of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north
by Pakistan, Iran, and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, the
Guardafui Channel, and the Arabian Peninsula, on the southeast by the
Laccadive Sea, the Somali Sea, and on the east by India.
• The Gulf of Aden connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea via the Bab-el-
Mandeb strait in the west, while the Gulf of Oman connects the Arabian Sea to
the Persian Gulf in the northwest.
The Sea of Japan • It is a waterway that connects the Japanese archipelago, Sakhalin Island, the
Korean Peninsula, and the Russian Far East mainland. The Japanese archipelago
separates the water from the Pacific Ocean. It, like the Mediterranean Sea, has
essentially no tides due to its nearly full confinement from the Pacific Ocean.
Sea of Okhotsk • It is a marginal sea in the western Pacific Ocean.

• The sea is limited on the east by the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia, on the
southeast by the Kuril Islands, by Japan's Hokkaido on South, by the island of
Sakhalin on west, and on the north by a length of eastern Siberian coast.
Sea of Azov • It is a sea in Eastern Europe that is connected to the Black Sea by the short
(approximately 4 km or 2.5 mi) Channel of Kerch. It is sometimes considered
the Black Sea's northern continuation. Russia borders the sea on the southeast,
while Ukraine borders it on the northwest.
The Caspian Sea • It is a large body of water that links Asia and Europe. Its borders are Iran,
Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Russia.
Adriatic Sea • It stretches from Slovenia south to Croatia, Montenegro, and Albania is a
section of the Mediterranean Sea that lies between Italy's eastern coast and
the nations of the Balkan Peninsula.
• The Adriatic coastlines may be found in Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia,
Italy, Montenegro, and Slovenia.
Baltic Sea • The sea extends into the Atlantic Ocean. The sea is surrounded by Denmark,
Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and the
North and Central European Plain. The latitude of the sea is 53°N to 66°N, and
its longitude is 10°E to 30°E.
Red Sea • It (Erythraean Sea) is a saltwater inlet in the Indian Ocean that lies between
Africa and Asia.
• Access to the ocean in the south is provided via the Bab el Mandeb strait and
the Gulf of Aden.
• The six nations that border the Red Sea are Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Egypt, Sudan,
Eritrea, and Djibouti.
Yellow Sea • In the Western Pacific Ocean, the Yellow Sea lies between mainland China and
the Korean Peninsula, forming part of the East China Sea.
• The name relates to the golden-yellow tint of sand water discharged from large
rivers.
The Dead Sea • It is a Salt Lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the
west. Its principal tributary is Jordan river.
• It is one among the world's saltiest bodies of water.
Black Sea • It is an inland sea situated between southeastern Europe and western Asia,
including Turkey.
Sargasso Sea • Unlike all other seas, the Sargasso Sea is characterized entirely by ocean
currents.
• It is bordered on the west by the Gulf Stream, on the north by the North
Atlantic Current, on the east by the Canary Current, and on the south by the
North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
• It is the world's only sea without a shoreline.
The Aegean Sea • The Mediterranean Sea's Aegean Sea is a long, extended area that links Europe
and Asia. It covers an area of around 215,000 square kilometers and is located
between the Balkans and Anatolia. The water reaches a depth of 3,544 meters
to the east of Crete.
• Examples - the Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson

Bay (Canada), Chesapeake Bay (Maryland
BAYS and Virginia), and Bay of Bengal (India).
• Bays usually occur on oceans, lakes, and
gulfs, and generally not on rivers except
• A bay is a small body of water or a broad when there is an artificially enlarged river
inlet that is set off from a larger body of mouth.
water generally where the land curves • An example of a bay at a river's mouth is
inward. New York Bay, at the mouth of the Hudson
River.
GULFS • Isthmuses have been strategic locations for

centuries. They are natural sites for ports
and canals linking terrestrial and aquatic
• A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes trade routes.
with a narrow mouth, that is almost • Isthmuses are also key sites for
completely surrounded by land. communications and cultural exchange, as
• It can be considered a large bay. well as military outposts.
• The world's largest gulf is the Gulf of • The Isthmus of Panama in Panama links the
Mexico, with a total surface area of about continents of North and South America and
1,554,000 square kilometers (600,000 separates the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.
square miles).
• Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of
California, the Gulf of Aden (between the
Red Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the
Persian Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and
Iran).
• The Persian Gulf is important with respect to
world energy because petroleum is
transported through its waters in oil
tankers.
STRAITS
• A strait is a narrow passageway of water,

usually between continents or islands, or
between two larger bodies of water.
• The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the
world's most famous strait. It connects the
Atlantic Ocean on its west with the
Mediterranean Sea on its east. It also
separates northern Africa from the Rock of
Gibraltar on the southernmost point of the
Iberian Peninsula.
• Two other well-known straits are the Strait
of Bosporus and the Strait of Hormuz.
ISTHMUS
• An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that

connects two larger landmasses and
separates two bodies of water.
STUDYIQ.COM MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER 1
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
• The ocean water is dynamic and is never still. OCEAN CURRENTS

Its physical characteristics like temperature,
salinity, density and the external forces like • Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans.
of the sun, moon and the winds influence The ocean currents are horizontal flows of a
the movement of ocean water. mass of water in a fairly defined direction over
• The horizontal and vertical motions are great distance.
common in ocean water bodies. • The average speed of the current is between
3.2 km to 10 km per hour. Ocean currents with
1. The horizontal motion refers to the higher speed are called stream and currents
ocean currents and waves. with lower speed are called drift.
2. The vertical motion refers to tides.
• Ocean currents are the continuous flow of
huge amount of water in a definite direction
while the waves are the horizontal motion of Factors influencing the Current
water.
• Water moves ahead from one place to
another through ocean currents while the
Influence of Insolation
water in the waves does not move, but the
• The water expands when heated by
wave trains move ahead.
incoming solar radiation (insolation).
• The vertical motion refers to the rise and fall
• As a result, the ocean water level at the
of water in the oceans and seas.
equator is around 8 cm higher than in the
• Due to attraction of the sun and the moon,
middle latitudes.
the ocean water is raised up and falls down
• As a result, there is a minor gradient, and
twice a day.
water flows down the slope.
• The upwelling of cold water from subsurface
and the sinking of surface water are also
Influence of Gravity
forms of vertical motion of ocean water.
• Gravity tends to pull the water down to pile
and create gradient variation.
Influence of Temperature
• Differences in the temperature of ocean
waters at the equator and the poles
influence the current movement.
• As warm water is lighter, it rises, and cold Influence of the Trade Winds
water is denser; it sinks. • The Trade Winds blow between the equator
• The warm equatorial waters move slowly and the tropics, moving equatorial waters
along the surface towards the pole, while pole wards and westwards and warming
the heavier cold waters of the Polar Regions continents' eastern shores.
move along the bottom of the sea towards • The North-East Trade Winds, for example,
the equator. warm the southern and eastern shores of
the United States by moving the North
Influence of Salinity Equatorial Current and its derivatives, the
• Based on the temperature, geographical Florida Current.
area, the inflow of fresh water, etc. • The Westerlies blow in temperate latitudes.
• The salinity of ocean water varies from place They result in a northeasterly movement of
to place. Waters of high salinity are denser water in the northern hemisphere, driving
than the waters of low salinity. Hence, high the warm Gulf Stream to the western coast
salinity waters sink and flow at the bottom of Europe as the North Atlantic Drift.
towards low salinity waters. • The Westerlies are, however, less reliable
• On the other hand, ocean waters of low than the 'Trade Winds.'
salinity flow on the surface of ocean waters
and move towards high salinity waters. For
example, in the partially enclosed
Mediterranean Sea, there is a great Types of Currents
difference in salinity between the waters of
the open Atlantic Ocean and those of the
Mediterranean Sea. Based on Depth
• The less saline water from the Atlantic
• Based on the depth, the ocean currents may
Ocean flows into the Mediterranean Sea.
be classified as surface currents and deep
• However, this inflow is compensated by
water currents:
denser water that flows from the bottom of
the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. 1. Surface currents are those currents
that circulate to the depth of 400m
Influence due to the Earth's Rotation
from the surface; they roughly
• Under the influence of the Coriolis force, the
constitute about 10 percent of all the
earth's rotation deflects freely moving
water in the ocean.
objects to the right, including ocean
2. Deepwater currents are caused due
currents.
to the changes in the density and
• This is a clockwise direction in the northern under the influence of gravity. They
hemisphere (e.g., the direction of the make up the other 90 percent of the
Canaries and the Gulf Stream). ocean water.
• It runs counter-clockwise in the southern • The changes in the temperatures and salinity
hemisphere (for example, the Brazilian determine the density, which causes the
Current). vertical movement of water.
• Deep waters sink into deep ocean basins at
Influence of Geographical Orientation
high latitudes when temperatures are cold
• Crustal land masses block and affect the
enough to cause the density to rise.
course of a current due to their geographical
orientation. Based on temperature
• The Peruvian Current, for example, is
formed when part of the West Wind Drift is • Based on temperature, ocean currents are
diverted northwards by the tip of southern classified as cold currents and warm
Chile. currents:
1. Cold currents transport cold water Characteristics of Ocean Currents

from high latitudes to low latitudes,
bringing cold water into warm water Currents are referred to by their “drift”.
areas. These currents are most Usually, the currents are strongest near the
commonly seen on the west coasts of surface and may attain speeds over five
continents at low and middle latitudes
knots. At depths, currents are generally
(in both hemispheres) and the east
coast at higher latitudes in the slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots. We
Northern Hemisphere. refer to the speed of a current as its “drift.”
2. Warm currents transport warm water Drift is measured in terms of knots. The
from low to high latitudes and are strength of a current refers to the speed of
most commonly seen on the east the current. A fast current is considered
coasts of continents in the low and strong. A current is usually strongest at the
intermediate latitudes (true in both surface and decreases in strength (speed)
hemispheres). They can be found on
with depth. Most currents have speeds less
the west coasts of continents at high
latitudes in the northern hemisphere. than or equal to 5 knots
List of Cold Currents
Cold Ocean Region Important or Additional Facts

Current
• Along the west coast of South America, The Peruvian

Humboldt or South Pacific current flows from the southernmost tip of Chile to
Peruvian Current Ocean northern Peru.
• The Current is named after Prussian naturalist and
Geographer- Alexander Von Humboldt.
• This large marine ecosystem which serves as the major
nutrient system of the world is supported by this very low-
salinity current.
• It flows south of the Arctic Ocean via the Bering Sea in the
Kurile or North Pacific North Pacific Ocean while originating from the same Arctic
Oyashio Current Ocean Ocean.
• This sub-arctic ocean current circulates in an anti-clockwise
direction.
• To form the North Pacific Drift the cold Oyashio current
collides with Kurioshio currents off the Japanese east.
• The currents are rich in nutrients.
• It forms a part of North Pacific Gyre.

California Pacific Ocean • The California current is an extension of the Aleutian
Current Current that flows along the west coast of North America
in a southward direction.
• The region experiences a very strong Upwelling.
• It is also known as West Wind Drift.

Antarctic Southern Ocean • The current flows in a clockwise direction from east to west
Circumpolar around Antarctica.
Current • The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is considered to be the
largest ocean current in the world.
• With the combination of warm Gulf Stream and cold

Labrador North Atlantic Labrador Current is known for producing one of the richest
Current Ocean fishing grounds of the world.
• The Labrador Current meets the warm northward moving
Gulf Stream with the Arctic Ocean after flowing south.
• The current is named after the Canary Islands.

Canary Current North Atlantic • The Canary Current, also known as Eastern Boundary
Ocean Current, is a part of the North Atlantic Gyre.
• The region experiences Upwelling.
• The North Atlantic and the Arctic are directly connected by

Eastern Arctic Ocean & this current.
Greenland North Atlantic • The Eastern Greenland Current is a Low salinity current
Current Ocean that extends between Cape Farewell to Farm Strait.
• It also contributes to the highest sea-ice export out of the
Arctic.
• The Eastern Greenland Current forms the major freshwater
sink for the Arctic.
• The Benguela Current forms the Eastern portion of South

Benguela South Atlantic Atlantic Ocean Gyre.
Current Ocean • The Benguela Current forms the branch of West Wind Drift
in the Southern Hemisphere.
• The current is characterised by high upwelling, presence of
an excellent fishing zone and low salinity.
• The current has been named after the Falkland Islands.

Falkland Current South Atlantic • The current is also known as Malvinas Current.
Ocean • The Falkland Current is a branch of Antarctic Circumpolar
Current.
• The Brazil-Malvinas Confluence zone is created by the
mixing of the Falkland cold current and the warm Brazil
current. This is also responsible for the region’s temperate
climate.
• Indian North Equatorial Current flows southwest and west,

Northeast North Indian crossing the Equator.
Monsoon Ocean
Current
• The current is also a part of Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

Western Southern Ocean • The Western Australian Current is otherwise known as
Australian & South Indian West Wind Drift.
Current Ocean • The Western-Australian Current is a seasonal current- that
is strong in summer and weak in winter.
• The South Indian Ocean Current is similar to South Atlantic

South Indian South Indian Current.
Ocean Current Ocean
List of Warm Currents
List of Warm Region Important or Additional Facts

Ocean Current
• Though the term “equatorial” has been used, it has

North Equatorial Pacific Ocean & no relation with the Equator.
Current Atlantic Ocean • The current forms the southern side of the clockwise
subtropical gyre.
• The North Equatorial Current flows east to west
between 10° N to 20°N.
• The word “Kuroshio” refers to “Black Stream”. This

Kuroshio Current Pacific Ocean is a west boundary current.
• The average surface temperature of the current is
warmer than the surrounding ocean. Due to this
warm current the temperature in Japan is regulated.
• It is similar to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean
as it is in the Pacific Ocean.
• The North Pacific current circulates anti-clockwise

North Pacific Pacific Ocean direction along the Western North Pacific Ocean.
Current • The current is formed when the Kuroshio currents
and the Oyashio current meet.
• The northward diversion of a part of the North

Alaskan Current North Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean results in the formation of Alaskan
current.
• Two large eddies are formed, known as Haida Eddies
and Sitka Eddy
• The current is also called North Equatorial Counter

Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, Pacific current.
Counter Current Ocean, and the Indian • This wind-driven current flows west to east between
Ocean 3°N-10°N.
• Speed and strength of ocean currents are deeply

El Nino Current Central & East-Central impacted by the occurrence of El Nino events.
Equatorial Pacific
• It is a branch of Kuroshio Current

Tsushima Sea of Japan
Current
• Southern hemisphere counter-part of North

South Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Equatorial counter current.
Current Ocean, and the Indian • Directly driven by trade winds blowing from east to
Ocean west.
• The East Australian Current transports the tropical

East Australian South-Western Pacific marine fauna to habitats in sub-tropical regions
Current Ocean along the southeast Australian coast.
• The Florida current was discovered by Spanish

Florida Current South Atlantic Ocean explorer Juan Ponce de León in 1513.
& Caribbean Sea • The Florida current flows around Florida Peninsula
and joins the Gulf Stream at Cape Hatteras.
• The Gulf Stream splits into North Atlantic Drift

Gulf Stream North Atlantic Ocean (crossing Northern Europe & southern stream) and
Canary Current (recirculating of West Africa).
• This is an intensified current-driven mainly by wind
stress.
• Norwegian Current is a branch of North Atlantic Drift

Norwegian North Sea (Atlantic and sometimes is also considered as an extension of
Current Ocean) & Barents Sea the Gulf Stream.
(Arctic Ocean) • This wedge-shaped current is one of the two
dominant Arctic inflows of water.
• The current is named after the Danish vice-admiral

Irminger Current North Atlantic Ocean Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger.
• The Irminger current is a part of the North Atlantic
subpolar gyre.
• The Antilles Current is a part of the North Atlantic

Antilles Current North Atlantic Ocean gyre.
• The Antilles current flows across the island chain
which separates the Atlantic Ocean and the
Caribbean Sea.
• The Brazilian current flows along the south coast of

Brazilian Current South Atlantic Ocean Brazil till Rio de la Palta.
• The Brazilian current joins the cold Falkland Current
at the Argentine Sea making it a temperate sea.
• Large anti-cyclonic Mozambique channel eddies are

Mozambique Indian Ocean formed.
Current • The Mozambique current flows between the south-
east country of Africa- Mozambique and the island
of Madagascar in the Mozambique Channel.
• The Aghulas current flows south along the east coast

Agulhas Current South-West Indian of Africa.
Ocean • This is the largest western boundary ocean current.
• The current extends into the Arabian Sea and the

Southwest Indian Ocean Bay of Bengal.
Monsoon • The Indian Ocean is dominated by this current during
Current the southwest monsoon season (June–October).
• The Current is deeply influenced by the monsoon.

Somali Current West Indian Ocean
• The Somali Current is similar to the Gulf Stream in
the Atlantic Ocean.
• The region experiences major upwelling.
Effects of Ocean Currents • The mixing of warm and cold currents helps
to replenish the oxygen and favour the
• Ocean currents have a number of direct and growth of planktons, the primary food for
indirect influences on human activities. fish population.
• West coasts of the continents in tropical and • The best fishing grounds of the world exist
subtropical latitudes (except close to the mainly in these mixing zones.
equator) are bordered by cool waters.
• Their average temperatures are relatively
low with a narrow diurnal and annual range.
There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.
• West coasts of the continents in the middle
and higher latitudes are bordered by warm
waters which cause a distinct marine
climate. They are characterized by cool
summers and relatively mild winters with a
narrow annual range of temperatures.
• Warm currents flow parallel to the east
coasts of the continents in tropical and
subtropical latitudes.
• This results in warm and rainy climates.
These areas lie in the western margins of the
subtropical anti-cyclones.
SARGASSO SEA
• The Sargasso Sea is a vast patch of ocean

named for a genus of free-floating seaweed
called Sargassum.
• It is a region of the North Atlantic Ocean
bounded by four currents forming an ocean gyre.
• Sargassum provides a home to an amazing
variety of marine species. Turtles use • Twice a day, about every 12 hours and 26
sargassum mats as nurseries where minutes, the sea level rises, and it falls twice
hatchlings have food and shelter. a day.
• Sargassum also provides essential habitat • The rise of sea level is called the flood tide,
for shrimp, crab, fish, and other marine and the fall is called the ebb tide. This occurs
species that have adapted specifically to this mainly due to the gravitational interaction of
floating algae. the earth, the sun, and the moon; along with
• The Sargasso Sea is a spawning site for this, the earth's rotation also has an impact
threatened and endangered eels, as well as on the way tides are formed.
the white marlin, porbeagle shark, and • The movements of water caused by
dolphin fish. meteorological effects (winds and
• Humpback whales annually migrate through atmospheric pressure changes) are called
the Sargasso Sea. Commercial fish, such as surges. Surges are not regular like tides.
tuna, and birds also migrate through the
Sargasso Sea and depend on it for food. Causes of Tides
• While all other seas in the world are defined
at least in part by land boundaries, the • Tides are produced by the gravitational pull
Sargasso Sea is defined only by ocean of both the Sun and the Moon. Their
currents. gravitational pull tugs on Earth’s
• The Gulf Stream establishes the Sargasso atmosphere, oceans, and lithosphere; as a
Sea's western boundary, while the Sea is result, all experience some stretching.
further defined to the north by the North • To a greater extent, the moon’s gravitational
Atlantic Current, to the east by the Canary pull and to a lesser extent, the sun’s
Current, and to the south by the North gravitational pull are the major causes of the
Atlantic Equatorial Current. occurrence of tides.
• Since this area is defined by boundary • Another force that acts complimentary to
currents, its borders are dynamic, the gravitational force is the centrifugal
correlating roughly with the Azores High- force.
Pressure Center for any particular season. • The centrifugal force acts in the direction
opposite to the gravitational pull of the
planets. Tides are a result of the continuous
balance of all these forces.
OCEAN TIDES • Influenced by the moon’s gravitational pull,
the oceans towards the side of the moon are
pulled toward it, making the first tidal bulge
• Seawater is not stationary but rises and falls
(high tide).
twice a day at constant intervals. This
• At the same time, the ocean water on the
periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once
opposite side of Earth experiences an
or twice a day, is called a tide.
outward-flying force called the centrifugal
force of inertia and forms the other tidal
bulge.
• Troughs (low tides) occupy the sides of Earth Diurnal tides

midway between the two tidal bulges. As • A diurnal tidal cycle is a cycle with only one
Earth rotates on its axis each day, these high and low tides each day.
bulges and troughs sweep across Earth’s • Diurnal tidal cycles can be found in the Gulf
surface. of Mexico and on the East coast of the
Kamchatka Peninsula.
Important terms:
✓ Tidal Currents: The movement of water Mixed tides
with the rising and falling tide creates tidal • A mixed tidal cycle is a cycle with two high
currents. and low tides with different sizes each lunar
✓ Flood Currents: The movement of the day.
water as the tide rise creates a current • The difference in height between successive
called the flood current. high (or low) tides is called diurnal
✓ Ebb Current: The current during the inequality.
backwash or the fall of a tide is called the • Areas with a mixed tidal cycle can be found
ebb current. alongside the West coast of the USA, in parts
✓ Slack water or slack tides occur during the of Australia, and in South East Asia.
transition between incoming high and
outgoing low tides when there is no net Classification based on the height of the tides
water movement.
• The high tide fluctuates significantly based
• The strength of a tidal current depends on on the sun's and moon's positions in relation
the volume of water and the area through to the earth.
which the water flows. A large tidal volume • These results in two types of tides: the spring
moving through a large area may create only and the neap tides.
a weak tidal current.
• On the other hand, a narrow area may Spring Tides
produce a strong tidal current even if the • We know that the tidal height is directly
tidal volume is small. Tidal bores occur related to the location of the sun and moon
where rivers meet the ocean. with respect to the earth.
• If the incoming tidal current is stronger than • The tide will be higher when the sun, moon,
the river outflow, the tidal bore appears as a and earth are all in a straight line.
wave or moving wall of water that moves up • Spring tides happen twice a month, once
the river as the tide comes in. during the full moon and again during the
new moon.
Classification based on frequency
Neap tides
Semi-diurnal tide • The solar tidal force partially cancels the
• The semi-diurnal tidal pattern features two Moon's gravitational force.
high tides and two low tides every day. The • Although the Moon's attraction is more than
successive high or low tides are twice as strong as the sun's, the
approximately of the same height. This is the counteracting force of the sun's gravitational
most common form of tides. pull weakens it.
• They have a period of 12 hours and 25 • These tides occur at certain times in the
minutes and a wavelength of more than half lunar cycle when the range of the tide is at
the circumference of Earth. its smallest. The spring and neap tides are
• It is also the type of tidal cycle one could separated by seven days in most cases.
expect from a planet covered entirely with • These tides occur twice a month, just as
water and without any continents spring tides.
obstructing the free motion of water.
Importance of Tides • Desilting: As rivers combine with the ocean,

they deposit a lot of silt in their mouths.
• Ship navigation: Tides play a critical part in These silts obstruct the free flow of water
ship navigation. They assist by enabling from rivers, rendering them impossible.
some rivers to become accessible for ocean- • Using Tides to Generate Electricity: Tides
going vessels. They aid ships in simply are a mechanical movement of water that
approaching the harbor as well as during can be used to generate electricity. Tidal
docking. energy is a good non-renewable energy
• Fishing: High tides are a fisherman's dream. source.
During high tide, the fish get closer to the
coast, and this helps the fishers with a better
catch.
the Mediterranean is warmer than that of

the Atlantic.
THE TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATER • Prevailing winds: The prevailing winds
displace the upper surface of the ocean
water, so that the cooler water from below
• Water has higher specific heat than land. As comes up. Hence, the temperature in some
a result, water is heated by the sun's rays places decreases.
much more slowly than land is. • Ocean currents: Warm current such as Gulf
• It also loses heat slower than land. The Stream raise the temperature of north-east
warmth of the ocean water is known as the Atlantic. Cold currents decrease the temperature
temperature of ocean water. such as that by Kurile current near the Siberian
coast.
• Presence of icebergs: The presence of
Factors affecting temperature distribution of icebergs in the temperate seas, sometimes,
oceans lowers the temperature and causes variation
of temperature in ocean water.
• Latitudinal difference: In general, the
temperature of the ocean water decreases as
one move away from the equator toward the The Vertical and horizontal distribution of
poles. The maximum temperatures are found temperature in ocean water
on the equator. Towards the poles,
temperature decreases. Horizontal distribution of temperature
• The difference in depth: The temperature of • The temperature of the surface water of the
ocean water decreases with depth. But the ocean is not the same everywhere. It
rate of decrease of temperature is not equal decreases away from the equator. The
at all depths. The temperature structure of annual average temperature at equator is
oceans over middle and low latitudes can be 26.7°C : it decreases from the equator
described as a three-layer system from the towards poles viz., at 20° latitude, it is 22°C ;
surface to the bottom (discussed later). at 40° latitude, it is 14°C and at 60° latitude,
• Location of submarine rides: The submarine it is 0°C near the poles.
• The highest temperatures are recorded in
ridges do not allow the mixing of water at
depths in adjacent areas. It affects the the enclosed tropical seas. The Red Sea has
temperature of ocean water. Example: There an average summer temperature of 30°C.
• The annual range of temperature is greater
is a submarine ridge in the Strait of Gibraltar
in North Africa for which cold waters of the in the Atlantic than in the Pacific Ocean. It is
Atlantic Ocean do not pass freely into the also greater in the northern hemisphere
Mediterranean Sea. As a result, the water of than in the southern hemisphere. It is due to
the difference of size and due to the large
expanse of sea-water.
✓ The third layer is very cold and

Vertical distribution of temperature extends up to the deep ocean
• The maximum temperature is at the surface. floor. In the Arctic and Antarctic
This is because it receives the direct solar circles, the surface water
insolation. temperatures are close to 0° C,
• The water temperature decreases with so the temperature change
depth. with the depth is very slight.
❖ The rate of decrease of temperature is not Here, only one layer of cold
equal at all depths. water exists, extending from
❖ The temperature structure of oceans over the surface to the deep ocean
middle and low latitudes can be described as a floor.
three-layer system from the surface to the
bottom.
✓ The first layer represents the Influence of ocean water temperature
top layer of warm oceanic • The temperature of ocean water
water, and it is about 500m influences the weather and climate of the
thick with temperatures coastal areas.
ranging between 20° and 25° C. • Winds passing over the warm ocean
Within the tropical region, this water absorb abundant water vapor.
layer is present throughout the When they reach the on-shore regions,
year, but in mid-latitudes, it they offer plenty of rain.
develops only during summer. • The warm and cold ocean currents
✓ The second layer, called the meeting often creates fog, storms, and
thermocline layer, lies below cyclones. It often hinders navigation
the first layer and is • Warm ocean currents keep ports,
characterized by the rapid harbors, and coastal areas of the cold
decrease in temperature with temperate region ice-Free. It facilitates
increasing depth. The navigation even in winter.
thermocline is 500 -1,000 m • Ships and ocean vessels cannot ply in
thick. when the ocean water temperature
drops below the freezing point. Icebergs
in the ocean are dangerous for marine life. It favors the development of
navigation. fishing grounds.
• The meeting of warm and cold currents in
the temperate oceans favors the growth
of plankton, the food of the sea fish, and
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATER there is an increase in the density of

water and consequently increasing
the salinity of the top layer. This is
• The ocean water is never stagnant; it moves one of the reasons for high salinity in
horizontally and vertically under gravity, the tropics. On the other hand,
density, temperature, and salinity. precipitation adds freshwater to the
oceans, reducing their salinity.
• Temperature and salinity are the key factors
2. The Stream Run-Off: The runoff
determining ocean water density. The salinity
from the rivers adds more
of open oceans is approximately 35 parts per
freshwater to the oceans. This
thousand, which means that there are 35gm
reduces the salinity of the ocean
of dissolved salts in each 1000gm of seawater
water near the shores.
in most marine areas.
3. Freezing and Melting of Ice: Ice
• The salinity of the ocean is measured as a
melting also adds fresh waters to the
cumulative of all the salts which are dissolved
ocean. This phenomenon is more
in the ocean. However, the major component
evident specifically around the poles
of it is sodium chloride.
and has aggravated due to climate
• The major dissolved ions in seawater are
change.
those that exist at concentrations of at least
4. Atmospheric pressure and wind
1mg/kg . The share of dissolved salts are:
direction: Winds also help in the
1. Sodium chloride - 77
redistribution of salt in the seas as
2. magnesium chloride - 10
winds drive away saline water to
3. Magnesium sulfate - 4.7
lesser saline areas.
4. Calcium sulfate -3.6
5. Movement of seawater: Under the
5. Potassium sulfate -2.5
influence of oceanic currents, the
• Salinity plays a very important role in the
salinity of the ocean water gets
overall oceanic ecosystem. It determines
redistributed.
the absorption of insolation, it influences
the evaporation, effects the immediate Horizontal distribution of salinity
humidity, the temperature of the water
etc. • Latitudinal distribution: Generally, the
salinity decreases from the equator
Distribution of Salinity towards the poles. The highest salinity is
found around the tropics, where there is
• The salinity of oceans differs horizontally active evaporation due to the clear skies,
and vertically due to different reasons. high temperature, and consistent trade
The amount of salinity also varies from winds. On the other hand, heavy rainfall
one part of the ocean to another. around the equator is assisted by high
• There are five major reasons for the relative humidity, cloudiness, and
variations in salinity. These are relatively calm air of the doldrums.
1. The Difference between • Enclosed Seas: Enclosed seas such as the
evaporation and precipitation: Red Sea shows salinity levels up to 42 per
Evaporation of water reduces the thousand due to dry climate and high
water component from the saline evaporation. In enclosed seas, areas of
water of the oceans. As a result, inland drainage, salinity reaches up to 200
ppt, e.g., Dead Sea, Caspian Sea, and the • As we move vertically deeper, the salinity
Persian Gulf. remains fixed because there is no salt added
• Inland Seas and Lakes: Some of the inland or water lost. The salinity is also a function of
seas/lakes like the Salt Lake, the Dead density; therefore, lower salinity water rests
Sea, and Lake Van of turkey have over denser water.
relatively high salinity as compared to the • Salinity generally increases with depth. Over
oceans. This is because of the constant a depth of 100-400m, there is a zone called
supply of salt from the rivers falling into the halocline, where the salinity increases
them. This is further aggravated due to distinctively. Below the halocline, the salinity
the continuous evaporation. stabilizes with marginal change.
• Freshwater inflow: Large Rivers just as • High salinity seawater generally sinks below,
the Amazon, Ganga-Brahmaputra, leading to the vertical circulation of ocean
Yangtze, Mississippi, and many others can water.
also additionally make the sea less saline
by diluting the content of salt by draining
freshwater. In the Baltic Sea, freshwater
enters from the surrounding land and
reduces the salinity of this area to 7 per
thousand.
• Polar Regions and Western Parts of
Northern Hemisphere: The freezing and
thawing of ice additionally influence
salinity. The thawing of big icebergs will
lower the salinity whilst the freezing of
seawater will increase the salinity
temporarily.
Vertical Circulation of Ocean Water

• The upper layer of the oceans experiences
the maximum change in their salinity,
because of its changing
• environment, like the influx of freshwater,
subjection to evaporation, melting of ice etc.
STUDYIQ.COM CORAL REEFS 15
CORAL REEFS
• The Great Barrier Reef in Australia, the
• Coral reefs are marine landforms formed by largest coral reef is more than 1,500 miles
the continuous accumulation of skeletons of long.
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) of coral polyps. • Unfortunately, coral reefs are now among
• Coral polyps or corals are lime secreting the most threatened ecosystems due to
marine micro-organisms that live unprecedented global warming and climate
individually or in large colonies comprising change with anthropogenic pressures.
a coral reef. • Corals are translucent marine organism
• Submerged rocks or other hard surfaces that satisfies their nutritional requirement
provide a place for corals to attach and serve in following ways:
as habitat for many coral reef animals. o The majority of reef-building corals have
• Coral reefs cover less than 0.1% of the a unique relationship with microscopic
world’s ocean surface area but are home to algae known as zooxanthellae.
a one-fourth of all marine life. ▪ The algae live within the coral polyps
• They create the most diverse and richest and use energy from the sun to
ecosystem of the ocean; hence, they are produce sugar.
popularly known as the rainforest of the ▪ This energy is transferred to the
ocean. polyp, nourishing it in a crucial way.
• Corals are present in all oceans, but the ▪ In return, coral polyps provide
largest coral reefs are primarily located in carbon dioxide and a protective
the clear, shallow waters of the tropics and environment for algae.
subtropics. o In addition to feeding on plankton,
• Due to the warm, tropical region in India, corals also consume zooplankton.
corals thrive in the Indian Ocean.
• These reefs not only provide sanctuary to a
vast ecosystem but also protect the
coastlines from eroding.
▪ Planktons: They are a diverse group o Lagoons: A lagoon is a shallow body

of aquatic organism’s incapable of of water separated from a larger
swimming against the current.
Phytoplankton are planktons that
obtain energy from photosynthesis.
They are an essential food source for
numerous aquatic animal species,
such as fish and whales.
▪ Zooplanktons: They are crustaceans,
rotifers, open-water insect larvae,
and aquatic mites. The zooplankton
community includes both primary
consumers, which consume free-
floating algae, and secondary
consumers, which consume other
zooplankton. body of water by a narrow landform
o At night, coral polyps emerge from their • They are found sometimes many kilometers
skeletons to feed, extending their long, from shore (10–100km).
venomous tentacles to capture passing • Barrier reefs can grow in fairly deep water,
animals. The polyps pull prey into their because, often, the living coral builds upon
mouths and digest it in their stomachs. remains of corals that grew in the same area
• Just as there are different types of corals. when sea level was lower, during the last ice
The three main types of reefs are: age.
o Fringing reefs, • The Great Barrier Reef of Australia extends
o Barrier reefs, about 2,010 km parallel to the east coast.
o Atolls and
Atolls
o Patch reefs.
• Atolls grow surrounding (or partly ring) an
Fringing reefs
island which then sinks relative to sea level
• It is most common reef among all three. (usually because volcanic activity forming
• Fringing reefs are coral reefs that grow in the island stops), or was flooded as sea level
shallow waters. rose after the last ice age.
• They closely border the coastline or are • Atolls surround (or partly surround) a central
separated from it by a narrow stretch of lagoon.
water. • The Maldives consists of 26 atolls.
• They develop along the continental margins.
Patch reefs:
• Many of the reefs round Sri Lanka and
Thailand are fringing reefs. ▪ They are small, isolated reefs that grow up
• They have their seaward side sloping steeply from the open bottom of the island
into the deep sea. platform or continental shelf.
▪ They usually occur between fringing reefs
Barrier reefs and barrier reefs.
▪ They vary greatly in size, and they rarely
• Barrier reefs grow parallel to the coast, but
reach the surface of the water.
are separated from land by a lagoon.
Ideal conditions for coral growth

Exposure to the Sun
Ideal Water Temperatures • Sunlight is how corals get their oxygen,
• The ideal temperature coral reefs need to and many of the diverse ecosystems that
survive is between 65-90 degrees live within its depths also require steady
Fahrenheit, and even slight rises in sunlight to live.
temperature can stress the animals out.
• Optimum temperature to grow A Healthy Balance of Salt Water
between 73° and 84° • It’s not just an ocean that coral reefs need
Fahrenheit. to help balance their delicate ecosystem.
• Some can tolerate • The saltwater balance in their ocean
temperatures as high as 104° environments needs to maintain a specific
Fahrenheit for short periods. ratio for the coral to be fully healthy.
• This causes coral bleaching, which turns • Most reef-building corals also require very
corals white and potentially leads to saline (salty) water ranging from 32 to 42
death. parts per thousand.
Clean Water Food

• Corals and other organisms such as • Coral, like every living creature, needs
zooxanthellae that rely on corals also need food to survive.
unpolluted water to thrive. • Most reef-building corals contain
• Clear water has more sunlight penetration. photosynthetic algae, called
• An imbalance (acidic or basic) in their zooxanthellae, which live in their tissues.
delicate ecosystem can have harmful • The corals and algae have a unique
results. relationship. The coral provides the algae
with a protected environment and • Coral bleaching process has accelerated

compounds they need for photosynthesis. because of anthropogenic pressures like
• In return, the algae produce oxygen and increased greenhouse emissions, marine
help the coral to remove wastes. pollution, etc.
• Most importantly, zooxanthellae supply • As per United Nation:
the coral with food. The algae need light in o 70% of the Earth's coral reefs are
order to produce food via photosynthesis. threatened,
o 26% are at risk due to longer-term
Water Circulation threats,
• Because the surrounding water o 24% are under imminent risk of
temperature is crucial to a coral’s collapse, and
livelihood, proper water circulation is o 20% have been destroyed with no
necessary to maintain a balanced hope for recovery.
environment. • Causes of coral bleaching:
• The need for water circulation is especially 1. Ocean acidification.
true in places where the sun beats down 2. Rise in seawater temperature (as
directly or in aquariums that have coral on little as 2 degrees Fahrenheit—can
display. cause coral to drive out algae).
• This is because the ocean’s natural current 3. Marine pollution.
and stream allow the water to stay at a 4. Increased sedimentation (rain can
balanced temperature year-round. rapidly dilute ocean water and
runoff can carry pollutants).
Coral Bleaching 5. Increased water turbidity (reduces
light).
• Under stress conditions, the 6. Chemical pollution.
Zooxanthellae algae are expelled from the 7. Infectious Disease (The penetration
corals, and they turn white. This of bacteria such as Vibrio shiloi
phenomenon is called coral bleaching. inhibits zooxanthellae
• Corals at times manage to recover from photosynthesis. These
bleaching when the stress conditions are microorganisms become more
not so severe. potent as sea temperatures rise.)
8. Extreme low tides as coral exposure to
the air during extreme low tides
Services provided by Coral Reefs

Provisioning services:
• Support human life and livelihood (nearly 500Mn people depended- directly or indirectly)
• Primary source of protein for over 1 billion people.
• Used as medicine both in traditional and allopathic.
• Raw material for ornaments, jewelry, and aquarium.
Regulating services:
• Protect the shoreline; acts as a physical barrier against tidal surges.
• Prevent coastal erosion, flooding, and loss of infrastructure.
Supporting services:
• Indicator of the health of the global ecosystem.
• It is a natural barrier to strong ocean currents and other extreme weather phenomena.
Cultural services:
• Promotes tourism.
• An important recreational site for nature lovers, photographers, and scuba divers.
Corals and Zooxanthellae • Sugars, lipids (fats) and oxygen are some
of the products of photosynthesis which
• Coral polyps, which are animals, and the Zooxanthellae cells produce.
Zooxanthellae, the plant cells that live • The coral polyp then uses these products
within them, have a mutualistic to grow and carry out cellular respiration.
relationship. • The tight recycling of products between
• Coral polyps produce carbon dioxide and the polyp cells and the Zooxanthellae is
water as byproducts of cellular the driving force behind the growth and
respiration. productivity of coral reefs.
• The Zooxanthellae cells use the carbon
dioxide and water to carry out
photosynthesis.
RESOURCES FROM OCEAN

Ocean deposits • The greater part of the deposits on the
continental shelf and slopes is derived
• Included in ocean deposits are the from
unconsolidated sediments, derived from
o rock material let loose by
various sources, deposited on the seafloor. disintegration and decomposition by
• Sediments resulting from the weathering the agents of weathering and carried
and erosion of continental rocks are to sea by the agents of erosion, such
carried to the oceans by rivers, winds, and as running water, wind, etc.
other means.
• The larger particles of the terrigenous
• Volcanic eruptions also provide deposits are found near the shore and the
sediments. In addition, the decomposition finer ones carried deeper.
and decay of marine organisms (both
• On the basis of size of particles, the
plants and animals) contribute sediments
terrigenous deposits may be categorized
to ocean deposits.
into three classes—
Classifications of Ocean deposits 1. Mud,
• The ocean deposits can broadly be divided 2. Sand,
into two types— 3. Gravel
o The terrigenous deposits and • Mud refers to the finest particles which
o The pelagic deposits. comprise the minute particles of rock-
Terrigenous Deposits forming minerals, principally quartz.
• Murray has classified the mud deposits
• The terrigenous deposits are those which based on the colour of constituents into:
are found on the continental shelves and o blue,
slopes. o green, and
• Mainly consist of the rock material derived o red types.
because of wear and tear. • Sand refers to the coarser particles, while
o These wear and tear of land and gravel has even bigger particles.
volcanic and organic products.
• Volcanic Products: In volcanic regions the 1. Organic Material:

deposits of continental shelf and slope ✓ This is in the form of a kind of
consist chiefly of products of volcanism, liquid mud, called ooze, which
which are subject to chemical and contains shells and skeletons of
mechanical weathering and are carried to various marine organisms.
the ocean by actions of running water and ✓ The ooze is said to be calcareous
wind. The volcanic deposits differ from the when the shell is made of
ordinary terrigenous deposits in one calcium carbonate.
respect—they are made of pyroclastic ✓ Most parts of the Indian and
volcanic products and lava, rather than Atlantic Oceans have calcareous
quartz. ooze as deposits.
• Organic Products: Such deposits consist of ✓ When the shell is composed of
shells and skeletons of various plants and silica, the ooze is referred to as
animals that live and grow on the sea floor siliceous ooze, which may be of
and are changed into mud and sand by the diatom or radiolarian variety.
chemical and mechanical processes. They ✓ The siliceous type of ooze can be
differ from the ordinary terrigenous found on the southern margins
deposits in the sense that they consist of of the Indian and Atlantic
calcium carbonate only. Oceans.
2. Inorganic Material:
Pelagic Deposits
✓ This is in the form of red clay,
• The pelagic deposits are those which are which is apparently of a volcanic
found over deep-sea plains and the deeps. origin.
• Pelagic deposits are the most conspicuous ✓ The chief constituents of red clay
of all deposits—covering about 75% of the are silicon and aluminum
total sea floor. dioxide, while other constituents
• This is because, except for fine volcanic include iron, manganese,
ash, little terrigenous material is carried phosphorus, and radium.
into the deeps. ✓ Red clay is the most widely
• The pelagic deposits consist of both spread pelagic deposit and
organic and inorganic materials. covers 38% of the sea floor.
Mineral resources
Minerals
Fuel Metallic Non-metallic
• Fuel minerals like coal, oil, and natural gas o It is the pillar of modern civilization and
have been given prime importance as they the basis of fundamental industry.
account for nearly 87% of the value of • Nonmetallic minerals do not contain any
mineral production whereas metallic and metallic elements.
non-metallic constitute 6 to 7%. • Nonmetallic minerals are a distinct class of
• Major Resources chemical elements that cannot produce a
✓ Salt new substance when melted.
✓ Manganese or seawater Magnesia • Non-metallic minerals are either organic
✓ Polymetallic Nodules (such as fossil fuels, also known as mineral
✓ Cobalt fuels, which are derived from buried animal
✓ Pearl and plant matter) or inorganic (such as
✓ Sulfur found in the Gulf of Mexico mica, limestone, graphite, etc.), depending
✓ Diamond found in South Africa's on their origination.
Continental Shelf
✓ Monazite sand on Kerala shore
Energy resources
• After fossil fuels, metallic minerals are the Tidal Energy
second most important group of minerals.
• Utilizing the power of the ocean's tidal
They are contained within Archean rocks.
waves, tidal energy is produced. This supply
• Examples of important metallic minerals
has yet to be tapped due to a lack of cost-
include iron ore, copper, gold, zinc, silver,
effective technologies.
manganese, and chromite, among others.
• Ocean tides can be utilised to generate
They account for 7 percent of India's total
energy.
mineral value.
• Over inlets, floodgate dams are constructed.
• Metallic minerals are further divided into
ferrous and non-ferrous categories. • In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of
o The minerals containing iron Kachchh on the western coast of Gujarat,
(Chromites, Iron ore, and manganese) and the Gangetic delta in the Sunderban
are known as ferrous, while those districts of West Bengal offer ideal
without iron are known as non-ferrous conditions for the utilisation of tidal energy.
(lead, silver, gold, copper, bauxite, • The ocean energy potential of India is
etc.). estimated to be approximately 54 gigawatts
• Importance of Metallic Mineral: (GW) - tidal power (12.45 GW) and wave
o The standard of living of a country's power (41.3 GW)
inhabitants is determined by its • India intends to achieve 175 GW of installed
consumption of iron. capacity by 2022 and 450 GW by 2030.
Wave Energy Biotic Resources

• Wave energy is generated by converting the
• Biotic means alive and Abiotic means
energy within ocean waves (swells) into nonliving.
electricity. • Biotic resources of the seas
• There are many different wave energy include fishes, crustaceans, molluscs,
technologies being developed and trial led corals, reptiles and mammals etc.
to convert wave energy into electricity.
• Wave power is produced by the up and Planktons
down motion of floating devices placed on • Plankton is the diverse collection of
the surface of the ocean. organisms found in water that are unable to
• As the waves travel across the ocean, high- propel themselves against a current.
tech devices capture the natural
1. Phytoplankton’s – floating and
movements of ocean currents and the flow
drifting micro plants.
of swells to generate power. 2. Autotrophs
• The first wave energy, project with a 3. E.g.,- algae and diatoms
capacity of 150 MW, has been set up at 4. Zooplanktons– floating and
Vizhinjam near Trivandrum. drifting micro animals.
Current Energy Nektons

• Underwater turbines, large propellers • Nektons (or swimmers) are living organisms
tethered to the seabed, are moved with the that are able to swim and move
marine currents to generate electricity. independently of currents at various depths
of seas and oceans. Nekton include
Ocean Thermal Energy invertebrates such as shrimp and
vertebrates such as fishes, dolphin and Blue
• Oceans are huge heat reservoirs as they
whale.
cover almost 70% of Earth’s surface.
• The temperature difference between warm Fishes
surface waters and the cold deeper layers
can be used to generate steam and then • Pelagic fish live in the pelagic zone of ocean
power. or lake waters – being neither close to the
bottom nor near the shore
• The process of harnessing this energy is
• Demersal fish that live on or near the
called OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy bottom.
Conversion).
• It uses the temperature differences Benthos
between the surface of the ocean and the
depths of about loom to operate a heat • Benthos is the community of organisms that
engine, which produces electric power. live on, in, or near the seabed, also known
as the benthic zone.
Osmotic Energy • This community lives in from tidal pools
along the foreshore, out to the continental
• This technique produces energy from the shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths.
movement of water across a membrane • They live in or on the sediments at the
between a saltwater reservoir and a bottom. Benthos include sponges, clams,
freshwater reservoir. and sea stars.
• It is also called Salinity Gradient Energy.
Seaweeds
• Seaweeds are plankton which has high Mangrove Forest

nutritional values and can be used as
nutritional supplements for achieving • It is developed in the coastal region.
nutritional security. • It acts as a guard against sea storms, and
• It is also used in pharmaceuticals, textile, tides.
fodder, fertile, and biomass. • It controls soil erosion in the coastal areas.
• It will help to overcome food shortages with • It also provides fuel to human beings and
the growing population. the rich habitat of biodiversity.
STUDYIQ.COM
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 1
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 1
PROFILE
Particulars Description
Location • Located in entirely in Northern and Eastern Hemisphere.
• The Indian peninsula is separated from mainland Asia by the Himalayas.
• The Country is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the
west, and the Indian Ocean to the south.
Geographic • Lying entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, the country extends between 8° 4'
Coordinates and 37° 6' latitudes north of the Equator, and 68° 7' and 97° 25' longitudes east of
it.
• The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) passes through the upper middle section of the
subcontinent dividing it into two parts
Indian Standard • GMT + 05:30
Time • Due to India's vast longitudinal distance, different time zones observe a
difference in time.
• For example, sunrise occurs in Arunachal Pradesh (Easternmost State) two hours
before it reaches Kutch in Gujarat (Westernmost State).
• The longitude of Indian Standard Time is considered to be 82°30'E. (Passes
through Mirzapur).
Area • 3.3 million sq. km (7th Largest Country by Area)
• India measures 3,214 km (1,997 miles) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822
miles) from east to west.
• It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 miles)
Border • Afghanistan and Pakistan to the north-west.
Countries • China, Bhutan, and Nepal to the north.
• Myanmar to the east; and
• Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 2
• Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea, formed by Palk
Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
• The Maldives are island nations to the south of India.
Coastline • 7,516.5 km encompassing the mainland, Lakshadweep Islands, and the Andaman
& Nicobar Islands.
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the
Arabian Sea are parts of India.
Climate • The climate of India can broadly be classified as a tropical monsoon one.
• But, despite much of the northern part of India lying beyond the tropical zone,
the entire country has a tropical climate marked by relatively high temperatures
and dry winters.
• There are four seasons:
• Winter (December-February)
• Summer (March-June)
• South-west monsoon season (June-September)
• Post monsoon season (October-November)
Terrain The mainland comprises of four regions, namely:
• The Great Himalayan Ranges,
• Plains of the Ganga and the Indus,
• The desert region,
• The southern peninsula, and
• Coastal Plains.
Natural • Coal, iron ore, manganese ore, mica, bauxite, petroleum, titanium ore, chromite,
Resources natural gas, magnesite, limestone, arable land, dolomite, barytes, kaolin, gypsum,
apatite, phosphorite, steatite, fluorite, etc.
Natural • Monsoon floods,
Hazards • Flash floods,
• Earthquakes,
• Droughts,
• Avalanches,
• Cyclones,
• and Landslides.
Environment - • Air & Water pollution control,
Current Issues • Energy conservation,
• Solid waste management,
• Oil and gas conservation,
• Forest Fires,
• Forest conservation,
• Water Stress etc.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 3
Environment - • Rio Declaration on environment and development,

International • Cartagena Protocol on biosafety,
Agreements • Kyoto Protocol on reducing Greenhouse Gas (GHG)
• Helsinki Protocol to LRTAP on the reduction of Sulphur emissions of nitrogen
oxides or their transboundary fluxes (NOx Protocol), and
• Geneva Protocol to LRTAP concerning the control of emissions of volatile organic
compounds or their transboundary fluxes (VOCs Protocol).
INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 4
o Our southern neighbours across the sea

consist of the two island countries,
• India occupies an important strategic namely Sri Lanka and Maldives.
position in South Asia. • Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow
• India shares its land boundaries with channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and
o Pakistan and Afghanistan in the the Gulf of Mannar, while Maldives Islands
northwest, are situated to the south of the
o China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the Lakshadweep Islands.
north • India has had strong geographical and
o Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east historical links with neighbours.
A GLANCE OF INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS

Country: Afghanistan • Border Length- 106 km
Capital: Kabul • Official Languages – Dari, Pashto
• Currency – Afghan Afghani
• State/UTs sharing body: Ladakh (PoK)
• Border Line Name: DurandLine
Country: Bangladesh • Border Line – 4096.7 Km
Capital: Dhaka • Official Language – Bengali
• Currency – Bangladeshi Taka
• State/UTs sharing body: West Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and
Assam
• Border Line Name: Radcliffe Line
Country: Bhutan • Border Line – 699 km
Capital: Thimphu • Official Language – Dzongkha
• Currency – Ngultrum
• State/UTs sharing body: West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh & Assam
Country: China • Border Line – 3488 km
Capital: Beijing • Official Language – Mandarin
• Currency – Chinese Yuan
• State/UTs sharing body: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh
• Border Line Name: Line of Actual Control/McMohan Line
Country: Myanmar • Border Line – 1643 km
Capital: Yangon • Official Language – Burmese
• Currency – Burmese Kyat
• State/UTs sharing body: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and
Manipur
Country: Nepal • Border Line – 1751 km
Capital: Kathmandu • Official Language – Nepali
• Currency – Nepalese Rupee
• State/UTs sharing body: Bihar, Uttarakhand, UP, Sikkim and West Bengal
Country: Pakistan • Border Line – 3323 km
Capital: Islamabad • Official Language – Urdu
• Currency – Pakistani Rupee
• State/UTs sharing body: Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab, Rajasthan and
Gujarat
• Border Line Name: Radcliffe Line
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 5
Country: Sri Lanka • Border Line – Sea Border

Legislative Capital: Sri • Official Language – Sinhala, Tamil
Jayawardenepura Kotte • Currency – Sri Lankan Rupee
Executive Capital: • State/UTs sharing body: It is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar
Columbo
Country: Maldives • Border Line – Sea Border
Capital: Male • Official Language – Dhivehi
• Currency – Maldivian Rufiyaa
• State/UTs sharing body: It lies in the south-west part of India Ocean below
the Lakshadweep Island.
ROCK SYSTEM IN INDIA Sr. No Types Period on

Geological
• Major events in the geological history of Timescale
India:
o Peninsular India → Part of the old
01 The Early Precambrian
landmass since the formation of the
Archaean Eon (4 billion
Earth's Crust
Rock System years)
o The upheaval of the Himalayas in the
tertiary period.
o Aggradational formation of the Indo- 02 The Purana Late Precambrian
Gangetic plain during the Pleistocene Rock System (Proterozoic Eon)
period.
▪ It continues till today through 03 The 600-400 mya
sedimentation in the floodplains Dravidian (Coinciding with
of the rivers and the lower part of Rock System Palaeozoic)
the Gangetic plain.
• According to Sir T. Holland Indian rock 04 The Aryan 400 mya (present
system can be classified into following four Rock System time)
divisions:
The Archaean Rock System • J.D. Dana coined the term "Archaean" in
1782 to refer to the oldest rocks in the
• The earliest phase of tectonic evolution was earth's crust.
characterised by the cooling and • This system is further classified into two:
solidification of the upper crust of the o Achaean, Gneisses, and Schists
earth's surface during the Archaean era o Dharwar System: First Sedimentary
(prior to 2.5 billion years; Precambrian Rocks
Period), as evidenced by the exposure of
gneisses and granites, particularly on the Archaean Gneisses and Schists
Peninsula.
• Age: 4 billion years old.
• These constitute the heart of the Indian
• Oldest Rock.
Craton (Block of Indian Subcontinent of
• First rocks formed at the time of cooling and
Gondwanaland).
solidification of Upper Earth’s Crust (Earth
Surface).
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 6
• They are all azoic, thoroughly crystalline, o Containing gold mines lie
and have a well-defined foliated structure. within this system.
• These rocks didn’t contain fossils. o This champion system is
• Also known as “Basement” or named after the champion
“Fundamental Complex” since they form reef in the Kolar Gold Field
the base for new layers. (KGF) one of the deepest
• Foliated (consisting of thin sheets) gold mines in the world.
• Plutonic intrusions (volcanic rocks found • Other series of Dharwar rocks system:
deep inside). ➢ Champenar series: Found Near
• Gneiss: Most commonly found. Baroda. Sources of Lush green
o Found in mineral composition. And may variety of Marbles. Abundant in
vary from granite to gabro. quartzite, conglomerates,
o Also possesses a constant more or less phyllites, slates, and marbles
foliated or banded structure. (green variety)
• Schists: Mostly crystalline, including mica, ➢ Close pet series: Found in
talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc. Balaghat and Chindwada region
of MP. They are rich in copper
ore.
Dharwar System ➢ Chilpi series: found in and
around Closepet series of
• Age: 1 to 4 billion years old. Balaghat and Chindwada.
• Rocks were first studied in the Dharwar ➢ Iron ore series: Found in
district of Karnataka, where such rocks are Singhbum and Mayurbhanj and
found in Abundance. Keojhar ranges.
• Mostly metamorphosed sedimentary rock-
system. (Metamorphism of Archaean
Gneisses and Schists rocks) The Purana Rock System
• The major rocks of the Dharwar system are:
o hornblende, • Includes two divisions:
o schists, o The Cuddapah System and
o quartzite, o The Vindhyan System.
o phyllite slates, Cuddapah System
o crystalline limestone, and
o dolomites • Named after the Cuddapah district of
• Dharwar are considered the most precious Andhra Pradesh, due to the large
rock system economically because they development of outcrops of cudappah
possess valuable minerals like high-grade rocks.
iron ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, • When sedimentary rose like sandstone,
quartzite, slates etc. limestone and clay were deposited in
• These are the first metamorphic synclinal folds between two mountain
sedimentary rocks in India. ranges.
• Places where they found: • Found mainly in the Cuddapah region of
➢ Aravali, Tamil Nadu, Chota Andhra Pradesh.
Nagpur plateau, Meghalaya, • Also found in Delhi, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh,
Delhi, Himalayas. and lesser Himalayas.
➢ Champion series rocks: • The Cuddapah system is separated from the
Dharwar system by a great unconformity.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 7
• These rocks contain ores of iron, • They are sedimentary rocks, and abundant
manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc. fossils can be found in them.
• They contain large deposits of cement- • The rocks of the Cambrian, Ordovician,
grade limestones. Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
• They are rich in metamorphic rocks such as periods fall under the Dravidian system.
shale, slate, quartzite, etc. Even though o Carboniferous: coal-bearing.
metallic minerals like iron ore were found • The Dravidian system of geological
they were of poor quality. formations includes the rocks of the
following geological ages:
Vindhyan System
o The Cambrian System;
• This system derives its name from the great o The Ordovician Systems;
Vindhyan Mountains. o The Silurian System;
• The system comprises of ancient o The Devonian System (fossils &
sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick) corals) &
superimposed on the Archaean base. o The Carboniferous Systems (Lower &
• They are mostly unfossiliferous (Do not Middle Carboniferous system).
contain Fossils) Cambrian rocks
• A large area of this belt is covered by the
Deccan Traps. • Age: 600 million years
• The Vindhyan system has diamond-bearing • Named after Cambria Latin name of Wales
regions from which Panna and Golconda in Great Britain.
diamonds have been mined. • These include slate, clays, quartzites and
• It is devoid of metalliferous minerals but limestones.
provides large quantities of durable stones, • Best developed in North-west Himalayan
ornamental stones, limestone, pure region.
glassmaking sand, etc. • In the Spiti valley of Himachal Prades, there
• The evidence of fissile microorganisms is an extensive found named as Haimanta
found in these structures. System.
• These structures is famous for house boiling
Carboniferous rocks
rocks like Sanchi Stupa, Red Fort, Jama
Masjid etc built with red sandstone of this • Age: 350 million years
structure. • Comprise mainly of limestone, shale and
quartzite.
• Mount Everest is composed of Upper
The Dravidian Rock System Carboniferous limestones.
• Coal formation started in the Carboniferous
• Age: 600 – 300 million years ago. age.
• Formed during the Paleozoic era. Not much • Most of the coal found in India is not of the
abundant in India. Carboniferous period; High-quality coal in
• Found in the extra-Peninsular region (the the Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K, and Ruhr
Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are very region is Carboniferous coal.
rare in Peninsular India. (The name
‘Dravidian’ doesn’t mean they are found in
South India).
The Aryan Rock System
• They are found in extra - Peninsular
regions of the Himalayas and the Gangetic • The Aryan Group, which marks the
plains. beginning of the Upper Carboniferous
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 8
period, has reached the threshold of the shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and in
final, longest, and most eventful era, which Kutch.
stretches from the Upper Carboniferous to o Marine transgression: sea level rises
the recent. as compared to land and shoreline
• The Aryan rock system in India has the moves towards ground or land which
following four systems: result in a flood.
o Gondwana rock system • Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates
o Jurassic Rock System and shales occur in Kutch.
o Cretaceous system/ Deccan Trap • Another transgression on the east coast of
o Tertiary rock system the Peninsula is found between Guntur and
Rajahmundry.
Gondwana System
Deccan Trap
• The Gondwana System (derives its name
Gonds, tribes from Telangana and Andhra • The volcanic outburst over a vast area of
Pradesh) Peninsular India from the end of the
• Consist of Sandstone with some shades of Cretaceous till the beginning of the Eocene
Clays. gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• They are deposits laid down in synclinal • Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering
troughs on ancient plateau surface. a vast area of about ten lakh km2.
• As the sediments accumulated, the loaded • These volcanic deposits have a flat top and
troughs subsided. steep sides and therefore called ‘trap’
• Freshwater and sediments accumulated in meaning a ‘stair’ or ‘step’ in Swedish.
these trough and terrestrial plants and • The process of weathering and erosion
animals thrived. (denudation) for millions of years has
• This happened since the Permian period reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of
(250 million years ago). its original size.
• Main Areas: • At present Deccan Traps covers about 5 lakh
o Peninsular areas along Damodar km2 mainly in parts of Kutch, Saurashtra,
Valley in Jharkhand, Maharashtra, the Malwa plateau and
o Mahanadi river valley in Chattisgarh northern Karnataka.
and • The thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000
o Odisha and also in south part of MP. metres along the west which is reduced to
600-800 metres towards the south, 800
Gondwana Coal
metres in Kutch and only 150 metres at the
• Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per cent eastern limit.
of India’s coal reserves. • The weathering of these rocks for a long
• Gondwana coal is much younger than the time has given birth to black cotton soil
Carboniferous coal, and hence its carbon known as regur.
content is low.
• They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper,
uranium and antimony.
• Sandstones, slates and conglomerates are
used as building materials.
Jurassic System
• The marine transgression in the latter part

of the Jurassic gave rise to a thick series of
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 9
The Deccan Trap has been divided into three

groups: The Himalayas & It’s Origin
• “Himalaya” means “house of snow”.
Group Found in Inter- Layers • Highest of all fold mountains of the
trappean of world.
beds volcanic • The youngest mountain chain in the
ash world.
• The Pamir Knot, connects the Himalayas
The Upper Maharashtra Present Present with the high ranges of central Asia
Trap and • Series of several parallel or converging
Saurashtra ranges.
• The ranges are separated by deep valleys
The Middle Central India Very rare Present creating a highly dissected topography.
Trap and Malwa to • The southern slopes have steep
absent gradients, Northern slopes have
comparatively gentler slopes.
The Lower Madhya Present Very • Formation
Trap Pradesh rare to o The Himalayan mountain range
absent and Tibetan plateau have formed
as a result of the collision between
the Indian Plate and Eurasian
Plate which began between 40 and
Tertiary System 50 million years ago and continues
• Eocene to Pliocene approximately sixty to today.
o Himalayan mountains have come
seven million years ago.
out of a great geosyncline called
• Two events define this period: the final
the Tethys Sea and that the uplift
fragmentation of the old Gondwana
has taken place in different
landmass and the ascent of Tethys
phases.
geosynclines or the Himalayas.
o During the Permian Period (250
• The Tertiary is the most significant period in
million years ago), Pangaea existed
India's geological history because it is when as a supercontinent.
the Himalayas and India's current form o Its northern portion, known as
emerged. Laurasia, Angaraland, or
• Tertiary Succession is completely dispersed Laurentia, was comprised of
across the Bengal and Ganges delta, the contemporary North America and
East coast, and the Andaman Islands. Eurasia (Europe and Asia).
• They are also found in the Salt Range, o The present-day continents of
Potwar Plateau, outer Himalayan regions of South America, Africa, South India,
Jammu and Punjab, Assam, Sind, and Australia, and Antarctica
comprised the southern portion of
Baluchistan, as well as the Salt Range and
Pangaea. This continent was
Potwar Plateau.
known as Gondwanaland.
• Notable rock formations include the o The Tethys Sea was a long, narrow,
Karewas of Kashmir, the Bhangra and and shallow body of water that
Khadar of the Gangetic plains, and others. existed between Laurasia and
Gondwanaland (Continental Drift
Theory).
THE HIMALAYAS o There were numerous rivers
draining into the Tethys Sea (some
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 10
of the Himalayan rivers were older moving northwards at the rate of

than the Himalayas themselves). about five cm per year and
o These rivers carried sediments crashing into the rest of Asia).
that were deposited on the floor o And the folded sediments, after a
of the Tethys Sea. great deal of erosional activity,
o Due to the northward motion of now form the Himalayas.
the Indian Plate, these sediments o Tibetan plateau was formed by the
have been subjected to intense upthrusting of the Eurasian Plate's
compression. This resulted in southern block.
sediments being folded. o The Indo-Gangetic plain was
o Mount Everest's summit is formed by the consolidation of
composed of marine limestone alluvium carried down from the
from this ancient ocean, a fact that Himalayas by rivers.
is frequently used to illustrate this o The maximum force exerted at
process. both ends of the Indian Peninsula
o As the Indian plate began to during its northward drift is
descend beneath the Eurasian responsible for the southward
plate, these sediments became convexity of the Himalayas' shape.
more folded and elevated. This
procedure is still ongoing (India is
NORTH SOUTH DIVISION OF THE HIMALAYAS

1. The Trans-Himalayas
2. The Greater Himalayas
3. The Lesser Himalayas
4. The Shiwaliks
5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 11
The Trans Himalayas • K2 is the second highest peak in the

• Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because world and highest in the Indian
most of it lies in Tibet. Territory.
• Average elevation 3000 m • K2 as Godwin Austen by the Britishers
• Average width 40 km at the extremities and Qogir by the China.
and about 225 km in the central part. • Siachen, Baltoro, Biafo and Hisper
• It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 glacier are part of it.
km in the east-west direction. • Indus is southern limit of Karakoram
• Found only in the western part of the
Himalayas. Ladakh Range
• The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an • It lies to the north of the Leh & merges with
important range which is in The Zaskar the Kailash range in Tibet.
Range. • Situated in north of Indus Tsangpo suture
zone.
• Mt. Rakaposhi is highest peak.
Ranges in the Trans Himalayas • The important passes that lie to the north
The Karakoram Range east of Leh are- Kardung La, and Digar La.
• Ancient name was Krishnagiri. • It is the highest plateau of the Indian Union
• It forms India's frontiers with and has many tables like Aksai Chin and Soda
Afghanistan and China plains. This range is amalgamated with the
• Acts as watershed between India and Kailash range in Tibet.
Turkeminstan.
• It extends eastwards from the Pamir for Zaskar Range
about 800 km. • It separate from the great Himalayan Range
• The average width of this range is 120- near 80 E longitudes and runs parallel to it.
0
140 km. • The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is the highest

• It is the abode of some of the greatest point in the north-west
Glaciers of the world outside the Polar • Ladakh range is in the north of the Zaskar
Regions. range which runs parallel to it.
• Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 • Part of Tethys sea
m above mean sea level. • Average elevation of the 5,800 m.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 12
• The Rakaposhi-Haramosh is extension of the • This range is not continuous like great
Ladakh range to the northwest. Himalayas from west to east, but broken in
many ranges and known locally by
Kailash Range different names.
• It is a branch of the Ladakh range which is
situated in the western Tibet. IMPORTANT REGION
• Its average elevation is 5,500-6,000 m. RANGES OF LESSER
• Mount Kailash (6,714 m) is the highest peak HIMALAYAS
of this range.
• River Indus originates from the northern The Pir Panjal Range Jammu And Kashmir (The
slope of the Kailash range. Range is South of Kashmir
Valley)
The Greater Himalaya The Dhaola Dhar Himachal Pradesh
• Also Known as Himadri. Range
• Northernmost and the highest range. The Mussoorie Uttarakhand
• Average elevation 6000m Range
• Loftiest and most continuous mountain The Nag Tiba Range
range of the world.
Mahabharat Lekh Nepal
• Mount Everest, (8848 m), Kanchenjunga,
Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna peaks having
a height of more than 8000 m.
• The Greater Himalayas cover 2400 km. from The Siwalik
west to east with a width of about 120-190 • Southernmost range or the outer
km Himalayas.
• Formed much later than Himadri or
• The himadri range is snow-covered
Himachal.
throughout the year.
• It is separated from the Lesser Himalayas
• Glaciers example - the gangotri glacier, from
by flat bottomed valleys. “Upgiri” was the
which the river bhagirathi emerges and the
ancient name of this range.
yamunotri glacier, from which the river
yamuna emerges. • Formed due to folding of sediments.
• The Outer Himalayas make about a
continuous chain of more than 2400 km.
The Lesser or the Middle Himalayas or the
from the Indus gorge in the northwest to
Himachal the Brahmaputra in Assam
• Metamorphosed rocks formed due to • The height seldom exceeds 1300 m, and
violent thrust and compression. the width of Shivaliks is 10-50 km
• The average elevation is 4500 m. • Some broad valleys in between the
• Himachal or Middle Himalayas extends to Himachal and the Siwalik ranges, formed
2,400 km. Northeast to the southeast on due to drained away lakes of erstwhile
the northern limit of the Indian rivers.
subcontinent. Areas included are Ladakh, • These valleys are known as ‘duns’ in the
UTs of Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, west like Patli Dun, Kotli Dun, Dehradun
Indian Himachal, Nepal, and Bhutan and “duars” in the east like Haridwar.
• Eastern part- gentle slopes & covered with • As time passed, these temporary lakes
dense forests. assembled more and more
• South-facing slopes- very steep & devoid conglomerates. The conglomerates were
of any vegetation. well set at the bottom of the lakes.
• The north facing gentle slope of this range
is covered by dense vegetation.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 13
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills • The important mountain ranges of the

Purvanchal or Eastern Himalayas are:
• They are called Purvanchal because of • Patkai bum- international border
their location. b/w India & Myanmar
• Purvanchal hills are convex to the west. • Naga ranges- watershed b/w India &
• The Himalayas take a sudden southward Myanmar, Saramati is the highest
turn after crossing Dihang gorge in peak
Arunachal Pradesh and forms series of • Manipur hills – Loktak Lake, Barak
mountains located north to south. River
• Arunachal Pradesh is known for orchids, • Mizo (lushai) hills- blue mountain is
also called orchid state and land of the the highest peak
rising sun of India. • Tripura hills- ridges & valley
• The average height 500m to 3000 m. topography
• Inhabited by tribal groups practising jhum
cultivation. EAST WEST DIVISON OF HIMALAYAS
• Separated from each other by numerous
small rivers.
ON RIVER BASIS
1. Kashmir/ Punjab Himalayas: Between
• They run along the India-Myanmar
Indus and Satluj Rivers
Border extending from Arunachal Pradesh 2. Kumaon/ Himachal Himalayas: Between
in the north to Mizoram in the south. Satluj and Kali Rivers
• Located in southern Arunachal Pradesh, 3. Central/Nepal Himalayas: Between Kali
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and and Kosi Rivers
Meghalaya. 4. Sikkim Himalayas: Between Kosi and Tista
• Further south the Barail Range swings to Rivers
west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills 5. Assam/Eastern Himalayas: Between Tista
which are an eastward continuation of and Brahmaputra Rivers
the Indian peninsular block. They are
separated from the main block by Ganga
and Brahmaputra rivers.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 14
Kashmir Himalayas (also called Punjab • Some important duns Chandigarh-Kalka

Himalayas) dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun
and the Kota dun, etc.
• North-eastern part is a cold desert, which • Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns
lies between the Greater Himalayas and with an approximate length of 35-45 km
the Karakoram ranges. and a width of 22-25 km.
• The range stretches for 700km in length • ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this
and 500 km in width. It has a height of region.
3000 m with a large number of glaciers. • Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath,
• Between Zaskar and the Pir Panjal range, Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib are also
Kashmir and Dal Lake is situated. situated in this part.
• Baltoro and Siachen are also found in this • Famous for five Prayags.
region. • The important passes are Rohtang pass,
• The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for Bara-Lacha, Shipki La, Thaga La, Muling
Karewa formations, popular for Zafran, a La, Mana, Mangsha Dhura, and Lipu Lekh.
local variety of saffron.
• Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial
clay and other materials embedded with
moraines.
• This area is famous for other dry fruit
cultivation.
• Important passes of the Kashmir
Himalayas:
o Pir panjal, Banihal,
o Zoji La, Burzil,
o Khardungla,
o Pensi- La,
o Saser- La,
o Lanak- La,
o Jara- La,
o Tasaka-La,
o Umasi-La and Qara-Tagh-La. Central/Nepal Himalayas
• The important snow-capped peaks are • East-Central section and highest part of
Nanda Devi, Trisul, Nunkun, Kamath and the Himalayan mountain ranges in south-
Nanga-Parbat central Asia,
• Extending some 500 miles (800 km) from
Himachal & Uttarakhand Himalayas the Kali River east to the Tista River.
(Kumaon Himalayas) • Nathu La and Jelep La are the important
• Satluj in the west and the Kali in east. passes in this region.
• The northern slopes of the Himachal • Important peaks
Himalayas are covered with thick forests, 1. Everest
plains, and lakes. 2. Kanchenjunga
• All three ranges of Himalayas are 3. Makalu
prominent in this section also. 4. Dhaulagiri
5. Manaslu,
• Hill stations such as Dharamshala,
6. Annapurna
Mussoorie, Shimla, Kausani and the
cantonment towns and health resorts such
as Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora,
Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 15
The Sikkim Himalayas • Mountain peaks of the region are Kangtu

and Namcha Baruwa.
• They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the • Dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the
west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east. north to the south,.
• It is relatively small but is a most significant • The Brahmaputra flows through a deep
part of the Himalayas, Known for its fast- gorge after crossing Namcha Baruwa.
flowing rivers such as Tista, it is a region of Kameng, the Subansiri, the Dihang, the
high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga Dibang and the Lohit.
(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys. • Perennial with the high rate of fall, thus,
• The higher reaches of this region are having the highest hydro-electric power
inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the potential in the country.
southern part, particularly the Darjeeling • Tribal communities inhabiting in the area
Himalayas, has a mixed population of e.g. Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and the
Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central Nagas.
India. • The important passes in this region are
Bomdi La, Yonggyap, Diphu, Pangsau, Tse La,
The Assam/Arunachal Himalayas Dihang, Debang, Tunga, and Bom La.
• Extend from the east of the Bhutan

Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the east.
• It occupies the state of Arunachal Pradesh in
India and Bhutan.
• On the southern border of Arunachal
Pradesh, it takes a southerly turn, and
ranges are arranged in a north-south
direction passing through Nagaland,
Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura, called
Purvanchal.
• In the west, the Purvanchal meets the
Meghalaya Plateau, and its extension of the
Myanmar mountain chain continues to the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Indonesian archipelago.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 1
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 2
EAST WEST DIVISON OF HIMALAYAS ON RIVER BASIS
1. Kashmir/ Punjab Himalayas: Between Indus and Sutlej Rivers
2. Kumaon/ Himachal Himalayas: Between Sutlej and Kali Rivers
3. Nepal Himalayas: Between Kali and Kosi Rivers
4. Sikkim Himalayas: Between Kosi and Tista Rivers
5. Assam Himalayas: Between Tista and Brahmaputra Rivers
Kashmir Himalayas (also called Punjab • The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for
Himalayas) Karewa formations, popular for Zafran, a
local variety of saffron.
• North-eastern part is a cold desert, which • Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial
lies between the Greater Himalayas and clay and other materials embedded with
the Karakoram ranges. moraines.
• Between Zaskar and the Pir Panjal range, Himachal & Uttarakhand Himalayas
Kashmir and Dal Lake is situated. (Kumaon Himalayas)
• Baltoro and Siachen are also found in this • Sutlej in the west and the Kali in east.
region. • All three ranges of Himalayas are
prominent in this section also.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 2
• Hill stations such as Dharamshala, The Sikkim Himalayas

Mussoorie, Shimla, Kausani and the
cantonment towns and health resorts such • Sikkim Himalaya is flanked by Nepal
as Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Himalayas in the west and Bhutan
Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc. Himalayas in the east.
• Some important duns Chandigarh-Kalka • It is relatively small but is a most significant
dun, Nalagarh Dun, Dehra Dun, Harike Dun part of the Himalayas, known for its fast-
and the Kota Dun, etc. flowing rivers such as Tista. It is a region of
• Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga
with an approximate length of 35-45 km (Kanchengiri), and deep valleys.
and a width of 22-25 km. • The higher reaches of this region are
• ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the
region. southern part, particularly the Darjeeling
• Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Himalayas, has a mixed population of
Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib are also Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central
situated in this part. India.
• Famous for five Prayags.
The Assam/Arunachal Himalayas
• Extend from the east of the Bhutan

Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the east.
• Mountain peaks of the region are Kangtu
and Namcha Barwa.
• Dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the
north to the south.
• The Brahmaputra flows through a deep
gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa.
Kameng, the Subansiri, the Dihang, the
Dibang and the Lohit are the main rivers.
Nepal Himalayas • Perennial with the high rate of fall, thus,
• East-Central section and highest part of having the highest hydro-electric power
the Himalayan mountain ranges in south- potential in the country.
central Asia. • Tribal communities inhabiting in the area
• Extending some 500 miles (800 km) from e.g., Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and the
the Kali River East to the Tista River. Nagas.
• Important peaks
1. Everest
2. Kanchenjunga
3. Makalu
4. Dhaulagiri
5. Manaslu
6. Annapurna
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 3
Sona Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal

Satopanth Kumaon-Garhwal
GLACIERS AND PASSES IN HIMALAYA Glacier
Sunderdhunga Kumaon-Garhwal
Glacier
Dokriani Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal
Glaciers of the Himalayas
Chorabari Kumaon-Garhwal
Name of Glacier Location
Glacier
Siachin Eastern Karakoram range in
Lonak North-east Himalayas
the Himalayas
Chhota Shigri Pir Panjal
Hispar Karakoram Trango Karakoram
Biafo Karakoram
Baltoro Karakoram
Rongbuk Kanchenjunga-Everest Passes in Himalaya
Chongo-Lungma Karakoram
• Jelep La Pass- This pass passes through the
Khurdaplo Karakoram
Chumbi valley. It connects Sikkim with Lhasa,
Lolofond Karakoram
the capital of Tibet.
Yarkand Rimo Karakoram
• Chang-La - It is a high mountain pass in the
Gangotri Kumaon-Garhwal
Greater Himalayas. It connects Ladakh with
Godwin Austen Karakoram
Tibet.
Pasu Karakoram
• Sela Pass – It is in Arunachal Pradesh
Zemu Kanchenjunga-Everest
• Kunzum Pass– It is in Himachal Pradesh
Chong Kumdan Karakoram
• Bara-La/ Bara- Lacha La - It is a high
Kanchenjunga Kanchenjunga-Everest
mountain pass in Zanskar range and
Milam Kumaon-Garhwal
connects Manali and Leh.
Chungpur Pir Panjal
• Traill’s Pass- It is located in Uttarakhand.
To Lam Bau Kanchenjunga-Everest
• Lipu Lekh - It connects Uttarakhand with
Bhagirath Kumaon-Garhwal
Tibet.
Kharak
Sonapani Pir Panjal • Mana Pass - It is located in the Greater
Bara Shighi Pir Panjal Himalayas and connects Tibet with
Rakhiot Pir Panjal Uttarakhand.
Gangri Pir Panjal • Debsa Pass - It joins Spiti Valley and Parvati
Rambang Kanchenjunga-Everest Valley. It is a high mountain pass in between
Kafni Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal the Kullu and Spiti of Himachal Pradesh. It is
Kalabaland Kumaon-Garhwal a bypass route of Pin-Parvati Pass.
Glacier • Rohtang Pass - This is located in the state of
Kedar Bamak Kumaon-Garhwal Himachal Pradesh. This pass connects Kullu,
Glacier Spiti, and Lahul.
Meola Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal • Khardung La - It is the highest motor able
Namik Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal pass in the country. It connects Leh and
Panchchuli Kumaon-Garhwal Siachen glaciers.
Glacier • Nathu La Pass – It is in Sikkim. It forms a part
Pindari Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal of an offshoot of the ancient silk route.
Ralam Glacier Kumaon-Garhwal
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 4
• Shipki La Pass - It is located through Sutlej • Pir-Panjal Pass - It is a traditional pass from
Gorge. It connects Himachal Pradesh with Jammu to Srinagar.
Tibet. • Aghil Pass - It is situated to the North of
• Thang La - It is located in Ladakh. It is the Mount Godwin-Austen in the Karakoram. It
second-highest motorable mountain pass in connects Ladakh with Xinjiang province of
India. China.
• Banihal Pass (Jawahar Tunnel)- It is situated • Bomdi-La– It connects Arunachal Pradesh
in the Pir Panjal Range. It connects Banihal with Lhasa, the capital city of Tibet.
with Qazigund. • Dihang pass - This pass connects Arunachal
• Zoji La - It connects Srinagar with Kargil and Pradesh with Myanmar (Mandalay).
Leh. • Diphu pass – It is a mountain pass around
• Burzil pass- This pass is part of the historic the area of the disputed tri-point borders of
caravan route between the cities of Srinagar India, China, and Myanmar.
and Gilgit.
Mountain passes in india
Name State Between/ Separating

Asirgarh Madhya Pradesh
Auden's Col Uttarakhand
Banihal Pass Jammu and Jammu & Kashmir
Kashmir (Jammu, Kashmir)
Bara-lacha-la Himachal Pradesh
Bomdila Arunachal Pradesh
Changla Pass Jammu and Leh & Changthang
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Chanshal Pass Himachal Pradesh
Dehra Compass Jammu and
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Debsa Pass Himachal Pradesh
Diphu Pass Arunachal Pradesh
Dongkhala Sikkim
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 5
Dhumdhar Kandi Pass Uttarakhand

Fotu La Jammu and
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Goecha La Sikkim
Haldighati Pass Rajasthan
Indrahar Pass Himachal Pradesh
Jelep La Sikkim
Khardung La Jammu and Leh & Nubra
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Kongka Pass Jammu and Ladakh & Aksai Chin
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Lanak Pass Jammu and Ladakh & Tibet
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Kunzum Pass Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul Lahaul & Spiti
and Spiti)
Karakoram Pass Jammu and Ladakh & Xinjiang
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Lipulekh Pass Uttarakhand
Lungalacha La Jammu and
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Lamkhaga Pass Himachal Pradesh
Marsimik La Jammu and
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Mayali Pass Uttarakhand
Nama Pass Uttarakhand
Namika La Jammu and
Kashmir (Ladakh)
Nathu La Sikkim Sikkim & Tibet
Palakkad Gap Kerala Kerala & Tamil Nadu
Thamarassery Pass Wayanad, Kerala Malabar & Mysore
Shenkottai pass Kollam, Kerala Travancore & Tamil Nadu
Pensi La Ladakh
Rezang La Ladakh
Rohtang Pass Himachal Pradesh Manali & Lahaul
Sasser la Ladakh Nubra & Siachen Glacier
Sela Pass Arunachal Pradesh
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh
Sia La Ladakh
Shingo La Between Ladakh and
Himachal Pradesh
Spangur Gap Ladakh
Gyong La Jammu and
Kashmir (Siachen Glacier)
Bilafond La Jammu and Kashmir
Sin La Uttarakhand
Tanglang La Ladakh
Traill's Pass Uttarakhand
Zojila Pass Jammu and Kashmir & Ladakh
Kashmir (Ladakh)
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 6
• The northern boundary- Shiwaliks and the

THE NORTHERN PLAIN
southern boundary- wavy irregular line along
the northern edge of peninsular India.
• The western border- Suleiman & Kirthar
Indo-Gangetic Plain Formation ranges & eastern side Purvanchal hills.
Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Trough • It is widest in the west (500 km) & decreases
• The rivers which were previously flowing
in the east.
into Tethys Sea deposited huge amount of • Thickness of the alluvium deposits varies
sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline. maximum depth 6,100 m
• Himalayas are formed out of these
• Extreme horizontality of this monotonous
sediments which were uplifted, folded and plain is its chief characteristic.
compressed due to northern movement of • Its average elevation is about 200 m above
Indian Plate. mean sea level, highest 291 m above mean
Depositional Activity sea level near Ambala
• Headward erosion and vertical erosion of
• Its average gradient from Saharanpur to
the river valley in the initial stages, lateral Kolkata is only 20 cm per km and it decreases
erosion in later stages contributed huge to 15 cm per km from Varanasi to the Ganga
amount of conglomerates (detritus)(rock delta.
debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried
downslope.
N-S Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-
• These conglomerates were deposited in
the depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough or
Brahmaputra Plain
Indo-Gangetic syncline) (the base of the
geosyncline is a hard crystalline The Bhabar
• Narrow, porous, northernmost stretch of
rock) between peninsular India and the
convergent boundary (the region of present Indo-gangetic plain.
• It is 8-16 km wide.
day Himalayas).
• Continuity from the Indus to the Tista.
New Rivers and More Alluvium
• Descending rivers deposit their load along
• With the accumulation of more and more
sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys sea the foothills as alluvial fans.
• Alluvial fans merged together to build up
started receding.
• With passage of the time, the depression
the bhabar belt.
was completely filled with alluvium, gravel,
rock debris (conglomerates) and the Tethys
completely disappeared leaving behind a
monotonous aggradational plain.
Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain
• Largest alluvial tract of the world.
• Stretches for about 3,200 km
• Indian sector of the plain accounts for 2,400
km.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 7
The Terai • ‘The barind plains’ in the deltaic region of

• Ill-drained, marshy and thickly forested bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in the
narrow tract to the south of bhabar. middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are
• It is 15-30 km wide. regional variations of bhangar.
• The underground streams re-emerge in this • Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land by
belt. accumulation of wind-blown sands.
• Jim Corbett national park in Uttarakhand • Contains fossils of animals like rhinoceros,
and Kaziranga national park in Assam hippopotamus, elephants, etc.
• More marked in the eastern part than in the • Soil is more clayey and is generally dark
west because the eastern parts receive a coloured.
comparatively higher amount of rainfall.
• The terai soils are silty and rich in nitrogen The Khadar
and organic matter but are deficient in • Newer alluvium and forms the flood plains
phosphate. along the river banks.
• Most of the terai land, especially in Punjab, • A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river
Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, has been flood almost every year.
turned into agricultural land which gives • This makes them the most fertile soils of
good crops of sugarcane, rice and wheat. Ganges.
• They are sandy clays and loams, drier and
The Bhangar more leached and less calcareous
• Older alluvium along the river beds.
• Calcareous concretions known as ‘kankar’.
The Northern Plains

Punjab Plains
• The Punjab plains form the western part of the northern plain.
• In the east, the Delhi-Aravalli ridge separates it from the Ganga plains.
• This is formed by the Indus and its tributaries; like Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. A major
portion of these plains is in Pakistan.
• It is divided into many Doabs (do-“two” + ab- “water or river” = “a region or land lying between
and reaching to the meeting of the two rivers”).
• Important features:
• Khadar rich flood plains are known as ‘Betlands’ or ‘Bets’.
• The rivers in Punjab-Haryana plains have broad flood plains of Khadar flanked by bluffs, locally
known as Dhayas.
• The northern part of this plane adjoining the Shivalik hills has been heavily eroded by numerous
streams, which are called Chhos.
• The southwestern parts, especially the Hisar district is sandy and characterized by shifting sand
dunes.
Ganga Plains
• The Ganga plains lie between the Yamuna catchment in the west to the Bangladesh border in the
East.
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INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 8
• The lower Ganga plain has been formed by the down warping of a part of Peninsular India between
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau and subsequent sedimentation by the Ganga and
Brahmaputra rivers.
• The main topographical variations in these plains include Bhabar, Tarai, Bhangar, Khadar, levees,
abandoned courses, etc.
• Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to frequent floods. The
Kosi River is very notorious in this respect. It has long been called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
• The northern states, Haryana, Delhi, UP, Bihar, part of Jharkhand, and West Bengal in the east lie
in the Ganga plains.
• The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta: The largest delta in the world. A Large part of the coastal delta is
covered by tidal forests called Sunderbans. Sunderbans, the largest mangrove swamp in the world
gets its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland. It is home to the Royal Tiger
and crocodiles.
Brahmaputra Plains
• This plain forms the eastern part of the northern plain and lies in Assam.
• Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the boundary of the lower
Ganga Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed by Purvanchal hills.
• The region is surrounded by high mountains on all sides, except on the west.
• The whole length of the plain is traversed by the Brahmaputra.
• The Brahmaputra plains are known for their riverine islands (due to the low gradient of the region)
and sand bars.
• The innumerable tributaries of the Brahmaputra river coming from the north form a number of
alluvial fans. Consequently, the tributaries branch out in many channels giving birth to river
meandering leading to the formation of bill and ox-bow lakes.
• There are large marshy tracts in this area. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse alluvial debris have
led to the formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.
STUDYIQ.COM INDIAN GEOGRAPHY - 3 1
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 3
PENINSULAR PLATEAU • Average height 600-900 m.
• Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to
• Aggregation of several smaller plateaus east indicating its general slope.
and hill ranges. • Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which
• The Peninsular uplands or plateau is part flow from east to west in a rift.
of a very ancient landmass called PENINSULAR PLATEAU
Gondwanaland.
1. Marwar Plateau
• It is approximately triangular with the 2. Central Highland
southern boundary of north Indian Plains 3. Bundelkhand Upland
making its base and the southernmost tip 4. Malwa Plateau
of India, i.e., Kanyakumari as its apex. 5. Baghelkhand
• One of the oldest landforms of the earth. 6. Chotanagpur Plateau
• Highly stable block composed mostly of 7. Meghalaya Plateau
the archaean gneisses and schists. 8. Deccan Plateau
• Area of about 16 lakh square km.
Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau

• It is the plateau of
eastern Rajasthan.
• Marwar plain is to the
west of Aravallis
whereas Marwar plateau
is to the east.
• Average elevation is 250-
500 m
• Slopes down
eastwards.
• Made up of sandstone,
shales and limestones of
the Vindhyan period.
• Banas river originate in
the Aravalli range and
flow towards northwest
into Chambal River.
• Erosional activity of
these rives makes rolling
plain(not completely
flat: slight rises and fall in
the landform)
Central Highland
• Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.
• In east of the Marwar or Mewar upland.
• Most of the plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal
river.
• The kali Sindh, the Banas and the Parwan and the
Parbati.
• It is a rolling plateau.
• Composed of sandstone.
• Thick forests grow here.
• To the north are the ravines or badlands
Bundelkhand Upland
• It is bounded by the Yamuna in North, Madhya Bharat Pathar in
West, Vindhyan to the East and Southeast And Malwa Plateau To
The South.
• Comprising of granite and gneiss.
• Spreads over five districts of UP and four districts of MP.
• The average elevation of 300-600 m.
• It has Senile topography (means featureless
characteristics due to high erosion) comprising small,
rounded hills of granite, gneiss and sandstone because of
intensive erosion, semi-arid climate, and undulating area.
• The erosional work of the rivers rendered it unfit for cultivation.
• Streams Like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow through the plateau.
Malwa Plateau
• Roughly forms a triangle based on the
Vindhyan hills, bounded by the Aravalli
Range in the West and Madhya Bharat
Pathar to the North and Bundelkhand to the
East.
• Two systems of drainage; Arabian Sea (the
Narmada, the Tapti and the Mahi), and Bay of
Bengal (Chambal and Betwa, joining the
Yamuna).
• In the North, drained by the Chambal and its right bank tributaries like the kali, the Sindh and
the Parbati.
• It also includes the upper courses of the Sindh, the ken and the Betwa.
• Extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils.
• General slope is towards the north.
Baghelkhand
• Lies north of the Maikal
range.
• Made of lime stones and
sandstones on the west
and granite in the east.
• It is bounded by the son
river on the north.
• Acts as a water divide
between the Son
drainage system in the
north and the Mahanadi
river system in the
south.
• General elevation
varying from 150 m to
1,200 m.
Chotanagpur Plateau
• Mostly in Jharkhand, the northern part of Chhattisgarh and Purulia district of West Bengal.
• The Son River flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
• Average elevation is 700 m.
• Composed of Gondwana rocks, Archaean rocks, Gondwana coal fields
• Radial drainage pattern.
• Rivers like the Damodar, The Subarnrekaha, The North Koel, The South Koel and The Barkar
have developed extensive drainage basins.
• North of the Damodar River is the Hazaribagh Plateau & has isolated hills, looks like a
peneplain.
• The Ranchi plateau to the
South of the Damodar
valley
• The Rajmahal hills
forming the Northeastern
edge of the Chotanagpur
plateau are mostly made
of basalt and are covered
by lava flows.
• Gharjat Hills forms SW
Edge
• These hills have been
dissected into separate
plateaus
Meghalaya Plateau/ Shillong Plateau

• Further east beyond the rajmahal hills to Meghalaya.
• It is separated from peninsular rock base by Garo-Rajmahal gap. This gap was formed by
faulting, and at present, it is filled with alluvium brought by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra
river.
• The eastward extinction is known as karbi anglong plateau.
• Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border.
• Garo hills (900 m), the Khasi, Jaintia hills

(1,500 m) and the Mikir hills (700 m).
• Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of
the plateau.
• "Cherrapunji" and "Mawsynram" are situated

to the south of the Khasi hills.
coloured regur is typical soil of this

DECCAN PLATEAU plateau.
o Karnataka plateau: It is divided into the
western hilly country region of Malnad
• Area of about five lakh square km. and the eastern plains of Maidan.
• Triangular in shape and is bounded by the o Telangana plateau: It has Archean,
Satpura & Vindhya in the North-west, the Dharwar and Cuddapah rocks.
Mahadev and the Maikal in the North, the
Western Ghats in the West and the Eastern
Ghats in the East.
• Average elevation is 600 m.
• Its general slope is from west to east.
• Rivers have further subdivided this plateau
into a number of smaller plateaus such as
o Maharashtra plateau: It has typical
Deccan Trap topography underlain by
basaltic rock. The lava derived black
Chhattisgarh Plain
• Only plain worth the name in the peninsular plateau.
• It is a saucer-shaped depression drained by the upper
MAHANADI.
• The whole basin lies between the Maikal Range and The
Odisha Hills.
• The general elevation of the plain ranges from 250 m in the
east to 330 m in the west
HILL RANGES OF THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
• Most of the hills in the peninsular region are residual hills.

• Remnants of the hills and horsts formed many million
years ago (horst: uplifted block; graben: subsided block).
• The plateaus of the peninsular region are separated from
one another by these hill ranges and various river valleys.
• The hill ranges are:
1. Aravalli Range
2. Vindhyan Range
3. Satpura Range
4. Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)
5. Eastern Ghats
Aravalli Range • It has 1200 km length with an average height

• Aligned in north-east to south-west between 300m to 650m.
direction. • Are composed of horizontally bedded
• Run from Delhi to Palanpur in Gujarat. sedimentary rocks of ancient age.
• One of the oldest fold mountains of the • The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as
world. Kaimur hills.
• Several summits were probably higher than • Acts as a watershed between the ganga and
Himalayas. the river systems of south India.
• Now they are relict of the world's oldest • The rivers Chambal, Betwa and ken, rise
mountain formed as a result of folding. within 30 km of the Narmada.
• Range from Delhi to Haridwar was
submerged under the North Indian Plain. Satpura Range
• The range is conspicuous in Rajasthan • Satpura range is a series of seven mountains
• Becomes less distinct in Haryana and Delhi. (‘sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ = mountains)
• Its highest peak is Guru Shikhar. Pipli Ghat, • It runs in an east-west direction south of the
Haldi Ghat, Dewair, etc. are essential passes
Vindhyas
in this range.
• Narmada and the Tapti flow roughly parallel
• Here Mt. Abu about 1150 meters, a small
hilly block, is separated from the main range to Satpura.
by the valley of Banas. • It stretches for a distance of about 900 km.
• Parts of the satpuras have been folded and
Vindhyan Range upheaved. They are regarded as structural
• The Vindhyan range, overlooking the uplift or ‘horst’.
Narmada valley, rises as an escarpment • The Satpura range is a block mountain which
flanking the northern edge of the Narmada- has the valley of the Narmada River on its
northern side and that of the Tapi on the
Son trough.
southern side.
• It is an ancient block mountain formed due • The hills of Satpura Range from West to East
to Narmada rift valley fault.
(in order are)
• It runs more or less parallel to the Narmada
1. Rajpipla
valley in an east-west direction.
2. Gawilgarh Plateau. It raises from the Maikal ranges at

3. Mahadev 1057 meters above sea level.
4. Maikal • Betul Plateau- lying almost wholly on the
• Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Satpura plateau. It occupies nearly the
Mahadev hills is the highest peak of Satpura whole width of the Satpura range between
Range. the valley of the Narmada on the north and
• Amarkantak Plateau (1,127 m) – Narmada the bearer plains on the south.'Tapi River
and Son River Originates from Amarkantak Originates from Betul Plateau.
Western Ghats (or the Sahyadris)
• Western edge of the Deccan tableland.
• The Western Ghats are not real mountains but faulted edge of an
upraised plateau.
• The Western Ghats run parallel and close to the Arabian Sea, from Tapi
valley in north up to Kanyakumari in south (1600 km).
• The western slope is like an escarpment rising sharply from western
coastal plains while eastern slope merges gently with plateau.
• The Sahyadris form a real watershed of peninsula. Godavari. Krishna
and Kaveri Rivers originate in Western Ghats
• Steep-sided, terraced, flat-topped hills facing the Arabian sea
coast.
• This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas, which on weathering,
have given a characteristic ‘landing stair aspect’ to the relief of this
mountain chain.
• The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an average
elevation of 1,000 m from the western coastal plain.
• Hardly appear to be a mountain when viewed from the deccan
tableland.
• Present quite different landscape due to the difference in
geological structure.
• The Anaimudi (2696 m) is the highest peak in western ghat as well

as in entire south India. From Anaimudi three ranges radiate in
three directions - Cardamom hills to the South, Anaimalai to the
north, and Palani to the northeast.
• The Nilgiri is the meeting point of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats
and Southernhills. Doddabetta (2637 m) is highest peak in Nilgiri.
Eastern Ghats
• The Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India
leaving broad plains between their base and the coast.
• It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills.
• Starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vaigai in Tamil Nadu.
• They almost disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna.
• Mahendra giri (1,501 m) is the tallest peak here.
• Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers eastern ghats lose
their hilly character.
• The eastern ghats reappear at Kurnool districts of Andhra
Pradesh where they are called as Nallamalai range
• General elevation of 600-850 m.
• The northern part lies between Mahanadi and Godawari River.
Here Eastern Ghat exhibits mountainous character with a width
of 200-100 Kms.
o This part comprises of Mudugala Konda, and Maliya
ranges with highest peak Aroya Konda (1680 m).
• The southern part is made up of small hills named as Javdi,
Shevaroy, Nallamalla, Eramalla, and Palkonda.
o Only Javadi hills and the shevroy-kalrayan hills form two
distinct features of 1,000 m elevation.
• Further south, the eastern ghats merge with the western ghats
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 4
COASTAL PLAINS West Coast of India

• The west coast strip extends from the Gulf
of Cambay to cape Comorin.
COASTAL PLAINS • It is made up of alluvium brought down by
• East Coast of India the short streams originating from the
• West Coast of India Western Ghats.
• Western Coastal Plain • It is dotted with a large number of coves (a
• Eastern Coastal Plain very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered
waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or
channel in a marsh) and a few estuaries.
• The sub parts of Western Coast are:
1. Konkan Coast
2. Karnataka Coast
3. Kerala Coast
• The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapti,
are the major ones.
• The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some
lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the largest
being the Vembanad lake.
• Konkan Coast ➔ Maharashtra coast and
East Coast of India Goa coast.
• Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay • Malabar Coast ➔ Kerala and Karnataka
of Bengal. coast.
• It extends from the Ganga delta to
Kanyakumari. Western Coastal Plains of India
• It is marked by deltas of rivers like the • It consists of Rann of kachchh in the north to
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and kanyakumari in the south.
the Cauvery. • These are narrow plains with an average
• Chilka and the Pulicat lake are the important width of about 65 km.
geographical features of the east coast. • It is divided into following parts:
• Regional names of the east coast of India o Kutch And Kathiawar Region: Kutch
✓ In Orissa it is known as Utkal coast. coastal plain is a region with great and
✓ From the southern limit of the Utkal little Rann of Kutch. Kathiawar coastal
plain, stretch the Andhra coast. Plain region lies south of Mandav Hills.
✓ In the south of the Andhra plain is the o Gujarat Plain: Gujarat coastal plain is
Tamil Nadu coast. formed by depositional work of
✓ The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada, and Tapi
Andhra coast together are known as rivers.
Coromandel coast or Payan ghat. o Konkan Plain: It is the region lying south
of Gujarat Plain, from Daman to Goa. It
has features of marine erosion like sea Andhra Plain

cliffs as well as landforms like shoals, • South of the Utkal plain and extends up to
reefs and islands. Pulicat lake.
o Karnataka Coastal Plain: It is the coastal • Barred by a long sand spit known as
area between Goa and Mangalore about Sriharikota island.
225km long. It is the narrowest part of • Delta formation by the rivers Godavari and
western coastal plains. Krishna.
o Kerala Plain: It is the coastal area • The freshwater Kolleru Lake lies between
between Mangalore and Kanyakumari. It Krishna-Godavari deltas.
has characteristic lagoons or backwaters
• The two deltas have merged and formed a
locally called Kavals such as Ashtamudi
and Vembanad. single physiographic unit.
• The combined delta has advanced by about
Eastern Coastal Plains of India 35 km towards the sea during recent years.
• Extending from the Subarnarekha River • This part of the plain has a straight coast and
along the West Bengal-Odisha border to badly lacks good harbours with the
Kanyakumari. exception of Vishakhapatnam and
• A major part is alluvial fillings of the littoral Machilipatnam.
by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna Tamil Nadu Plain
and Cauvery. • The Tamil Nadu plain stretches for 675 km
• These are extensive plains with an average from Pulicat lake to Kanyakumari along the
width of 120 km. coast of Tamil Nadu. Its average width is 100
km.
• This plain is known as the northern circars
between the Mahanadi and the Krishna • The most important feature of this plain is
rivers and carnatic between the Krishna and the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130 km
the Cauvery rivers. wide.
• It is divided into following plains • The fertile soil and large scale irrigation
facilities have made the Cauvery delta the
Utkal Plain: granary of south India
• The Utkal plain comprises coastal areas of
Odisha.
• It includes the Mahanadi delta.
• The most prominent physiographic feature
of this plain is the chilka lake.
• South of Chilka lake, low hills dot the plain.
o It is drained by several small

seasonal streams originating from
THE INDIAN DESERT the Aravalli and supports agriculture
in some patches of fertile tracts
called as 'Rohi' tracts.
• Also known as the Thar Desert or the Great • Drained by Luni in the south whereas the
Indian Desert. northern section has a number of salt
• To the north-west of the Aravali hills. lakes like Sambhar, Degana, Didwana.
• It covers Western Rajasthan and extends to
the adjacent parts of Pakistan.
• The presence of dry beds of rivers
• The desert region is called Marusthali and
forms a more significant part of the Marwar
plain.
• In general, the eastern part of the Marusthali
is rocky while shifting dunes cover its
western part.
• The eastern part of the Thar desert up to the
Aravalli Range is a semi-arid plain which is
known as Rajasthan Bagar.
INDIAN ISLANDS • Duncan passage separates little Andaman

from south Andaman.
• The great Andaman group of islands in the
north is separated by the Ten Degree
channel from the Nicobar group in the south
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar
Islands, lies in the south Andaman.
• The Great Nicobar is the largest.
• Very close to Sumatra Island of Indonesia.
• The Car Nicobar is the northernmost island.
• Most of these islands are made of tertiary
sandstone, limestone and shale resting on
basic and ultrabasic volcanoes
• The barren island (the only active volcano in
India) and Narcondam islands (an extinct or
Andaman and Nicobar Islands dormant volcano), north of Port Blair, are
• This archipelago is composed of 265 big and volcanic islands.
small islands. • Some of the islands are fringed with coral
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands extend reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
from 6° 45' n to 13° 45' n and from 92° 10' e forests. Most of the islands are
to 94° 15' e. mountainous.
• The Andaman Islands are divided into three • Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is
main islands, i.e., North, Middle and South. the highest peak.
• The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and
the Wandoor Marine Biosphere reserve in • They are widely scattered about 200-500 km
South Andaman have rare Giant Robber south-west of the Kerala coast.
Crabs. • Amindivi Islands are the northernmost while
• These islands are the abode of many
the Minicoy Island is the southernmost.
aboriginal tribes such as Onqes. Jarawas,
• All are tiny islands of coral origin (coral
Sentinelese etc. who are seeing invasion in
depositions on atolls) and are surrounded by
their traditional way of life.
fringing reefs.
• Andrott (4.9 sq km) is the largest island.
Lakshadweep Islands
• Minicoy (4.5 sq km) is the second largest.
• In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of
• Most of the islands have low elevation and
islands.
do not rise more than five meters above sea
1. Amindivi Islands
level (extremely vulnerable to sea level
2. Laccadive Islands (Consisting of five
change).
major islands including kavaratti)
• Their topography is flat and relief features
3. Minicoy
such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are
• At present these islands are collectively
absent.
known as Lakshadweep.
• While the coconut is the main crop on the
• The Lakshadweep islands are a group of 25 islands, fishing is main occupation of people.
small islands. • The corals act as suitable habitat for fishes to lay
their eggs.
New Moore Island

• Small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the Bay of
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta
region.
• Emerged aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It keeps on
emerging and disappearing.
• Both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it
because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural
gas in the region.
• The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the larger dispute
over the Radcliffe award methodology of settling the
maritime boundary between the two nations
Katchatheevu Island
• Uninhabited off-shore Island in the Palk Strait originally owned
by a king of Ramnad (present-day Ramanathapuram, Tamil
Nadu).
• Used by fishermen to dry their nets.
• During the British rule, was administered jointly by India and Sri
Lanka.
• In the early 20 century, Sri Lanka claimed territorial
th
ownership over the islet, so in 1974 India ceded the island to Sri
Lanka, through a joint agreement.
• Two years later through another accord, India further gave up its
fishing rights in the region.
i.e., by a single river system is called a

drainage basin.
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF INDIA • Watershed is defined as any surface area
from which runoff resulting from rainfall is
collected and drained through a common
point. The catchment area of small rivers is
• The flow of water through well-defined
also often referred to as watershed.
channels is called as drainage.
• The catchment area of large rivers is called
• An integrated network of such channels is
River Basin.
called the drainage system or river system.
• An area drained by a river and its tributaries,
Drainage system of India can be studied under the following parameters:

BASED ON THE SIZE OF BASED ON ORIGIN BASED ON THE TYPE OF BASED ON ORIENTATION
CATCHMENT AREA DRAINAGE TO THE SEA
• Major river- 20,000 sq • The Himalayan • Drain into the sea • Drain into the Bay
km rivers • Inland drainage of Bengal
• Medium river- 20,000 • The Peninsular basin • Drain into the
– 2,000 sq km rivers Arabian sea
• Minor river- 2,000
and below
CONTRIBUTION OF WATER BY VARIOUS RIVERS

Increasing order of the size of the drainage • Himalayan rivers are typical examples of
basins in India antecedent drainage.
Ganga (861452 sq km)> Indus (321289 sq km)> • Himalayan drainage consists of the
Godavari (312812 sq km)> Krishna (258948 sq following river systems
km)> Brahmaputra (194413 sq km) 1. Indus River System
2. Ganga River System
3. Brahmaputra River
HIMALAYAN RIVERS System
• Existed even before the formation of
Himalayas INDUS RIVER SYSTEM
• Flowing into the Tethys Sea.
• Source in the now Tibetan region. • Indus river system consists of the following
• The deep gorges of the Indus, the Sutlej, the rivers
Brahmaputra etc. Indicate that these rivers 1. Indus River
are older than the Himalayas. 2. Jhelum River
• They continued to flow throughout the 3. Chenab River
building phase of the Himalayas. 4. Ravi River
5. Beas River
6. Sutlej River
Indus River
• Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok.
• The Indus is the westernmost river system
in the subcontinent. • Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives
• It originates in Tibet and enters into India five eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the
through Chang La pass. Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej.
• Also called as Sindhu in Sanskrit. • The waters of the Indus River System are
• India got her name from Indus. shared between India and Pakistan as per
• Origin: Bokhar Chu Glacier near Mansarovar Indus Water Treaty, 1960.
Lake, Kailash Range
• Total drainage area is about 1,165,000
Jhelum River
square km • Origin: Verinag Spring, Pirpanjal Range,
• Dhar River joins it near Indo-China border. Anntnagar District Of J&K
• Flows between the Ladakh and the Zaskar • It flows northwards into Wular lake
ranges. • From wular lake, it changes its course
• It flows through the regions of Ladakh, southwards.
Baltistan and Gilgit. • At Baramulla, the river enters a gorge in the
• The gradient of the river in J&K is very gentle hills.
(about 30 cm per km). • Forms steep-sided narrow gorge through Pir
• It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh. Panjal below Baramulla.
• At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp Beas River

hairpin bend southward. • The Beas originates near the Rohtang pass,
• After that, it forms the India-Pakistan on the southern end of the Pir Panjal range,
boundary for 170 km and emerges at the • Close to the source of the Ravi.
Potwar plateau near Mirpur. • It crosses the Dhauladhar range, and it takes
• It joins the Chenab at Jhang district. a south-westerly direction and meets the
• Uri Hydro Electric Project is located on it. Sutlej River at Harike in Punjab.
• It is a comparatively small but lies entirely
Chenab River within the Indian Territory.
• Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha
pass in the Lahul-Spiti of the Zaskar range. Sutlej River
• Two small streams on opposite sides of the • The Sutlej rises from the Manasarovar-
pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its Rakas lakes in western Tibet.
headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m. • Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly
• The united stream chandrabhaga flows in course up to the Shipki la on the Tibet-
the north-west direction through the pangi Himachal Pradesh boundary.
valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal. • Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a
• It enters the plain area near Akhnur in J&K. gorge in Naina Devi dhar, where the famous
• It joins the Sutlej after receiving the waters Bhakra dam has been constructed.
of Jhelum and Ravi rivers. • The Beas joins it at Harike.
• The important hydel projects installed on • From Ferozepur to Fazilka, it forms the
the Chenab River are Salal, Dulhasti and the
boundary between India and Pakistan for
recent Baglihar project in Doda district.
nearly 120 km.
• Receives the collective drainage of the Ravi,
Chenab and Jhelum rivers.
Ravi River
• It joins the Indus a few kilometres above
• The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the Mithankot.
Rohtang pass in Himachal Pradesh.
• In Punjab, a network of canals has been built
• It drains the area between the Pir Panjal and across the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej rivers which
the Dhauladhar Ranges. have irrigated the arid lands of Punjab and
• After crossing Chamba, it takes a south- Haryana.
westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the
Dhaula Dhar Range.
• It enters Punjab plains near Madhopur and
later enters Pakistan below Amritsar.
• It debouches into the Chenab a little above
Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 5
GANGA RIVER SYSTEM
• The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttarkashi district of UK.
• Vishnuprayag: Lies on the holy confluence of Alaknanda and Dhauliganga rivers.
• Nandprayag: Nandprayag is a small town located at the sacred confluence of the Alaknanda
and Nandakini river.
• Karanprayag; Karnprayag lies on the confluence of river Alaknanda and the Pindari River.
• Rudraprayag: Rudraprayag is nestled on the holy confluence of Alaknanda and Mandakini
rivers.
• Devaprayag: Devprayag is the last Prayag or the holy confluence of the Alaknanda River, from
here that the confluence of Alaknanda and Bhagirathi River is known as Ganga.
• It is joined by the Yamuna at Prayagraj (Allahabad).
• Near Rajmahal hills it turns to the south-east.
• The Ganges splits into the Padma and the Hooghly close to Giria, Murshidabad.
• There's a similarly man-made bifurcation of the river upstream at Farakka.
• The Padma flows eastward into
Bangladesh, while the Hooghly
flows south thru West Bengal.
• The Ganga joins the Brahmaputra in
Bangladesh and continues its run
under the name Padma or Ganga. It
finally joins the Meghna river which
outfalls into the Bay of Bengal.
• The total length is 2,525 km.
TRIBUTARIES OF GANGA
Right Bank Tributaries Left Bank Tributaries
• Yamuna • Ramganga
• Son • Gomati
• Damodar • Ghaghra
• Kali River
• Gandak River
• Burhi Gandak
• Kosi River
Yamuna River System • Tributaries of Yamuna are: Chambal

River, Sind, Betwa, Ken.
• Largest right-bank tributary of Ganga.
• It originates from the Yamunotri glacier
on the Bandarpunch peak in Gharwal in
Uttarakhand at an elevation of 6330 m.
• It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the
Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
• It enters plains near Tajewala.
• Its main affluent is Tons which also rises
from the Bandar punch glacier.
• It joins the Yamuna below Kalsi.
• Water carried by the tons is twice the
water carried by the Yamuna.
• Joins Ganga near Triveni sangam,
Prayagraj (Allahabad).
TRIBUTARIES OF YAMUNA
CHAMBAL • It rises from the southern slope of the Vindhya Range near Mhow town.
RIVER • It flows through the Malwa plateau.
• It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of UP.
• Deep ravines, giving rise to badland topography.
• The total length of the river is 1,050 km.
• Keoladeo national park is supplied with water by Chambal.
• The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.
• It originates in the southern part of the Aravalli range.
• It joins the Chambal near Sawai Madhopur.
•The major multipurpose projects built on Chambal are Gandhi Sagar, Rana Pratap
Sagar (Rawatbhata) and Jawahar Sagar.
• Chambal River is famous for Badland topography having ravines and gullies.
SIND • The Sind originates in Vidisha plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
• It flows for a distance of 415 km before it joins the Yamuna.
BETWA • The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan range)

• Joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur.
• The Dhasan is its important tributary.
KEN • The ken river rising from the Barner range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna
near Chila.
Son • Rich in mineral resources, the valley is

• Rises in the Amarkantak plateau. home to large-scale mining and industrial
• Its source is close to the origin of the activity.
Narmada. • It has a number of tributaries and sub-
• Passes along the Kaimur range. tributaries, such as Barakar, Konar,
• It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
district of Bihar. • River Barakar is a vital tributary of the
• The important tributaries of the son are Damodar River. The first dam was built
the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the across the Barakar River.
Kanhar and the North Koel. • The valley is called “the Ruhr of India”.
• Almost all the tributaries join it on its right • It used to cause devastating floods as a
bank. result of which it earned the name ‘Sorrow
of Bengal’. Now the river is tamed by
Damodar River constructing numerous dams.
• It joins the Hugli River 48 km below
• Rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur
Kolkata.
plateau and flows through a rift valley.
Ramganga River Gandak River

• Rises in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand • Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at
at an altitutde of 3110 m and enter the a height of 7,620 m
Ganga plain near Kalagarh. • It receives a large number of tributaries in
• It joins the Ganga at Kannuj after traversing
Nepal Himalaya.
a distance of 596 km.
• The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, • Its important tributaries are the Kali
and the Deoha (Gorra) are important Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the
tributaries. Trishuli.
• Basin covers area of 32493 sq. km. • It debouches into the plains at Triveni.
Gomati River • It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.
• Originates: Gomat Taal, Madhav Tanda,
Pilibhit district, UP. Burhi Gandak
• Major tributary Sai meets at Jaunpur. • Originates from the western slopes of
• Meet Ganga- 40km away from Varansi. Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal
• Important Cities located- Lucknow, border.
Sultanpur, Jaunpur • It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.
Ghaghra River
• Its source is near Gurla Mandhata Peak, Kosi River
south of Manasarovar in Tibet. • The Kosi River consists of seven streams
• It is known as the Karnaili in western and is popularly known as Saptkaushiki.
Nepal. • These streams flow through eastern Nepal
• Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the which is known as the Saptkaushik region.
Sarayu (also known as sarju) (Ayodhya is • Consequently, a huge volume of water
located on its bank) and the Rapti. flows with tremendous speed.
• The river bed is sandy and sudden bends • Seven streams mingle with each other to
start occurring in the stream. form three streams named the Tamur,
• The river has a high flood frequency and Arun and Sun kosi.
has shifted its course several times. • They unite at triveni north of the
• The Ghaghra joins Ganga at Chapra in Mahabharata range to form the Kosi.
Bihar. • They join the Ganga near Kursela.
• After reaching plain area, it streams get
• Large scale deposition of eroded material
divided into many branches of which,
Koriyan and Garwa are important. These takes place in the plain region.
two tributaries meet again in Bahraich of • The river channel is braided, and it shifts
UP. its course frequently.
• This has resulted in frequent devastating
Kali River floods and has converted large tracts of
• Rises in the high glaciers of trans- cultivable land into wasteland in Bihar.
Himalaya. Thus, the river is often termed as the
• It forms the boundary between Nepal and ‘sorrow of Bihar’.
Kumaon. • Embankments for flood control have been
• It is known as the Sarda after it reaches the constructed as a joint venture of India and
plains. Nepal.
• It joins the Ghaghra.
BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM
Region Name
Tibet • Tsangpo (meaning ‘The Purifier’)
China • Yarlung ZangboJiangin
Assam Valley • Dihang or Siang, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra
Bangladesh • Jamuna River

• Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
• Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna
• The Brahmaputra is 2,900 km in length.

• Source: Chemayungdung glacier Kailas
range near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
• Its source is very close to the sources of
Indus and Sutlej.
• Mariam la separates the source of the
Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar
Lake.
• The Brahmaputra flows eastwards in
southern Tibet for about 1,800 km.
• The river is sluggish and has a wide
navigable channel for about 640 km.
• The first major tributary is the raga
tsangpo meeting the tsangpo near
lhatse dzong. • From Sadiya onwards, river is known as
• It’s course abruptly takes a southward the Brahmaputra.
turn around Namcha Barwa. • The main streams merging with the
• Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya Brahmaputra from the north are,
through the dihang. Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Raidak,
• Emerges from the mountains near Tista etc.
Sadiya in the Assam valley. • The Tista was a tributary of the ganga
• Here it first flows under the name of before the floods of 1787 after which it
Siang and then as the Dihang. diverted its course eastwards to join the
• Joined by two important tributaries viz, Brahmaputra.
the Dibang from the north and Lohit • Majuli world's largest river island is on
from the south. this river.
• Enters Bangladesh near Dhubri.
• Named as Jamuna River and joins the • Combined river is known as the
Ganga at Goalundo. meghna.
• The united stream of the Jamuna and • Left bank tributaries: Dibang, Lohit,
the Ganga name is Padma. Dhansiri, Kolong.
• Padma is joined on the left bank by the • Right bank tributaries: Kameng, Manas,
Meghna. Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri
Tributaries of Brahmaputra
North Bank Tributaries South Bank Tributaries
The Subansiri The Noa Dehing
The Siang The Buridehing
The Kameng (Jiabharali in Assam) The Dibang
The Dhansiri(North) The Dikhow
The Manas The Dhansiri(South)
The Sankosh The Kopili
The Jiadhal The Digaru
The Puthimari The Dudhnai
The Pagladiya The Krishnai
The Champabati The Jinjiran
The Saralbhanga The Kulsi
The Teesta The Bhogdoi
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 6
PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEMS
• West flowing rivers make estuaries in place of

• Rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal: deltas.
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery. • There are few places where rivers form
• Rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea: waterfalls.
Narmada, Tapti, Mahi.
• Rivers that drain into the Ganges: tributaries of PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEMS
the ganga and the Yamuna such as the Chambal, EAST FLOWING WEST FLOWING
Betwa, Ken, the son and Damodar flow in the PENINSULAR RIVERS PENINSULAR RIVERS
north-easterly direction. • Mahanadi River • Narmada
• Much older than the Himalayan rivers. • Godavari River River
• Mainly concordant except for few rivers in the • Krishna River • Tapti River
upper peninsula region. • Kaveri (Cauvery) • Sabarmati
• They are non-perennial. River River
• Reached a mature stage and have almost • Pennar River • Mahi River
reached their base level. • Subarnarekha
• Characterized by broad and shallow valleys. •
River
• Water divide is formed by the Western Ghats. • Brahmani River
• Load carrying capacity of the streams is low due • Sarada River
to a low gradient. • Ponnaiyar River
• Eastern flowing rivers make deltas at their • Vaigai River
mouths.
Mahanadi River • Right bank tributaries: Ong, Tel and the Jonk.
• Basin extends over states of Chhattisgarh and • It forms a delta complex along with Brahmani and
Odisha and smaller portions of Jharkhand, Baitarani rivers. This delta is part of Utkal Plain.
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. • The Hirakud dam on the river has reduced flood
intensity of river.
• It is bounded by the central India hills on the
north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and
east and by the Maikal range on the west.
• Source in the northern foothills of
Dandakaranya in Raipur district of
Chhattisgarh.
• Basin is covered with agricultural land
• Most-active silt-depositing streams in the
Indian subcontinent.
• After receiving the Seonath River, it turns east
and enters Odisha state.
• At Sambalpur, the Hirakund dam.
• It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack.
• Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous
pilgrimage site.
• Tributaries of Mahanadi river
• Left bank tributaries: Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand
and Ib.
Godavari River • Left bank tributaries: Dharna, Penganga,

• Largest river of peninsular India (Dakshin Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita, Pench, Kanha,
Ganga) Sabari, Indravati
• Rises from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district • Right bank tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra,
(Maharashtra). Maner etc.
• It is the most extensive river system of peninsular
India with catchment area in Maharashtra,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, MP,
Odisha, Karnataka, and Puducherry (Yanam).
• The left bank tributaries are more than the right
bank tributaries.
• The Manjra (724 km) is the important right bank
tributary, which joins the Godavari after passing
through the Nizam Sagar reservoir.
• In Andhra Pradesh, Godavari splits into several
tributaries and merges into the Bay of Bengal by
forming a lobate shaped delta. Lake Kolleru is
located in between deltas of Krishna and Godavari.
• It is famous for coal, natural gas, petroleum reserves
and massive floods in the lower course.
Krishna River
• The Krishna is the second largest east flowing
river of the peninsula.
• It is bounded by Balaghat range on the north,
by the Eastern Ghats on the south and Western
Ghats on the west.
• The Krishna River rises from the Western Ghats
near Jor village of Satara district of Maharashtra
north of Mahabaleshwar.
• Krishna River basin catchment area is spread in
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka.
• The Krishna forms a large delta with a shoreline
of about 120 km.
• The Krishna delta appears to merge with that
formed by the Godavari.
• Tributaries of Krishna River:
o Right bank: Ghatprabha, Malprabha and
Tungabhadra.
o Left bank: Bhima, Musi and Munneru.
Cauvery River o Left bank: the Harangi, Hemavati,

• Rises from Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range, Shimsha and Arkavati.
Coorg district of Karnataka. o Right bank: Lakshmantirtha, Kabbani,
• The Nilgiris divide the basin into two natural Suvarnavati, Bhavani, Noyil and
regions, i.e., Karnataka plateau in the north and Amaravati
the Tamil Nadu plateau in the south.
• Physiographically, the basin has three parts –
The Western Ghats, The Plateau of Mysore and
The Delta.
• The delta area is the most fertile tract in the
basin.
• Red soils occupy large areas in the basin.
• It is relatively a perennial river. Because its upper
catchment area receives water from south-west
monsoon while its lower catchment area receives
water from retreating north-east monsoon.
• Thus, it is an essential source of irrigation and
hydroelectricity.
• The river descends from South Karnataka plateau to
Tamil Nadu plains through famous Sivasamudram
waterfall.
• The Kaveri has formed lobate delta in the Bay of
Bengal.
• Tributaries of the Cauvery River:
Pennar River
• Rises in the Chenna Kesava Hill of the
Nandidurg Range of Karnataka.
• The total length of the river from origin to its
outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.
• Located in peninsular India, the pennar basin
extends over states of Andhra and Karnataka.
• Hill ranges in the basin to the south of the river
are the Seshachalam (famous for red sanders)
and Paliconda ranges.
• Left bank: the Jayamangali, Kunderu and
Sagileru.
• Right bank: Chiravati, Papagni and Cheyyeru.
Subarnarekha
• The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi
plateau.
• Forms boundary between West Bengal and
Odisha in its lower course.
• It joins the Bay of Bengal forming an estuary
between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.
• Its total length is 395 km.
• Hundru Falls is created on the course of the
Subarnarekha.
Brahmani River
• The Brahmani River comes into existence by the
confluence of the South Koel and the Sankh
rivers near Rourkela.
• The basin is bounded in the North by
Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and South
by the Mahanadi basin and in the east by the Bay
of Bengal.
• Rengali dam is a dam located in Odisha, India
constructed across the Brahmani River.
Sarada River • The basin is surrounded by River Nagavali in the

north, River Gosthani, Gambiramgedda,
Megadrigedda in the east Bay of Bengal in the
South and Machhkund sub-basin of the River
Godavari in the west.
Ponnaiyar River
• Also called Dakshina Pinakini.
• Confined to the coastal area only.
• It covers a small area in the state of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• The river Sarada, an east flowing medium-sized
river, lies in the district of Visakhapatnam of
Andhra Pradesh.
Vaigai River
• South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of
which the Vaigai is the longest.
• The vaigai basin is an important basin among the 12
basins lying between the Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
• The Vattaparai Falls are located on this river.
WEST FLOWING RIVERS OF PENINSULAR

INDIA
• The two major west flowing rivers are the

Narmada and the Tapti.
• These rivers didn’t form valleys and instead,
they flow through faults.
• These faults run parallel to the Vindhyas and the
Satpuras.
• The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other rivers of
peninsular India which flow westwards.
• Peninsular rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea
do not form deltas, but only estuaries.
• Flow through hard rocks and hence do not carry
any good amount of silt.
• Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers are
very small, and hence they don’t contribute any
• Hence these rivers are not able to form
silt.
distributaries or a delta before they enter the
sea.
Narmada River
• The Narmada is the largest west flowing river of
peninsular India.
• The Narmada flows between the Vindhyan
range on the north and the Satpura range on
the south.
• It rises from Maikala range near Amarkantak in
MP.
• Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Chhattisgarh.
• It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north,
Maikala range on the east, Satpuras on the
south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
• Lower middle reaches are broad and fertile
areas well suited for cultivation. Tapti River
• Jabalpur is the only important urban centre in • The Tapti is the second largest west flowing
the basin. • Known as the twin of the Narmada.
• The river slopes down near Jabalpur forms • It originates near Multai reserve forest in
Dhuandhar falls. Madhya Pradesh.
• There are several islands in the estuary of the • Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is
narmada of which Aliabet is the largest. bounded by the Satpura range on the north,
• The famous Sardar Sarovar dam is on the Narmada Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta range and the
River on which the statue of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Satmala hills on the south and by the Arabian
has been installed. It is the world's tallest standing Sea on the west.
statue.
• Like the Narmada, it also flows into a rift valley.
• Tributaries: Hathni River, Orsang, Barna and • Tributaries of tapti river
Kolar. 1. Right bank: Suki, Gomai, Arunavati
and Aner.
2. Left bank: Vaghur, Amravati, Buray,
Panjhra, Bori, Girna, Purna, Mona and
Sipna.
Sabarmati River
• The Sabarmati is the name given to the

combined streams the Sabar and
Hathmati.
• Basin extends over states of Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
• The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the
north and north-east, by Rann of kutch on
the west and by gulf of khambhat on the
south.
• Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills in
Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
• The total length of the river from origin to
outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
• Left bank tributaries: The Wakal, The
Hathmati and the Vatrak.
• Right bank tributaries: The Sei
Mahi River
• It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an
altitude of 500 m in Dhar district of MP.
• The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea through the gulf of
khambhat.
• Hydro power stations are located in mahi bajaj sagar
dam and at kadana dam.
• Vadodara is the only important urban centre in the
basin. There are not many industries in the basin.
Luni River
• The luni or the Salt River is named so because
its water is brackish nature.
• Luni originates from western slopes of the
Aravalli.
• Increase its width rather than deepening the
bed because the banks are of soils, which are
easily erodible whereas beds are of sand.
• The floods develop and disappear so rapidly
that they have no time to scour the bed.
Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage • It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near
Hanumangarh after traversing a distance of
• Some rivers of India are not able to reach 465 km.
the sea and constitute inland drainage. • Its main tributaries are The Tangri, The
• Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and Markanda, The Saraswati and The
parts of Aksai chin in Ladakh have inland Chaitanya.
drainage. • It contains a lot more water in the rainy
• The Ghaggar is the most important river of season when its bed becomes 10 km wide at
inland drainage. places.
• It is a seasonal stream which rises on the • Most of the streams draining western slopes
lower slopes of the Himalayas and forms of the Aravalli range dry up immediately
boundary between Haryana and Punjab. after they enter the sandy arid areas to the
west of this range.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIMALAYAN AND PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM
THE HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM THE PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM
Origin In the lofty Himalayan ranges In the peninsular plateau

Have large basins and catchment Have small basins and catchment areas.
Catchment area
areas.
Valleys V – Shaped valleys called gorges. Comparatively shallow valleys.
These are examples
Drainage type These are examples of consequent drainage.
of antecedent drainage.
Seasonal or non-perennial. As such these
Water flow perennial in nature,
rivers are much less useful for irrigation.
Stage In a youthful stage. Have reached maturity.
Rivers form meanders and often
Meanders Follow more or less straight courses.
shift their beds.
The Narmada and the Tapi form estuaries
Other rivers such as the Mahanadi, the
Forms big deltas at their Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
Deltas and estuaries
mouths. form deltas.
Several small streams- without forming any
delta.
MONSOON • The Monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds -

They flow from sea to land during the summer and
from land to sea during winter.
Indian Monsoon • Some scholars tend to treat the Monsoon winds as
• Monsoons are seasonal winds (Periodic Winds) land and sea breeze on a large scale.
which reverse their direction with the change of • Monsoons are peculiar to Indian Subcontinent,
season.
South East Asia, parts of Central Western Africa, etc.

• They are more pronounced in the Indian
Subcontinent compared to any other region.
• Indian Monsoons are convection cells on an
immense scale.
• India receives South-west Monsoon winds in
summer and North-east Monsoon winds in winter.
Precipitation in Summer Season

• This season is not totally rainless (only One
Percent of the annual rainfall).
• In the north-eastern parts of the country, dust
storms bring little rainfall.
• The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in the
form of snow caused by western disturbances.
• The Norwesters bring some rainfall in Assam,
West Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of rainfall
is high.
• Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive
rainfall from thunderstorms
RAINY SEASON – SOUTH WEST • The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and
adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have
MONSOON SEASON
temperatures above 30 °c as they receive
little rainfall during this season.
• June to mid-September.
• South west monsoon season is also known
as a hot-wet season.
Pressure and Winds during South West
Monsoon Season
Temperature during South West Monsoon • Low-pressure conditions prevail over
northwest India due to high temperature.
Season
• ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the Ganga
• Sudden onset of SW monsoons leads to
plain.
significant fall in temperature (3° to 6 °C).
• There are frequent changes in its location
• The temperature remains less uniform
depending upon the weather conditions.
throughout the rainy season.
• The atmospheric pressure increases steadily
• The temperature rises in September with
southwards.
the cease of south-west monsoons.
• Over the peninsular region, due to the
• There is a rise in temperature whenever
pressure gradient between north and
there is a break in the monsoons.
south, winds blow in a southwest to
• The diurnal range of temperature is small
northeast direction from Arabian Sea and
due to clouds and rains.
Bay of Bengal.
• The temperatures are quite low over the
• Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-
Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
Gangetic plain where they move from east
to west.
Rainfall during South West Monsoon remainder proceeding to

Season Myanmar, Thailand and
Malaysia.
• Three-fourths of the total annual rainfall is
received during this season.
• The average rainfall over the plains of India
in this season is about 87 per cent.
• Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon
is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
• The advance of the monsoon is much faster
in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.
• The normal date of onset of the southwest
monsoon over Kerala, i.e., the first place of
entry in the mainland of India is 1st June.
• The monsoons advance quickly
accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning
and heavy downpour. This sudden onset of
rain is termed as monsoon burst
SW Monsoon–Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal

Branch
• The Arabian Sea Branch gradually advances The Arabian Sea Branch
northwards. It reaches Mumbai by 10th
• The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest
June.
monsoons is divided into three distinct
• The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather
streams on arriving in the mainland of India.
rapidly over most of Assam. The normal
• The first stream strikes the West Coast of
date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June.
India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of
• On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas,
over 250 cm.
the bay branch is deflected westward by the
o It strikes perpendicular to the
Himalayan barrier, and it advances up the
Western Ghats causing plentiful
Gangetic plain.
orographic rainfall (400 to 500 cm
• The two branches merge with each other annual rainfall on the windward
mostly around Delhi to form a single side).
current. o Rainfall is drastically reduced to
• Arabian Sea Branch of the monsoon is much about 30-50 cm on the leeward side
powerful than The Bay of Bengal branch for of the crest.
reasons: o There is a narrow belt of marked
1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the aridity on the immediate leeward
bay of Bengal, and side of the Western Ghats. But once
2. The entire Arabian sea current it is passed, the air starts rising again
advances towards India, whereas and the amount of rainfall increases
only a part of the Bay of Bengal further east.
current, enters India, the
• The second stream enters Narmada—Tapti o The rainfall by this stream is

troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches characterized by a steady decline as
central India. we move from east to west up the
o It does not cause much rain near the plain.
coast due to the absence of major • The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry
orographic obstacle across the rift. during the south-west monsoon period
o Some parts of central India receive because of
rainfall from this stream (ex: 1. Rain shadow effect of the
Nagpur). Arabian sea current and
• The third stream moves parallel to the 2. Bay of Bengal current which
Aravalli range without causing much flows parallel to the coast.
rainfall.
o Consequently, the whole of Break in the South West Monsoons
Rajasthan is a desert area. • During July and August, there are certain
o However, some orographic effect is periods when the monsoons become
occurring on the south-eastern edge weak.
of the Aravalli range. Mount Abu • Rainfall practically ceases over the country
gets about 170 cm rainfall while the outside the Himalayan belt and southeast
surrounding plains have only 60 to peninsula.
80 cm rainfall. • This is known as a break in the monsoon.
• During the break period, heavy rainfall
The Bay of Bengal Branch occurs over the Sub-Himalayan regions and
• The Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
monsoon is divided into two distinct • On an average one or two breaks do occur
streams. during the rainy season.
• The first stream crosses the Ganga- • 85 out of 100 years there is a break in the
Brahmaputra delta and reaches monsoons.
Meghalaya.
o Here that the orographic effect What causes monsoon break?
results in intense rainfall. • The breaks are believed to be brought about
o Cherrapunji receives an annual by the northward shifting of the monsoon
rainfall of 1,102 cm, a major portion trough (minimum low-pressure cells in ITCZ)
of which occurs from June to to the foothills of Himalayas.
august. • This leads to a sharp decrease in rainfall
o Mawsynram (present champion) over most parts of the country but increases
located at 1,329 m above sea level along the Himalayas and parts of northeast
just 16 km to the west of cherrapunji India and the southern peninsula.
records higher annual rainfall of • Breaks are likely to occur during the second
1,221 cm. week of august and last for a week.
• The second stream of the Bay of Bengal • The breaks can also occur due to tropical
branch moves along Himalayan foothills as cyclones which originate in the Bay of
they are deflected to the west by the Bengal.
Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall to
ganga plain.
Chief characteristics of South West • The rainless interval during south-west

Monsoon Rainfall monsoon season is known as breaks.
• There are large scale spatial variations in the
• A major part of monsoon rains is received
between June and September. distribution of rainfall.
• Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by • Monsoons often fail to keep the date;
relief and is orographic in its mode. sometimes the monsoons withdraw before
• The amount of rainfall decreases with the scheduled time causing considerable
increasing distance from the sea. damage to the crops.
NE MONSOON SEASON – RETREATING Pressure and Winds during Retreating

MONSOON SEASON Monsoon Season
• As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon
• Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal trough weakens and gradually shifts
of southwest monsoon (middle of southward.
September – November). • Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of
• The monsoons withdraw from the extreme the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
north-west end of the country in • The direction of winds over large parts of the
September, from the peninsula by October country is influenced by the local pressure
and from the extreme south-eastern tip by conditions.
December.
• In Punjab, the south-west monsoons reach Cyclones during Retreating Monsoon
in the first week of July and withdraw from Season
there in the second week of September. • Most severe and devastating tropical
• The south-west monsoons reach cyclones originate in the Indian seas
Coromandel Coast in the first week of June especially in the Bay of Bengal.
and withdraw from there only in the middle • The highest frequency of the cyclones is in
of December. the month of October and the first half of
• Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing November.
monsoons, the withdrawal is rather gradual • More cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal
and takes about three months. than in the Arabian Sea.
• Near 55 per cent of the bay storms cross or
Temperature during Retreating Monsoon affect the Indian coast.
Season
• With the retreat of the monsoons, the Precipitation during Retreating Monsoon
clouds disappear, and the sky becomes Season
clear. • The humidity and cloud cover are much
• The day temperature starts falling steeply. reduced with the retreat of the south-west
• The diurnal range of temperature increases monsoons, and most parts of the country
due to the lack of cloud cover. remain without much rainfall.
• October-November is the main rainy season in
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra
Pradesh to the south of the Krishna delta as • The retreating monsoons absorb moisture
well as a secondary rainy period for Kerala. while passing over the Bay of Bengal and cause
this rainfall.
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 7
INDIAN CLIMATE • Thus, Indian climate, to be precise, is

Tropical Monsoon Type (a distinct wet
and dry climate) rather than just a tropical
or half temperate climate.
• Resembles the climate that of a tropical
country although its northern part is
FEATURES OF INDIAN CLIMATE
situated in the temperate belt.
• India has high regional climatic diversity
• Because of lofty Himalayan ranges which
because of its topographical diversity
block the cold air masses moving
(location, altitude, distance from sea and
southwards from central Asia.
relief).
• Winter northern half is warmer by 3°C to
8°C than other areas located on the same
latitudes. Rainfall
• Summer, due to over the head position of • The climate in most of the regions is
the sun, the climate in the southern parts characterized by distinct wet and dry
resemble Equatorial Dry Climate. seasons.
• The north Indian plains are under the • Some places like Thar Desert, Ladakh have
influence of hot, dry wind called ‘loo’ no wet season.
blowing from the Thar, Baloch and Iranian • Mean annual rainfall varies substantially
deserts, increasing the temperatures to a from region to region.
level comparable to that of the southern • Over 80% of annual rain is received in four
parts of the country. rainy months from June to September and
even in these, there are active spells and
• Thus, the whole of India, south of the
break periods.
Himalayas can be climatically treated as a • During cold weather season, the country
tropical country. gets some rainfall and snowfall from
• The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian Western Disturbances.
Sea and Bay of Bengal gives India a typical • Mawsynram and cherrapunji in
tropical monsoon climate. Meghalaya receive around 1,100 cm of
annual rainfall while at Jaisalmer the • Himalayan regions experience brutal

annual rainfall rarely exceeds 12 cm. winters while the summers are moderate.
• The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of
Odisha see intense rainfall in July and FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIAN CLIMATE
august while the coromandel coast (Tamil • Latitudinal Location
Nadu coast and southern Andhra coast) • Distance From the Sea
goes dry during these months. • The Himalayas
• Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna • Physiography
receive South-West Monsoon rains by the • Monsoon Winds
first quarter of June while the rains are • Upper Air Circulation
awaited till early July at places in • El Nino and La Nina
northwest India. • Tropical Cyclones and Western
Disturbances
Temperature
• Diurnal and annual temperature ranges
INDIAN CLIMATE – SEASONS
are substantial.
• The Cold Weather Season or Winter
• Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur
Season
in the Thar Desert, and the highest annual
• The Hot Weather Season or Summer
temperature ranges are recorded in the
Season
Himalayan regions.
• The South-West Monsoon Season or
• Both diurnal and mean annual
Rainy Season
temperature ranges are least in coastal
• The Season of the Retreating Monsoon or
regions.
Cool Season.
• In December, the temperature may dip to
– 40°c at some places in J&K while in many
coastal regions average temperature is 20-
25°c.
• Winters are moderately cold in most of
the regions while the summers are
extremely hot.
WINTER SEASON IN INDIA • Clear Sky, Pleasant Weather, Low

Temperature, Low Humidity, High Range
• November to march. of Temperature, Cool and Slow North-
• January is the coldest month. East Trade Winds.
• The sun rays fall almost directly on Tropic of • The diurnal range of temperature,
Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. especially in interior parts of the country,
• Sun’s apparent path is to the south of the is very high.
equator.
Temperature in Winter Season

• The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel to the
tropic of cancer.
• To the south of this isotherm, the temperatures are
above 20 °c.
• Here there is no distinctly defined winter weather.
• Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically
experience temperatures near 30 °C.
• To the north mean temperatures are below 21 °C
and the winter weather is distinct.
• The mean minimum temperature is about 5 °C over
North-West India and 10 °C over the Gangetic
plains.
• Drass valley in Kashmir is the coldest place in India.
• The minimum temperature recorded at Drass was –
45 °c in 1908.
Pressure in Winter Season

• High air pressure prevails over large parts of north-west
India due to low temperatures coupled with divergence
induced by the ridge of the STJ.
• Pressure is comparatively lower in south India.
• The winds start blowing from high-pressure area of the
north-west to low-pressure area of the south-east.
• The wind velocity is low due to a low pressure gradient.
Western Disturbances in Winter Season

• During cold weather season number of
cyclonic depressions known as Western
Disturbances are developed in the
Mediterranean Sea. These depressions
move eastward, towards India, at the
height of 3000 m above sea level, under
the influence of westerly jet stream.
• The spell of fine weather over north-
western and northern India is often
broken due to the inflow of western
disturbances.
• They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab,
Tropical Cyclones in Winter Season
and Haryana. • This is the season of least tropical cyclone
• They move eastwards across the sub- activity.
Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh. • The frequency of tropical cyclones
• On their way, the moisture content gets decreases with the advancement of the
augmented from the Caspian Sea in the season.
north and the Persian Gulf in the south. • This is due to low sea surface temperature
• They yield some rainfall. It is of great and exit of ITCZ farthest south.
economic significance for Rabi crops of • The storms which are born in the Bay of
wheat and gram as they provide much-
Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy
needed moisture to these crops.
rainfall.
• They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga
• Some of them cross the southern
plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
peninsula over to the Arabian Sea.
• After the passage of the disturbance,
• Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea
widespread fog and cold waves lowering
and move towards either north or west.
the minimum temperature by 5° to 10°C
below normal are experienced
Precipitation in Winter Season

• The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and
cause Winter Rainfall in Tamil Nadu, South
Andhra Pradesh, South-East Karnataka and
South-East Kerala (usually in the first weeks of
November).
• Most of it occurs along the south-eastern coast
of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra
Pradesh.
• The western disturbances also cause a little
rainfall in north-west India.
• The amount of rainfall gradually decreases from
the north and north-west to the east.
• The north-eastern part of India also gets rainfall
during the winter months.
SUMMER SEASON IN INDIA • The diurnal range of temperature is also very

• March to June. high. It may be as high as 18°C in some parts.
• High temperature and low humidity are the • The temperatures along the west coast are
chief characteristics. comparatively lower than those prevailing on
• There is a continuous and rapid rise of the east coast due to the prevailing westerly
temperature and fall in pressure from winds.
March to May. • Northern and central parts of India experience
• It is sometimes referred to as the PRE- heat waves in this season.
MONSOON PERIOD
Pressure in Summer Season
Temperature in Summer Season • The atmospheric pressure is low all over the
• High sun’s insolation country due to high temperature.
• The southern parts of the country are • But strong dynamically induced divergence
distinctly warmer in March and April whereas, over north-west India prevents the onset of
in June, north India has higher temperatures. south-west monsoons.
• In March, the highest temperatures occur in
the southern parts (40-45 °C).
Winds in Summer Season
• In April the highest temperature of about 45
• There is a marked change in the direction and
°c is recorded in the northern parts of Madhya
speed of the winds from winter.
Pradesh.
• Loo
• In May the highest temperature shifts to
o In May and June, because of steep pressure
Rajasthan where temperatures as high as 48 °C
gradient, the hot, strong and dust-laden winds,
may be recorded.
known as 'loo' starts to blow in north India.
• In June the maximum temperature is in Punjab They reach maximum intensity in the
and Haryana. afternoon.
oLoo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch storms are known as tea showers and
and Thar Deserts barodoli chheerha.
o Hot, dust-laden and strong wind known as • The period of maximum occurrence of these
loo blows. storms is the month of vaisakh (mid-march to
o It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km mid-April), and hence, they are locally known
per hour and persists for days. as kalabaisakhis, the black storms or a mass of
• Andhis dark clouds of vaiasakha
o The strong dust storms resulting from the
convective phenomena are locally known as Convectional Thunderstorms in Summer
andhis (blinding storms). They move like a Season
solid wall of dust and sand. • In the south, the thunderstorms occur in
o The wind velocity often reaches 50-60 kmph,
Kerala and adjoining parts of Karnataka and
and the visibility is reduced to a few metres Tamil Nadu, particularly during evenings and
nights.
Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer Season • In Karnataka, they are called cherry blossoms
• The strong convectional movements related or blossom showers due to their effect on the
to the westerly jet stream lead to coffee plantations.
thunderstorms in the eastern and north- • Such showers are called mango showers in
eastern part of the country. Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
• They normally originate over CHOTA NAGPUR because they are very beneficial to mango
PLATEAU and are carried eastwards by crop.
westerly winds.
• The areas with the highest incidence of
thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal Western Disturbances in Summer Season
Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, • Their frequency and intensity gradually
Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the decrease with the advancement of summer.
Adjoining Areas of Odisha and Jharkhand. • Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western
disturbances visit north-west India in March,
Norwesters and Thunderstorms in Summer April and May respectively.
Season • They cause snowfall in higher reaches of the
• In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Himalayas.
Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the direction of
squalls is mainly from the northwest, and they Tropical Cyclones in Summer Season
are called norwesters. • Originate in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
• They are often very violent with squall speeds Sea.
of 60 to 80 km per hour. • About three-fourths of the tropical cyclones
• The rainfall brought by the Norwesters is are born in the Bay of Bengal, and the rest
known as the Spring Storm Showers. originate in the Arabian Sea.
• Hailstones sometimes accompany showers • Most of the depressions in April originate to
and occasionally attain the size of a golf ball. the south of 10 °N while those originating in
• They cause heavy damage to standing crops, May are born to the north of this latitude.
livestock and even lead to loss of human lives. • Very few hit the Indian coast while some
• However, they are, sometimes, useful for tea, dissipate over the sea itself.
jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these
• In the Arabian Sea, major storms are formed in • Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive
May between 7° and 12° N latitudes. rainfall from thunderstorms
• Most of them move away from the Indian
coast in a north-westerly direction and
dissipate in the sea.
Precipitation in Summer Season

• This season is not totally rainless (only One
Percent of the annual rainfall).
• In the north-eastern parts of the country, dust
storms bring little rainfall.
• The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in the
form of snow caused by western
disturbances.
• The Norwesters bring some rainfall in Assam,
West Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of
rainfall is high.
temperatures above 30 °c as they receive

little rainfall during this season.
RAINY SEASON – SOUTH WEST
MONSOON SEASON Pressure and Winds during South West
Monsoon Season
• June to mid-September.
• Low-pressure conditions prevail over
• South west monsoon season is also known
northwest India due to high temperature.
as a hot-wet season.
• ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the Ganga
plain.
Temperature during South West Monsoon
• There are frequent changes in its location
Season depending upon the weather conditions.
• Sudden onset of SW monsoons leads to • The atmospheric pressure increases steadily
significant fall in temperature (3° to 6 °C). southwards.
• The temperature remains less uniform • Over the peninsular region, due to the
throughout the rainy season. pressure gradient between north and
• The temperature rises in September with south, winds blow in a southwest to
the cease of south-west monsoons. northeast direction from Arabian Sea and
• There is a rise in temperature whenever Bay of Bengal.
there is a break in the monsoons. • Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-
• The diurnal range of temperature is small Gangetic plain where they move from east
due to clouds and rains. to west.
• The temperatures are quite low over the
Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall. Rainfall during South West Monsoon
• The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and
Season
adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have
• Three-fourths of the total annual rainfall is

received during this season. The Arabian Sea Branch
• The average rainfall over the plains of India
in this season is about 87 per cent.
• Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon
is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
• The advance of the monsoon is much faster
in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.
• The normal date of onset of the southwest
monsoon over Kerala, i.e., the first place of
entry in the mainland of India is 1st June.
• The monsoons advance quickly
accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning
and heavy downpour. This sudden onset of
rain is termed as monsoon burst
SW Monsoon–Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal • The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest
Branch monsoons is divided into three distinct
• The Arabian Sea Branch gradually advances streams on arriving in the mainland of India.
northwards. It reaches Mumbai by 10th • The first stream strikes the West Coast of
June. India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of
• The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather over 250 cm.
rapidly over most of Assam. The normal o It strikes perpendicular to the
date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June. Western Ghats causing plentiful
• On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas, orographic rainfall (400 to 500 cm
the bay branch is deflected westward by the annual rainfall on the windward
Himalayan barrier, and it advances up the side).
Gangetic plain. o Rainfall is drastically reduced to
• The two branches merge with each other about 30-50 cm on the leeward side
mostly around Delhi to form a single of the crest.
current. o There is a narrow belt of marked
• Arabian Sea Branch of the monsoon is much aridity on the immediate leeward
powerful than The Bay of Bengal branch for side of the Western Ghats. But once
reasons: it is passed, the air starts rising again
1. The Arabian sea is larger than the and the amount of rainfall increases
bay of Bengal, and further east.
2. The entire Arabian sea current • The second stream enters Narmada—Tapti
advances towards India, whereas troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches
only a part of the Bay of Bengal central India.
current, enters India, the o It does not cause much rain near the
remainder proceeding to coast due to the absence of major

Myanmar, Thailand and orographic obstacle across the rift.
Malaysia.
o Some parts of central India receive • The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry
rainfall from this stream (ex: during the south-west monsoon period
Nagpur). because of
• The third stream moves parallel to the 1. Rain shadow effect of the
Aravalli range without causing much Arabian sea current and
rainfall. 2. Bay of Bengal current which
o Consequently, the whole of flows parallel to the coast.
Rajasthan is a desert area.
o However, some orographic effect is Break in the South West Monsoons
occurring on the south-eastern edge • During July and August, there are certain
of the Aravalli range. Mount Abu periods when the monsoons become
gets about 170 cm rainfall while the weak.
surrounding plains have only 60 to • Rainfall practically ceases over the country
80 cm rainfall. outside the Himalayan belt and southeast
peninsula.
The Bay of Bengal Branch • This is known as a break in the monsoon.
• The Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest • During the break period, heavy rainfall
monsoon is divided into two distinct occurs over the Sub-Himalayan regions and
streams. the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
• The first stream crosses the Ganga- • On an average one or two breaks do occur
Brahmaputra delta and reaches during the rainy season.
Meghalaya. • 85 out of 100 years there is a break in the
o Here that the orographic effect monsoons.
results in intense rainfall. What causes monsoon break?
o Cherrapunji receives an annual • The breaks are believed to be brought about
rainfall of 1,102 cm, a major portion by the northward shifting of the monsoon
of which occurs from June to trough (minimum low-pressure cells in ITCZ)
august. to the foothills of Himalayas.
o Mawsynram (present champion) • This leads to a sharp decrease in rainfall
located at 1,329 m above sea level over most parts of the country but increases
just 16 km to the west of cherrapunji along the Himalayas and parts of northeast
records higher annual rainfall of India and the southern peninsula.
1,221 cm. • Breaks are likely to occur during the second
• The second stream of the Bay of Bengal week of august and last for a week.
branch moves along Himalayan foothills as • The breaks can also occur due to tropical
they are deflected to the west by the cyclones which originate in the Bay of
Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall to Bengal.
ganga plain.
o The rainfall by this stream is
characterized by a steady decline as Chief characteristics of South West
we move from east to west up the Monsoon Rainfall
plain.
• A major part of monsoon rains is received
between June and September.
• Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by • Monsoons often fail to keep the date;
relief and is orographic in its mode. sometimes the monsoons withdraw before
• The amount of rainfall decreases with the scheduled time causing considerable
increasing distance from the sea. damage to the crops.
• The rainless interval during south-west
monsoon season is known as breaks.
• There are large scale spatial variations in the
distribution of rainfall.
NE MONSOON SEASON – RETREATING

MONSOON SEASON
Pressure and Winds during Retreating
• Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal
Monsoon Season
of southwest monsoon (middle of • As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon
September – November). trough weakens and gradually shifts
• The monsoons withdraw from the extreme southward.
north-west end of the country in • Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of
September, from the peninsula by October the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
and from the extreme south-eastern tip by • The direction of winds over large parts of the
December. country is influenced by the local pressure
• In Punjab, the south-west monsoons reach conditions.
in the first week of July and withdraw from
there in the second week of September. Cyclones during Retreating Monsoon
• The south-west monsoons reach Season
Coromandel Coast in the first week of June • Most severe and devastating tropical
and withdraw from there only in the middle cyclones originate in the Indian seas
of December. especially in the Bay of Bengal.
• Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing • The highest frequency of the cyclones is in
monsoons, the withdrawal is rather gradual the month of October and the first half of
and takes about three months. November.
• More cyclones originate in the Bay of
Temperature during Retreating Monsoon Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.
Season • Near 55 per cent of the bay storms cross or
• With the retreat of the monsoons, the affect the Indian coast.
clouds disappear, and the sky becomes
clear. Precipitation during Retreating Monsoon
• The day temperature starts falling steeply. Season
• The diurnal range of temperature increases • The humidity and cloud cover are much
due to the lack of cloud cover. reduced with the retreat of the south-west
monsoons, and most parts of the country
remain without much rainfall.
• October-November is the main rainy season in
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra
Pradesh to the south of the Krishna delta as

well as a secondary rainy period for Kerala.
• The retreating monsoons absorb moisture
while passing over the Bay of Bengal and
cause this rainfall.
CLIMATE REGION OF INDIA 4. The Region of Moderate Rainfall

5. The Transitional Zone
Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions

of India
• Stamp used 18 °C Isotherm of mean monthly
temperature for January to divide the country
into two broad climatic regions, viz.,
Temperate or continental zone in the north
and tropical zone in the south.
• This line runs roughly across the root of the
peninsula, more or less along or parallel to
the tropic of cancer.
• The two major climatic regions are further
divided into eleven regions depending upon
the amount of rainfall and temperature
TEMPERATE OR CONTINENTAL INDIA

1. The Himalayan Region (Heavy Rainfall)
2. The North-Western Region (Moderate
Rainfall)
3. The Arid Low Land
Region Avg Annual

Temperature Rainfall
Himalayan Region Sumer = 4-7 °C East = Over
Winter = 13-18 200 cm
°C West =
much less
North-western Region-Northern parts of Punjab and southern parts of Summer = 16 Below 200
Jammu and Kashmir °C cm
Winter = 24 °C
Arid Lowland -Thar desert of Rajasthan, south western part of Haryana Winter = 16-24 Below 40
and Kachchh of Gujarat °C cm
Summer = 48 °C
Region of moderate rainfall- Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Winter = 15-18 40-80 cm
Union Territory of Delhi, north-west Plateau area of Madhya Pradesh and °C
eastern Rajasthan Summer = 33-
35 °C
Transitional Zone-Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar Winter = 15-19 100-150 cm

°C
Summer = 30-
35 °C
TROPICAL INDIA
1. Region Of Very Heavy Rainfall
2. Region Of Heavy Rainfall
3. Region Of Moderate Rainfall
4. The Konkan Coast
5. The Malabar Coast
6. Tamil Nadu
Region Avg Temperature Annual Rainfall

Region of very heavy rainfall-Meghalaya, Assam, Winter = 18 °C Over 200
Tripura, Mizoram and Nagaland Summer = 32-35 °C
Region of heavy rainfall -Chhattisgarh, Winter = 18-24 °C 100-200 cm
Jharkhand, Gangetic West Bengal, Odisha and Summer = 29-35 °C
coastal Andhra Pradesh
Region of moderate rainfall between Western Winter = 18-24 °C 50-100 cm
and Eastern Ghats Summer = 32 °C
Konkan Coast Mumbai in the north to Goa in the Annual = 24-27 °C. Over 200 cm
south
Malabar Coast Goa to Kanyakumari Annual = 27 °C Over 250 cm
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Annual = 24 °C 100 to 150 cm (Retreating
Andhra Pradesh monsoon)
Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic

Regions of India
• Koppen identified a close relationship

between the Distribution of Vegetation and
Climate.
• He selected certain values of temperature
and precipitation and related them to the
distribution of vegetation and used these
values for classifying the climates.
• Koppen divided India into nine climatic
regions making use of the above scheme
Climate type Region Annual rainfall

Amw: Monsoon type Western coastal region, south of Mumbai More than 250 cm
with short dry winter
season
As: Monsoon type with Coromandel coast: Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining 75-100 cm Wet
dry season in high sun areas of Andhra Pradesh winters Dry summers
period
Aw: Tropical Savanah Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring 75 cm
type Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips
BShw: Semi-arid Steppe Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large part 12-25 cm
type of Rajasthan and contiguous areas of Haryana and
Gujarat
BWhw: Hot desert type Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm
Cwg: Monsoon type Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, 100-200 cm
with dry winters Assam and in Malwa Plateau
Dfc: Cold, Humid Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam ~200 cm
winters type with
shorter summer
Et: Tundra Type Main areas - Kashmir, Ladakh and the areas of Himachal Rainfall varies from
Pradesh at the height of 3000 to 5000 m, year to year.
the average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C
E: Polar Type Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Precipitation occurs
Pradesh in which the temperature is less than 0°C for in the form of snow
the whole year (snow-covered region).
INDIAN GEOGRAPHY- 8
• Topography is responsible for certain
minor types e.g., alpine flora, tidal forests,
NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA etc
• Natural vegetation includes that part of the Annual Type of Vegetation

plant life which grows in the wild without Rainfall
human aid and adapts to the constraints of 200 cm or Evergreen Rain Forests
the natural environment in size, structure, more
and requirements. 100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests
• Climate, soil and topography are the 50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical
major factors that influence Natural Savanna
Vegetation of a place. 25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)
• The main climatic factors are rainfall and Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)
temperature. The amount of annual
rainfall has a great bearing on the type of
Classification of Natural Vegetation of
vegetation.
• Temperature is the major factor in India
Himalayas and other hilly regions with an • Classification of Natural Vegetation of
elevation of more than 900 metres. India is primarily based on spatial and
• As the temperature falls with altitude in annual variations in rainfall. Temperature,
the Himalayan region the vegetal cover soil and topography are also considered.
changes with altitude from tropical to sub- • India’s vegetation can be divided into 5
tropical, temperate and finally alpine. main types and 16 sub-types as given
• Soil is an equally determining factor in few below
regions. Mangrove forests, swamp
forests are some of the examples where Moist Tropical Forests
soil is the major factor. 1. Tropical Wet Evergreen
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous ✓ Evergreen: Due to high heat and high

4. Littoral and Swamp humidity, the trees of these forests do
not shed their leaves together.
Dry Tropical Forest ✓ Mesosphytic: Plants adapted to
1. Tropical Dry Evergreen neither too dry nor too wet type
2. Tropical Dry Deciduous climate.
3. Tropical Thorn ✓ Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60
metres in height.
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests ✓ Thick Canopy: From the air, the
1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill tropical rain forest appears like a thick
2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine) canopy of foliage, broken only where
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen it is crossed by large rivers or cleared
for cultivation.
Montane Temperate Forests ✓ The wood of these trees is sturdy and
1. Montane Wet Temperate heavy to work with.
✓ All plants struggle upwards
2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
(most ephiphytes) for sunlight
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement. The entire morphology
Alpine Forests
looks like a green carpet when viewed
1. Sub-Alpine
from above.
2. Moist Alpine
✓ Less undergrowth: The sun light
3. Dry Alpine Scrub cannot reach the ground due to thick
Area under forest canopy. The undergrowth is formed
mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers,
orchids, etc. Grasses are almost
absent.
✓ Mahogany, cinchona, bamboos, and
palms are typical species of plants
found in these forests.
What are Mesophytes?

• Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as
water lily or pondweed, that grow in
saturated soil or water, or xerophytic
MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS
plants, such as cactus, that grow in
extremely dry soil, mesophytes are
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests
ordinary plants that exist between the
• Climatic Conditions
two extremes.
✓ Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm
• Mesophytic environments are marked
✓ The annual temperature is about 25°-
by average to hot temperatures and soil
27°C
that is neither too dry nor too wet.
✓ The average annual humidity exceeds
77 per cent and
• Distribution
✓ The dry season is distinctly short.
✓ Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to
1370 metres above sea level).
• Characteristics
✓ Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
✓ In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. forests are less dense with more
pure stands (timber industry here is
Tropical Semi-Evergreen (Transitional Forests) better than in evergreen forests).
✓ The timber obtained from these forests
• They are transitional forests between tropical
is fine textured and of good quality.
wet evergreen forests and tropical deciduous Shifting agriculture and
forests. overexploitation of forests have
• They are comparatively drier areas compared depleted this vegetal cover to a great
extent.
to tropical wet evergreen forests.
• Climatic Conditions
✓ Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
✓ Mean annual temperature varies • Climatic Conditions
from 24°C to 27°C ✓ Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.

✓ The relative humidity is about 75 per ✓ Mean annual temperature of
cent about 27°C
✓ The dry season is not short like in ✓ The average annual relative
tropical evergreen forests. humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.
• Distribution ✓ Spring (between winter and
✓ Western coast summer) and summer are dry.
✓ Assam ✓ As with all kinds of forests, these
forests are also suffering from
✓ Lower slopes of the Eastern deforestation for timber, mining,
Himalayas agriculture, etc.
✓ Odisha and Andaman and Nicobar • Characteristics
Islands. ✓ The trees drop their leaves during the
• Characteristics spring and early summer when sufficient
✓ The semi-evergreen forests are less moisture is not available.
dense. ✓ The general appearance is bare in extreme
✓ They are more gregarious [living in summers (April-May).
flocks or colonies – more pure ✓ Tropical moist deciduous forests present
stands] than the wet evergreen irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
forests. ✓ Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
✓ These forests are characterized by complete undergrowth.
many species. ✓ These forests occupy a much larger area
✓ Trees usually have buttressed than the evergreen forests but large tracts
trunks with abundant epiphytes. under these forests have been cleared for
✓ The important species are laurel, cultivation.
rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo – • Distribution
Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian ✓ Belt running along the Western Ghats
chestnut, Champa, Mango, etc. – surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
Himalayan region. ✓ A strip along the Shiwalik range including
terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
✓ Manipur and Mizoram.
• Timber ✓ Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and
✓ Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical Chhattisgarh.
evergreen forests except that these ✓ Chota Nagpur Plateau.
✓ Most of Odisha. • Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of

✓ Parts of West Bengal and the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
✓ Andaman and Nicobar islands. Krishna and the Cauvery.
• Timber • Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline
✓ These provide valuable timber like Teak. in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks,
✓ The main species found in these forests backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It
are teak, sal, Laurel, rosewood, amla, provides useful fuel wood.
jamun, bamboo, etc. • Sundari is the typical tree of tidal forests
✓ It is comparatively easy to exploit these found in Sundarbans. Some other varieties
forests due to their high degree of are, Bhendi, Keora, Nipa, etc.
• Timber
gregariousness (more pure stands).
✓ It provides hard and durable timber
Littoral and Swamp Forests
which is used for construction,
• They can survive and grow both in fresh as well
building purposes and making boats.
as brackish water (The mixture of seawater
✓ The important species found in these
and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish
forests are Sundri, Agar, Rhizophora,
water and its salinity can range from 0.5 to 35
Screw Pines, Canes and Palms, etc.
PPT).
• Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and
creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal
forests).
• Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea
or a lake) forests occur at several places along
the coast.
DRY TROPICAL FORESTS ✓ Bamboos and grasses not

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests conspicuous.
• Distribution ✓ The important species are jamun,
✓ Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu. tamarind, neem, etc.
• Climatic Conditions ✓ Most of the land under these forests
✓ Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly has been cleared for agriculture
from the north-east monsoon winds or casuarina plantations.
in October – December].
✓ Mean annual temperature is about Tropical Dry Deciduous
28°C. • Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall is 100-150
✓ The mean humidity is about 75 per cm.
cent. • Characteristics
✓ The growth of evergreen forests in ✓ These are similar to moist deciduous
areas of such low rainfall is a bit forests and shed their leaves in dry
strange. season.
• Characteristics ✓ The major difference is that they can
✓ Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, grow in areas of comparatively less
with complete canopy. rainfall.
✓ They represent a transitional type – Tropical Thorn Forests

moist deciduous on the wetter side • Climatic Conditions
and thorn forests on the drier side. ✓ Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
✓ They have closed but uneven ✓ Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
canopy. ✓ Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.
✓ The forests are composed of a • Characteristics
mixture of a few species of ✓ The trees are low (6 to 10 metres
deciduous trees rising up to a height maximum) and widely scattered.
of 20 metres. ✓ Acacias and Euphorbias are very
✓ Undergrowth: Enough light reaches prominent.
the ground to permit the growth of ✓ The Indian wild date is common.
grass and climbers. Some grasses also grow in the rainy
• Distribution season.
✓ They occur in an irregular wide strip • Distribution
running from the foot of the ✓ Rajasthan, south-western Punjab,
Himalayas to Kanniyakumari except western Haryana, Kachchh and
in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and neighboring parts of Saurashtra.
West Bengal. ✓ Here they degenerate into desert
✓ The important species are teak, type in the Thar Desert.
axlewood, rosewood, common ✓ Such forests also grow on the
bamboo, red sanders, laurel, leeside of the Western Ghats
satinwood, hurra, mahua etc. covering large areas of
✓ Large tracts of this forest have been Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana,
cleared for agricultural purposes. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
✓ These forests have suffer from over ✓ The important species are neem,
grazing, fire, etc. babul, cactii, khair, pipal, etc.
MONTANE SUB-TROPICAL FORESTS highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in

the Aravalli range
Sub-Tropical Broad Leaved Hill • Characteristics
• Climatic conditions ✓ Forests of evergreen species.
✓ Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to ✓ Commonly found species are
125 cm. evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash,
✓ Average annual temperature is beech, sals and pines.
18°-21°C. ✓ Climbers and epiphytes [a plant
✓ Humidity is 80 per cent. that grows non-parasitically on a
• Distribution tree or other plant] are common.
✓ Eastern Himalayas to the east of ✓ These forests are not so distinct in
88°E longitude at altitudes varying the southern parts of the country.
from 1000 to 2000 m. They occur only in the Nilgiri and
✓ Western Ghats such as Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres
Mahabaleshwar, the summits of above sea level.
Satpura and the Maikal range,
✓ It is a “stunted rain-forest” and is • Characteristics

not so luxuriant as the true tropical ✓ Chir or Chil is the most dominant
evergreen. tree which forms pure stands.
✓ The higher parts of the Western ✓ It provides valuable timber for
Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the furniture, boxes and buildings.
summits of the Satpura and the ✓ It is also used for producing resin
Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and turpentine.
and Mt. Abu in the Aravali Range
carry sub-types of these forests. Sub-Tropical Dry Evergreen
• Distribution: Found in the Bhabar, the
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill (Pine) Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to
• Climatic Conditions about 1000 metres above sea level.
✓ Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to • Climatic Conditions
125 cm. ✓ Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to
✓ Average annual temperature is 25 cm in December-March).
18°-21°C. ✓ The summers are sufficiently hot
✓ Humidity is 80 per cent and winters are very cold.
• Distribution • Characteristics
✓ Western Himalayas between 73°E ✓ Low scrub forest with small
and 88°E longitudes at elevations evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
between 1000 to 2000 metres above ✓ Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia
sea level. are the most predominant species.
✓ Some hilly regions of Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and
Khasi Hills.
MONTANE TEMPERATE FORESTS ✓ Branches are clothed with

mosses, ferns and other
Montane Wet Temperate Forests epiphytes.
• Climatic Conditions ✓ The trees rarely achieve a height
✓ Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 of more than 6 metres.
m above sea level ✓ Deodar, Chilauni, Indian
✓ Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to chestnut, birch, plum, machilus,
300 cm cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia,
✓ Mean annual temperature is blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are
about 11°C to 14°C and the important species.
✓ Average relative humidity is over ✓ The local name for patches of
80 per cent. montane forest in south India is
Shola forest.
• Distribution: Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and
✓ Nilgiri Biosphere which has shola
Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region. forest is included in the World
• Characteristics Natural Heritage list.
✓ These are closed evergreen
forests. Trunks have large girth.
Himalayan Moist Temperate including oaks, rhododendrons and

• Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall varies some bamboos.
from 150 cm to 250 cm • Timber: It provides fine wood which is of much
• Distribution use for construction, timber and railway
✓ Occurs in the temperate zone of sleepers.
the Himalayas between 1500 and
3300 metres. Himalayan Dry Temperate
✓ Cover the entire length of this • Climatic Conditions: Precipitation is below
mountain range in Kashmir, 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow.
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, • Characteristics: Coniferous forests with
Darjeeling and Sikkim. Xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash,
• Characteristics
olive, etc are the main trees.
✓ Mainly composed of coniferous ✓ Other important varieties are
species. chiigoza, ash, maple, mulberry,
✓ These are very thick forests of lofty
willow, celtis, etc.
trees.
✓ Species occur in mostly pure • Distribution
strands. ✓ Such forests are found in the inner dry

✓ Trees are 30 to 50 m high. ranges of the Himalayas where south-
✓ Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, west monsoon is very feeble.
etc. are most important trees. ✓ Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul,
✓ They form high but fairly open Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and
forest with shrubby undergrowth Sikkim.
ALPINE FORESTS ✓ Occurs from 3,000 metres and

• Sub-Alpine extends up to snowline.
✓ Occur as lower alpine scrub and ✓ Bugyals are alpine grasslands found in
areas of Uttarakhand, Himachal
grasslands.
Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir.
✓ It is a mixture of coniferous and Tribes like "Gaddis" uses these
broad-leaved trees in which the grasslands to practice transhumance.
coniferous trees attain a height of • Dry Alpine Scrub: Is the uppermost limit of scrub
about 30 m while the broad-leaved xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres
above sea level and found in the dry zone. Juniper,
trees reach only 10 m.
Honeysuckle, Artemisia etc.
✓ Fir, spruce, rhododendron etc.
• Moist Alpine Scrub
✓ Is a low evergreen dense growth of
rhododendron, birch.
SOILS IN INDIA ✓ If the proportion of fine particles is

relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil.
Biogeography – Soils
✓ Clay particles, being much smaller, pack
• Pedology is the study of soils.
tightly together, leaving little space for
• Soil is loose and unconsolidated material air.
derived through breaking down of rocks and
• Loamy
forms the topmost layer of the earth's
✓ Large and fine particles in same ratio,
surface.
then the soil is called loamy.
• The soil formation depends upon: ✓ The best topsoil for growing plants is
1. Parent Rock Material loam.
2. Surface Relief
✓ Mixture of sand, clay and silt (deposited
3. Climate
by river).
4. Natural Vegetation ✓ The loamy soil also has humus in it.
Soil Types Soil Profile (Soil Horizon)

• Sandy
• A vertical section having different layers is
✓ If the soil contains a greater proportion called the soil profile.
of big particles, it is called sandy soil.
• Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour,
✓ Sandy soils tend to be light in colour,
depth and chemical composition.
well aerated and dry.
• These layers are referred to as horizons.
• Clayey
• A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel
to the soil surface having different
physical characteristics.
H horizons or • Layers dominated by organic material, formed from accumulations of

layers undecomposed or partially decomposed organic material at the soil surface which
may be underwater.
• All H horizons are saturated with water for prolonged periods or were once
saturated but are now artificially drained.
• An H horizon may be on top of mineral soils or at any depth beneath the surface
if it is buried.
O Horizon • Layers dominated by organic material.
• Some O layers consist of un-decomposed or partially decomposed litter (such as
leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).
• They may be on top of either mineral or organic soils.
• O horizons are not saturated with water for prolonged periods.
A Horizon or • It is the part of top soil.

Surface soil • In this layer, organic matter is mixed with mineral matter.
• It is the layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil
life.
• This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds,
and other soluble constituents.
• When depletion is pronounced, a lighter colored “E” subsurface soil horizon is
apparent at the base of the “A” horizon.
E horizon • "E" stands for an eluviated layer.

• It is the horizon that has been significantly leached of clay, iron, and aluminium
oxides, which leaves a concentration of resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the
sand and silt sizes.
• These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally, occur
between the a and b horizons
B Horizon or • It is a subsurface layer reflecting a chemical or physical alteration of parent

Subsoil material.
• Accumulates all the leached minerals from A and E horizon.
• Thus iron, clay, aluminium and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon.
• All kinds of B horizons are, or were originally, subsurface horizons.
C Horizon or • Weathered parent material accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent material in
Parent rock sedimentary deposits.
• It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
• This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds (inorganic material).
• C horizon may have been modified even if there is no evidence of pedogenesis.

Plant roots can penetrate C horizons, which provide an important growing
medium.
R Horizon or • This layer denotes the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil
Bedrock profile.
• Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard
rock.
• Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
• These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the other profiles.
• Granite, basalt, quartzite and indurated limestone or sandstone are examples of

bedrock that are designated R.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION IN INDIAN CONDITIONS

PARENT MATERIAL • The rocks from which soils are formed.
• Parent material determines the colouration, mineral
composition and texture of the soil.
• Soil may or may not have the same physical properties as
the parent rock.
o The peninsular soils reflect the underlying parent
rock characteristics e.g., Crystalline and
metamorphic rocks like granite, gneiss and schist
form red soils on weathering because they contain
iron oxide.
o The soils of Northern Plains are transported and
then deposited by the agents of gradation. Ex.
Rivers of the Himalayas.
o Soils derived from lava rocks are black coloured.
• Climatic factors are also accountable.
• Parent rocks are exposed to the process of weathering.
• Small weathered particles are named as rocks.
RELIEF • Steep slopes like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus play
role in soil formation.
• Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant, and it hinders soil
formation. Example: Chambal Ravines, higher reaches of
the Himalayas.
• The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience
deposition and have deep soils.
• The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil
layers are sufficiently deep.
CLIMATE • Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in

soil formation.
• They determine the effectiveness of weathering , Water
seeping, Type of micro-organisms.
• The crystalline granites produce Laterite soil in relatively

moist parts of the monsoonal region and Non-Laterite Soil
in drier areas.
• Hot summer and low rainfall develop black soil.
• In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy
soil under arid climate.
• In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds
precipitation. So light colour soil.
• An excess of evaporation makes soils lime accumulating.
• In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of
vegetation decay is very slow, and the soils are acidic in
nature
NATURAL VEGETATION • It is a combined effects of relief and climate.

• The formation and development of soil is very much
influenced by the growth of vegetation.
• The decayed leaf material adds much-needed humus to soil
thereby increasing its fertility.
• The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in
India.
• There is a Close Relationship between the vegetation types
and soil types in India.
TIME FACTOR • It is difficult to be precise about the role of time in soil

formation since soils vary significantly in their rates of
development.
• On porous materials such as sandstones, soil formation is
much more rapid than on impermeable materials, at least
initially.
• On glacial tills, a few hundred years may be enough to form
soil; whereas, on the dense basaltic rock surface, a much
longer time is required.
MAJOR SOIL GROUPS OF INDIA ✓ Porosity and texture provide

good drainage.
• Soils of Peninsular India ✓ Constantly replenished by the
✓ Formed by the decomposition of recurrent floods.
rocks in situ. • Chemical Properties of Alluvial Soils
✓ Soils of peninsular India are ✓ The proportion of Nitrogen is
transported and re-deposited to a generally low.
limited extent and are known as ✓ The proportion of potash,
sedentary soils. phosphoric acid (phosphate) and
• Soils of Extra-Peninsular India alkalis (lime) are adequate.
✓ The soils of the extra-peninsula ✓ The proportion of iron oxide and
are formed due to the lime vary within a wide range.
depositional work of rivers and • Distribution of Alluvial Soils In India
wind. They are very deep. They ✓ Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
are often referred to as plains except in few places where
transported or azonal soils. the top layer is covered by desert
sand.
Alluvial Soils ✓ Deltas of the Mahanadi, The
• Formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo- Godavari, The Krishna And The
Gangetic-Brahmaputra Rivers. Cauvery.
• In coastal regions, some alluvial deposits are ✓ Some alluvial soils are found in
formed due to wave action. the Narmada, Tapti valleys and
• Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent northern parts of Gujarat.
material.
• Largest soil group covering about 45.6 % of
the total area.
• They support more than 40% of India's
population.
• Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
✓ They are immature and have
weak profiles.
✓ Most of the soil is LOAMY. Sandy
and clayey soils are not
uncommon.
✓ Pebbly and gravelly soils are
rare.
✓ Kankar beds are present in some
regions along the river terraces.
✓ The soil is porous because of its
loamy nature.
• Crops in Alluvial Soils the canal and well/tube-well

✓ They are mostly flat and irrigation.
regular soils and are best ✓ They yield splendid crops of
suited for agriculture. Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane,
✓ They are best suited to Tobacco, Cotton, Jute, Maize,
irrigation and respond well to Oilseeds, etc.
Black Soils/Regur Soil ✓ Various tints of the black colour may

• The parent material for most of the black soil be found in this group of soils.
is the volcanic rocks that were formed in the • Chemical Composition of Black Soils
Deccan Plateau. ✓ 10 per cent of alumina,
• In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the ✓ 9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
parent material. ✓ 6-8 per cent of lime and
• These are the region of high temperature and magnesium carbonates,
low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical ✓ Potash is variable (less than
to the dry and hot regions of the peninsula. 0.5 per cent) and
• Characteristics of Black Soils ✓ Phosphates, nitrogen and
✓ A typical black soil is highly organic matter are low.
argillaceous (clay) 62% or more. • Distribution of Black Soils: Spread over 5.46
✓ Soils of uplands are of low fertility lakh sq km (16.6 per cent of the total area)
while those in the valleys are very across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Parts
fertile. Of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
✓ The black soil is highly retentive of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
moisture.
✓ It swells greatly on accumulating
moisture.
✓ In the rainy season, the soil gets very
sticky.
✓ In summer, soil shrinks and is seamed
with broad and deep cracks.
✓ The lower layers can still retain
moisture.
✓ The cracks permit oxygenation of the
soil to sufficient depths
• Colour of Black Soils
✓ Presence of a small proportion of
magnetite or iron and black
constituents of the parent rock.
✓ In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra
Pradesh, the black colour is derived
from crystalline schists and basic
gneisses.
• Crops in Black Soils ✓ Rice and sugarcane are

✓ These soils are best suited for equally important where
Cotton Crop. irrigation facility are
✓ Other major crops grown on available.
the black soils include wheat, ✓ Used for centuries without
jowar, linseed, virginia adding fertilisers and
tobacco, castor, sunflower manures, with little or no
and millets. evidence of exhaustion.
Red Soils ✓ These soils are spread on

• Red soils along with its minor groups form one almost the whole of Tamil
of the largest soil group of India. Nadu.
• The main parent rocks are crystalline and ✓ Other regions with red soil
metamorphic rocks like acid granites, gneisses include parts of Karnataka,
and quartzite. South-East of Maharashtra,
• They are red due to the presence of iron oxides Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
and look yellow when they occur in hydrated Madhya Pradesh,
form. Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota
• Chemical Composition of Red Soils Nagpur Plateau; Parts of
✓ They are acidic mainly due to South Bihar, West Bengal,
the nature of the parent Uttar Pradesh; Aravallis and
rocks. The alkali content is The Eastern Half of Rajasthan
fair. (Mewar or Marwar Plateau),
✓ They are poor in lime, Parts of North-Eastern
magnesia, phosphates, States.
nitrogen and humus. • Crops in Red Soils
✓ They are fairly rich in potash ✓ The red soils are mostly
and potassium loamy and hence cannot
• Characteristics of Red Soils retain water like the black
✓ The texture of these soils can soils.
vary from sand to clay, the ✓ The red soils, with the
majority being loams. proper use of fertilizers and
✓ On the uplands, the red soils irrigation techniques, give
are poor, gravelly, and good yield of cotton, wheat,
porous. But in the lower rice, pulses, millets, tobacco,
areas, they are rich, deep oil seeds, potatoes and
dark and fertile. fruits.
• Distribution of Red Soils
✓ These soils mostly occur in Laterite – Lateritic Soils
the regions of low rainfall. • Laterite soils are mostly the end products of
✓ They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq weathering.
km (10.6 per cent).
• They are formed under conditions of high Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras
temperature and heavy rainfall with and Malwa Plateau.
alternate wet and dry periods. ✓ They also occur at lower levels and
• Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients in valleys in several other parts of
gets washed away by water) of soil whereby the country.
lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich ✓ They are well developed in south
in oxides of iron and aluminum compounds is Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc.
left behind. and are widely scattered in other
• ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden regions.
greatly on loosing moisture. • Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils
• Laterite soils are red in color due to little clay ✓ Laterite soils lack fertility due
and more gravel of red sand-stones. to intensive leaching.
• Chemical composition of Laterite – Lateritic ✓ When manured and irrigated, some
Soils laterites are suitable for
✓ Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or growing plantation crops like tea,
ferric oxides. coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut,
✓ They are very poor in organic areca nut, etc.
matter, nitrogen, phosphate and ✓ In some areas, these soils
calcium. support grazing grounds and scrub
✓ Iron oxide and potash are in excess. forests.
✓ In wetter places, there may be • Economic value of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
higher content of humus. ✓ Laterite and lateritic soils
• Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils provide valuable building material.
✓ Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 ✓ These soils can be easily cut into
lakh sq km. cakes but hardens like iron when
✓ Continuous stretch of laterite soil is exposed to air.
found on the summits of Western ✓ As it is the end-product of
Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above weathering, it cannot be weathered
mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the much further and is durable.
Forest – Mountain Soils ✓ In the Himalayan region, such soils

• These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km or are mainly found in valleys, less
8.67% of the total land area of India. steep and north facing slopes. The
• They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on south facing slopes are very steep
the hill slopes covered by forests. and exposed to denudation and
• The formation of these soils is mainly hence do not support soil formation.
governed by the characteristic deposition of ✓ Forest soils occur in Western and
organic matter derived from forests and Eastern Ghats also.
their character changes with parent rocks, • Chemical properties of Forest – Mountain
ground-configuration and climate. Soils
• Consequently, they differ greatly even if they ✓ The forest soils are very rich in
occur in close proximity to one another. humus.
• Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils
✓ They are deficient in potash, • Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils

phosphorus and lime. ✓ They are suitable for plantations of
✓ They require good deal of fertilizers tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits
for high yields. in peninsular forest region.
✓ Wheat, maize, barley and
temperate fruits are grown in the
Himalayan forest region.
Arid – Desert Soils ✓ Nitrogen is originally low but some

• The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand (90 to of it is available in the form of
95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent). nitrates.
• They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km • Crops of Arid – Desert Soils
(4.32%). ✓ Phosphates and nitrates make these
• The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. soil fertile wherever moisture is
Desertification of neighboring soils is common available.
due to intrusion of desert sand under the ✓ There is a possibility of reclaiming
influence of wind [Aeolian sand]. these soils if proper irrigation
• These are fertile soils, water being the only limiting facilities are available.
factor. They can be reclaimed through proper ✓ In large areas, only the drought
irrigation. resistant and salt tolerant crops such
as barley, cotton, millets, maize and
• Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils pulses are grown.
✓ Occur in arid and semi-arid regions
of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. Saline – Alkaline Soils
The sand here is blown from the • The top soil is impregnated with saline and
Indus basin and the coast by the alkaline efflorescence.
prevailing south-west monsoon • Un-decomposed rock fragments, on
winds. weathering, give rise to sodium, magnesium
✓ Sandy soils without clay factor are and calcium salts and sulphurous acid.
also common in coastal regions of • In regions with the low water table, the salts
Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. percolate into subsoil and in regions with
• Chemical properties of Arid – Desert Soils good drainage, the salts are wasted away by
✓ They are usually poor in organic flowing water.
matter. • In regions with the high sub-soil water table,
✓ Some desert soils are alkaline with injurious salts are transferred from below by
varying degree of soluble salts the capillary action as a result of evaporation
like calcium carbonate. in the dry season.
✓ Calcium content increases • Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils
downwards and the subsoil has ten ✓ These soils are found in canal
times more calcium. irrigated areas and areas of a high
✓ The phosphate content of these sub-soil water table.
soils is as high as in normal alluvial ✓ Parts of Andhra Pradesh,
soils. Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab (Side ✓ Gulf of Khambhat is affected by the

Effects of Improper or Excess sea tides carrying salt-laden
Irrigation), Rajasthan and deposits.
Maharashtra have this kind of soils. ✓ Along the coastline, saline sea
✓ The accumulation of these salts waters infiltrate makes the soil unfit
makes the soil infertile and renders for cultivation.
it unfit for agriculture. ✓ The low lying regions of coastal
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face
this kind of soil degradation.
Peaty – Marshy Soils ✓ Also occur in the coastal areas of

• These are soils with large amount of organic Odisha and Tamil Nadu,
matter and considerable amount of soluble Sunderbans of West Bengal, in
salts. Bihar and Almora district of
• The most humid regions have this type of soil. Uttarakhand.
• They are black, heavy and highly acidic. • Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy Soils:
• These soils are heavy, dark and acidic and They are deficient in potash and phosphate.
formed under conditions of submergence. • Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils: Most of the
• Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils peaty soils are under water during the rainy
✓ Kottayam and Alappuzha districts season but as soon the rains cease, they are
of Kerala where it is called kari. put under paddy cultivation.
STUDYIQ.COM HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 1
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
➢ These included aspects such as
● Human Geography deals with the Inter- housing, health and education.
relationship between the physical environment
❖ Radical school of thought
and socio-cultural environment ➢ Marxian Theory to explain the
● Various schools of thoughts in Human basic cause of poverty, deprivation
Geography is discussed below
and social inequality.
❖ Welfare or humanistic school of thought ➢ Contemporary social problems
➢ Mainly concerned with the different
were related to the development
aspects of social well-being of the of Capitalism.
people. ❖ Behavioral school of thought: Focus on
Ethnicity, Race and Religion, etc.
Environment and Human Inter- ➢ The earlier scholars termed this as

possibilism
Relationship
● Naturalisation of humans Broad stages and thrust of human

➢ In the early stages humans adapted to geography
the dictates of nature.
➢ It was termed as environmental ● Spatial Organisation: Spatial organization is the
determinism. way a group or phenomenon is arranged on the
● Humanisation of nature surface of the Earth. Perhaps people are
➢ Nature provides opportunities and concentrated into cities or perhaps they're
human beings make use of these and more spread out. Perhaps there are more rivers
slowly nature gets humanised and starts north of the Equator than south, or perhaps the
bearing the imprints of human truth is completely different.
Endeavour.
● Areal Differentiation: Areal differentiation is analysis is that in the inter-regional analysis of

one of the perspectives of human geography in the distribution of phenomena, their positive
which importance is given to the uniqueness of and feedback relationships are examined.
the geographical area rather than the standard ● Exploration And Description: Explanatory
model creation. The first technical word” Areal research, seeks to answer “why” questions. In
Differentiation” was mentioned by Hartshorne this case, the researcher is trying to identify the
in his book” Nature of geography”. causes and effects of whatever phenomenon is
● Regional Analysis: In Regional Analysis, being studied.
appropriate regional units are identified by
areal differentiations. Connecting lines and
flows between individual regions may then be
observed. The peculiarity of complex regional
Some basic concepts of Population

Geography
● Population growth: Change in number of ● Positive Growth of Population: When
inhabitants in a fixed time. population is increasing as compared to
● Population change indicates economic previous base year.
development, social upliftment and historical ● Negative Growth of Population: When
and cultural background of the region. population is decreasing as compared to
● Growth rate of population: Change of previous base year
population expressed in percentage. ● Patterns of population:90 % of the world
● Natural growth of population: births – deaths population lives in about 10 % of its land area.
● Actual growth of population: births – deaths + ● Density of population: Ratio between the
in migration – out migration numbers of people to the size of land
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS
✔ Availability Of Water
✔ Landforms
✔ Climate
✔ Soils
ECONOMIC FACTORS
✔ MINERALS
✔ URBANISATION
✔ INDUSTRIALISATION
✔ SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS
COMPONENTS OF POPULATION CHANGE
✔ Migration
✔ Deaths
✔ Births
● Refers to the number of females and males in

AGE-SEX PYRAMID different age groups.
● The shape of the population pyramid reflects
● One of the most important demographic the characteristics of the population.
characteristics of a population is its age and sex ● The left side shows the percentage of males
structure. while the right side shows the percentage of
● Age-sex pyramids (also known as population women in each age group.
pyramids) are a special graph that displays this ● Various types of pyramids are:
information and allows us to compare between 1. Expanding Populations
countries and between periods. 2. Constant Population
3. Declining Populations
4. Ageing Population
Expanding Populations
● Pyramid of Nigeria is a triangular shape with a
wide base and is typical of less developed
countries.
● These have larger populations in lower age
groups due to high birth rates.
● Pyramids for Bangladesh and Mexico, it will look
the same.
Constant Population
● Australia’s age-sex pyramid is bell shaped
and tapered towards the top.
● This shows birth and death rates are almost
equal leading to a near constant population.
Declining Populations
● The Japan pyramid has a narrow base
and a tapered top showing low birth
and death rates.
● The population growth in developed
countries is usually zero or negative.
Ageing Population ● In the developed world the population in higher

● Share of the older population becomes age groups has increased due to increased life
proportionally larger. expectancy.
● This is a new phenomenon of the twentieth ● With reduction in birth rate young population is
century. less.
MIGRATION ● Large populations have been migrating to

places in search of better opportunities.
● Migration was recorded beginning from the
● Conventionally migration is seen as a
first census of India conducted in 1881. This
spontaneous process of human mobility where
data was recorded on the basis of place of
people move as a consequence of resource &
birth.
opportunity imbalance.
● 1961 census bringing in two additional
● Migration is an important factor in
components viz.; place of birth and duration of
redistributing population over time and space.
residence.
● 1971, place of last residence and duration of ● Immigration: Migrants who move into a new
stay were incorporated. place are called Immigrants.
● As per 2001 census 30 % were reported as ● Emigration: Migrants who move out of a place
migrants by place of birth. are called Emigrants. People migrate for better
● However, this figure was 315 million (31 per economic and social life.
cent) in case of place of last residence.
The dependency Ratio:

• It is the number of persons in the “dependent ages' ' per 100 persons in the independent ages.
• The “dependent” ages are usually assumed to be younger than 18 and above 64; the
"independent" ages are those 18-64.
• Defined this way, the dependency ratio is an indicator of the number of persons assumed to be
either too young or too old to work per 100 persons in the assumed working ages.
Streams of Migration
● Females pre-dominate the streams of short
distance rural to rural migration.
● Men pre-dominate the rural to urban stream.
● India also experiences immigration from and
emigration to the neighbouring countries.
● 5 million people have migrated to India from
other countries as per 2001 census.
● 96 % came from the neighbouring countries
● 20 million people of Indian Diaspora spread across
110 countries.
Spatial variation in migration

● Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract
migrants from other states such as Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, etc.
● Maharashtra occupied first place followed by
Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana.
● On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
have largest out-migrants from the state.
● Among the urban agglomeration greater
Mumbai received the higher number of in
migrants.
Causes of migration ● Better opportunities for education, better

● Poverty, high population pressure on the land, health facilities and sources of entertainment,
lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health etc.
care, education, etc. ● 38 % male & 3% female migrates for work
● Natural disasters such as, flood, drought, opportunities.
cyclonic storms, earthquake, tsunami, wars and ● 65 % of females move out from their parental
local conflicts also give extra push to migrate. houses following their marriage.
● There are pull factors which attract people from ● In Meghalaya reverse is the case.
rural areas to cities. ● Marriage migration of the male is only 2 per
● The most important pull factor is the better cent in the country.
opportunities, availability of regular work and
relatively higher wages.
PUSH AND PULL FACTORS
Push factors are the reasons why people leave an area. They include:
✔ Lack of services
✔ Lack of safety
✔ High crime
✔ Crop failure
✔ Drought
✔ Flooding
✔ Poverty
✔ War
Pull factors are the reasons why people move to a particular area. They include:
✔ Higher employment
✔ More wealth
✔ Better services
✔ Good climate
✔ Safer, less crime
✔ Political stability
✔ More fertile land
✔ Lower risk from natural hazards
Consequences of Migration ● Demographic Consequences:

● Economic Consequences: ➢ Positive Redistributing of the population
➢ Positive: Remittances are important for the within a country. The process of
economy of a country. As migrants sent urbanization is dependent on rural-urban
remittances to their family members for migration.
food, repayment of loans/debts, treatment, ➢ Negative Imbalance in demographic
marriages, children’s education, agricultural structure. Age and skill selective out-
inputs, construction of houses, etc. Green migration created an imbalance in the
Revolution in the rural areas of Punjab, demographic structure of rural areas. Age
Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh was a and sex composition are seriously affected
success because of the migrants from rural in the states of Uttarakhand, Rajasthan,
areas of ‘Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern
Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha. Maharashtra due to migration. The same
➢ Negative: Overcrowding due to situation happens in the recipient states.
unregulated migration. Development of ● Social Consequences:
unhygienic slums in industrially developed ➢ Positive Migrants work as an agent of
states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, social change. They diffuse new ideas of
Tamil Nadu, and Del science and technology, family planning,
girl’s education, etc from one place to cities and puts tremendous pressure on
another place. People also bring the infrastructure.
different cultures with them which helps ➢ It also results in an unplanned and
to break the narrow considerations and haphazard growth of cities in which
broaden up the mental horizon of the slums and shanty colonies are very
people. common.
➢ Negative Anonymity increases and ➢ Overcrowding is also related to over-
creates a social vacuum and a feeling of exploitation of natural resources and
ejection. This feeling ultimately results in cities are facing serious problems of
anti-social activities such as crime, drug water shortage, air and water pollution,
abuse, theft, etc. problem of sewage disposal, and
● Environmental Consequences: management of solid wastes.
➢ Negative Large-scale rural-urban
migration leads to overcrowding in the
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS unavailability of natural resources to sustain a

large population, For example, the Sahara
Desert, Most part of Australia, Canada &
● Settlement in any particular region reflects Russia.
human relationship with the environment. ● Rural Settlements: Patterns of settlements
● A human settlement is defined as a place found in rural areas. Farmsteads and hamlets
inhabited more or less permanently by men or belong to rural settlements.
women. ● Urban Settlements: Patterns of settlements
● There is no consensus on what exactly defines a found in urban areas
village or a town.
● Although population size is an important
Rural settlements
criterion, it is not a universal criterion.
● Factors affecting the location of rural
● Many villages in densely populated countries of
settlements
India and China have population exceeding that
o Water supply
of some towns of western Europe and United
o Land
States
o Upland
o Building material
Types and patterns of settlements o Defence
● Compact or Nucleated Settlements: The ● Rural Settlements Classification
settlements are very compacted & dense. For o On the basis of setting: the main types are
Example, Ganga plain region in India, Yangtze plain villages, plateau villages, coastal villages,
River plain in China. forest villages and desert villages.
● Dispersed Settlements: Settlements are
sparsely located due to the harsh climate or
o On the basis of functions: there may be like, t-shaped village, double village, cross-
farming villages, fishermen’s villages, shaped village etc.
lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.
o On the basis of forms or shapes of the
settlements: linear, rectangular, circular star
PATTERN OF SETTLEMENTS
Classification of Urban Settlements ● Occupational structure: India, major economic

● Size of population: Lower limit to be designated activities also come in consideration.
as urban is 1,500 in Colombia, 2,000 in Argentina ● Administrative setup: Settlement of any size is
and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A., 5,000 in India and classified as urban, if it has a municipality,
30,000 in Japan. cantonment board or notified area council.
● Function: Administration, trade, industry,
defence and religious importance
PROBLEMS OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS
✔ Poor infrastructure.
✔ Lack of planners.
✔ Supply of water.
✔ Water borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice.
✔ Flood very often.
✔ Absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities
✔ House designs are typically deficient in proper ventilation.
PROBLEMS OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS
✔ Unplanned congestion.
✔ Shortage of housing, vertical expansion and growth of slums.
✔ Illegal settlements.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ● His work explores the role of social and political
institutions and processes in increasing
freedom.
● It is defined as the process of enlarging people’s
FOUR PILLARS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
freedoms and opportunities and improving
their well-being. 1. Equality
● Purposed by Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen. 2. Sustainability
● Measure the standard of living for people. 3. Productivity
● Created in 1990. 4. Empowerment
● UNDP publish the Human Development Report
annually since 1990.
● Prof Amartya Sen saw an increase in freedom as
the main objective of development.
Approaches to Human Development

Income Approach • The idea is that the level of income reflects the level of freedom an individual
enjoys.
• Higher the level of income, the higher is the level of human development.
Welfare Approach • Looks at human beings as beneficiaries or targets of all development

activities.
• Govt. expenditure on education, health, social secondary and amenities.
• The government is responsible for increasing levels of human development.
Basic Needs Approach • Proposed by the International Labour Organisation (ILO).

• Six basic needs i.e.: health, education, food, water supply, sanitation, and
housing were identified.
Capability Approach • This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.

• Building human capabilities in the areas of health, education and access to
resources is the key to increasing human development.
Measuring Human Development

● Human Development can be measured by the following methods:
1. Human Development Index
2. Multi Dimensional Poverty Index
3. Gross National Happiness
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX ● HDI emphasizes that people and their
capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for
assessing the development of a country, not
economic growth alone.
● HDI measures average achievement of a country
in three basic dimensions of human
development:
o A long and healthy life

o Access to knowledge
o A decent standard of living
MULTI DIMENSIONAL POVERTY INDEX ● The Global MPI stands for Multidimensional
Poverty Index that is released by Oxford Poverty
and Human Development Initiative (OPHI).
● Three dimensions of Global MPI:
1. Health
2. Education
3. Living Standards
GROSS NATIONAL HAPPINESS ● Gross National Happiness: The phrase ‘gross

national happiness’ was first coined by the
4th King of Bhutan, King Jigme Singye
Wangchuck, in 1972.
● The concept implies that sustainable

development should take a holistic
approach towards notions of progress and give
equal importance to non-economic aspects of
wellbeing.
POPULATION THEORIES ● To control over-population, Malthus suggested

preventive checks and positive checks
● The Preventive Checks are applied by a man to
✔ The Theory of Demographic Transition control the birth rate. They are foresight, late
✔ Marxist Theory of Population marriage, celibacy, moral restraint, etc.
✔ Malthus’ Theory ● Positive Checks operate in the form of vice,
MALTHUS’ THEORY
● Thomas Robert Malthus analyses the

population statistics.
● He generalized the relationship between
population factors and social change.
● In his essay on the Principle of Population
misery, famine, war, disease, pestilence,
(1798) Malthus argued that because of the
floods and other natural calamities.
strong attraction of the two sexes, the
● According to Malthus, preventive checks are
population could increase by multiples,
always in operation in a civilized society, for
doubling every twenty-five years.
positive checks are crude.
● Population would grow so large that food
production would be insufficient.
● There is a natural sex instinct in human beings
to increase at a fast rate.
● Population increases in Geometric Progression
● Food Supply increases in a slow Arithmetic
Progression
● An imbalance is created which leads to over-
population.
● Increase in population the result of declining

death rate
● Preventive checks do not pertain to moral
restraint
● Positive checks not due to over-population
Applicability
● Despite these weaknesses, the Malthusian
doctrine contains much truth.
● In fact, the people of Europe were made wiser
by Malthus
Criticisms of the Malthusian Doctrine ● Over-population countries started adopting
● Mathematical form of the theory was wrong measurers toward it off.
● Failed to foresee the opening up of new areas ● Use preventive checks, late marriage and
● Applied a static economic law to a period of various contraceptives and birth control
time measures used on an extensive scale.
● Neglected the manpower aspect in population ● The Malthusian doctrine may not be applicable
● Population not related to food supply but to now to its place of origin,
total wealth ● India is one of the first countries to adopt family
planning on state level to control population.
MARXIST THEORY OF POPULATION accumulation by capitalists. It has nothing to do

● Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a critic to Malthus. with the population. The population is
● He suggested that the capitalistic class has dependent on economic and social
lower population growth to save the wealth for organization.
personal use ● While the capitalistic class increases
● Labour class has higher population growth rate concentration of wealth & the class
because they consider "greater the number of differentiation further grows.
hands, more the wages earned". Thus, children ● Marx suggested that for population control fall
are wealth. of capitalism is the only mean and distributive
● Since the population increases reduces the justice, state control over resources can
wage rate income level falls and as a reaction to mitigate the food crisis. Thus, his theory is
it a new explosion takes place. socio-economic model of population control.
● He argued that starvation was caused by the
unequal distribution of wealth and its
THEORY OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION o Famine

o Lack of clean water and sanitation
o Lack of healthcare
● The theory of demographic transition is based o War
on the actual population trends of advanced o Competition for food from predators such as
countries of the world. rats.
● The transition from high birth and death rates to o Lack of education.
low birth and death rates as a country develops
from a pre-industrial to an industrialized socio-
Second Stage (Early Expanding)
economic system.
● Stage of high birth rate and low death rate.
o The demographic transition is an
● Birth rate remains high; death rate falls.
explanation of how population change
Population begins to rise rapidly
as countries go through
● Features of second stage are:
industrialization. The demographic
o Improved healthcare (Smallpox vaccine)
transition model focuses on the birth
o Improved hygiene sanitation
rate and the death rate.
o Improved food production and storage
● Birth Rate: The number of people born over a
o Improved transport of food
certain interval (usually a year).
o Decreased Infant Mortality Rates
● Death Rate: The number of people who die over
Third Stage
that interval.
● Stage of declining birth rate and low death rate.
● According to this theory, every country passes
● Low population growth
through four different stages of population
● Birth rate starts to fall; death rate continues to
growth.
fall. Population continues to rise
● Features of second stage are:
➢ Family Planning Available.
➢ Lower Infant Mortality Rate
➢ Increased mechanisation reduces
need for workers.
➢ Increased standard of living
➢ Changing status of women
First Stage
● Stage of high birth rate and high death rate
● Birth and death rates are both high. Population Fourth Stage
growth is slow and fluctuating. ● Stage of low birth rate and death rate
● Birth rate is high as a result of ● In the fourth stage of demographic transition, a
o Lack of family planning low birth rate and low death rate lead to a
o High infant mortality rate stationary or declining population.
o Need for workers in agriculture ● It is called a stage of stationary population.
o Religious beliefs ● Birth and death rates both are low.
o Children as economic assets. ● Population is steady or declining as in many
● Death rate is high because of western European nations at present.
o High levels of disease
STUDYIQ.COM ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY -1 1
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY - 1
least developing countries, it can
AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED SECTORS account for more than 25% of GDP.
• As per Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO), 38% of world geographical area is under
• The term agriculture is derived from two Latin
agriculture.
words ager or ‘agri’ meaning soil and ‘cultura’
• As per Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
meaning cultivation.
Welfare, GDP contribution in India was 20.2 %
• Agriculture is a broad term including all
in 2020-21 and was 18.4% in 2019-20.
aspects of:
• Agriculture yet forms the backbone of
o Crop production,
development at grass root.
o Livestock farming,
• Agriculture and allied sector play vital role in
o Fisheries,
providing nutrition and livelihood to the huge
o Forestry etc.
population in India.
• Agriculture is a branch of applied science. It is
the art of farming including the work of
cultivating the soil for producing crops and Scope of Agriculture in India
raising livestock. • Population pressure is increasing.
• About 55% of Indian population depends • Area under cultivation is shrinking.
directly or indirectly on agriculture (As per • India have tropical climate which favours
Census 2011). growing crops round the year.
• As per World Bank 65% of poor working adults • Vast scope to increase irrigation potential by
are dependent on Agriculture allied sectors. river projects and minor irrigation projects.
• Agriculture is also crucial to economic growth: • India is blessed with more laborer availability.
o As per World Bank, in 2018, it • Agriculture is the primary sector, other sectors
accounted for 4% of global gross are dependent on agriculture
domestic product (GDP) and in some
LAND USE CLASSIFICATION IN INDIA

Forest Area • More than 21% of reported area notified as forest area
(As per IFSR 2021).
• For tropical country, 33% is ideal coverage
• Madhya Pradesh has largest forest area (As per IFSR
2021).
• Mizoram has highest percentage of area under forest (As
per IFSR 2021).
• Punjab, Delhi, UP and Bihar lag behind
• Forest Area was 33% in 1950-51 as per National Forest
Policy 1952.
Permanent Pasture and Other Grazing • About more than 3% of country’s area.
Land • Continually decreasing.
• 1/3 of all pastures in Himachal Pradesh alone.
Land Under Miscellaneous Tree Crops • It includes all cultivable land which is not included under
net area sown, but is put to some agricultural use.
• This is continually decreasing.
• Almost 1% land.
Culturable Waste Land • Land available for agriculture but not utilized for various
reasons.
• Saline soil, e.g. Reh/Bhur/Usar in
UP/Haryana/Punjab
• Such land has deficiencies in Soil due to faulty agricultural
practices.
• More than 4% of total area.
• Rajasthan alone has 36% of such wasteland.
Current Fallow, Culturable Waste- • Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without
Land, Fallow other than Current cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year.
Fallow Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the
land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through
natural processes.
• Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow
(uncultivated) for more than five years is included in
this category. It can be brought under cultivation after
improving it through reclamation practices
• Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a
cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more
than a year but less than five years. If the land is left
uncultivated for more than five years, it would be
categorised as culturable wasteland.
Net Area Sown • It is the total absolute value of the area cropped. This
means that even if the same land is cropped multiple
times each year, it will be counted only once.
• In 2020-21, as per Ministry of Agriculture, more than 42%

is the Net Sown Area in India out of total geographical
area.
Geographical Area • It is the total geographical area of a country.
• With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is the seventh
largest country of the world.
Gross Cropped Area • The cumulative area sown once and also more than once
in a given year is the gross cropped area (GCA).
Area Sown More Than Once • This represents the total area sown once and/or more
than once in a particular year, i.e. the area is counted as
many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area
is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.
Cropping Intensity • Cropping intensity refers to raising of a number of crops
from the same field during one agricultural year
• In 2021, cropping intensity was more than 142%.
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

• Subsistence Agriculture • Fragmented Landholding
• Pressure of Population • Seeds
• Importance of Animals • Manure & Fertilizers
• Monsoon Dependent • Irrigation
• Varieties of Crops • Lack of Mechanization
• Dominance of Food Crop • Marketing
• Insignificant Fodder Crop • Storage
• Seasonal Pattern • Transport
• Mixed Cropping • Capital
• Labour Intensive • Tradition Bound
• High Area • Primitive Technology
• Monsoon Dependence
• Lack of Diversification
• Low Productivity
• Government Apathy
• Land Use Policy
• Low Fertility due to Chemical fertilizer abuse.
• Soil Erosion
• Low Status in Society
• Land Tenancy
• Lack of R&D
Determinant of Indian Agriculture ▪ Each stage of a crop's growth, such as

Physical Factor germination, maturity, harvesting,
• Relief: The agricultural patterns are strictly etc., requires a different set of
dependent on the geo-ecological conditions temperature and precipitation
such as: requirements.
o Terrain: o Moisture:
▪ Paddy cultivation requires leveled ▪ In the form of Rain and irrigation.
fields in order to have standing water. ▪ Every crop needs optimal moisture
o Topography, conditions to grow.
▪ The tea plantations perform well in ▪ Too much of water, increases toxicity
the undulating topography in which in roots leads to stunted growth in
water does not remain standing. plants.
Standing water damages tea o Drought:
plantations. ▪ Deficiency in water may also cause
▪ Agriculture mechanisation is entirely harm to germination and further
reliant on the topography of the growth of plants.
land. Agricultural machinery cannot ▪ Drought has devastating
be used on rocky, hilly terrain. consequences on the crops, their
▪ This features also affect rainfall. yields, and production.
▪ The drought-prone areas of India lie
in the states of:
o Slope
• Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya
▪ Topography affects agriculture as it
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
relates to soil erosion, difficulty of
Jharkhand, Maharashtra,
tillage and poor transportation
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
facilities.
Tamil Nadu, Odisha,
o Altitude.
Bundelkhand (U.P.),
▪ Orchards of coconut are found at low
Uttarakhand, J&K, southwest
altitudes, preferably closer to sea Punjab, and Haryana.
level. o Snow:
▪ Apple orchards in the tropical and ▪ Snowfall causes the ground
sub-tropical conditions perform well temperature to drop, which slows
at an altitude above 1500 metres plant germination and growth.
above sea level. ▪ Permafrost prevents the preparation
• Climate: of land covered in snow for sowing.
o Of all the physical factors, the climate is ▪ In the summer, the melting of the
one of the most significant determinants snow could result in dangerous floods
of agricultural land use and cropping that would harm the crops, livestock,
patterns. and land.
o Temperature: o Winds:
▪ Agriculture depends on the ▪ Strong winds have devasting impact
temperature and precipitation on the standing crops.
conditions. ▪ Winds' indirect impact manifests as
▪ Different crops have different the movement of heat and moisture
temperature requirements to grow. in the atmosphere.
▪ In fact, the movement of the wind o It determines the cropping patterns, their
actually increases transpiration and associations, and production.
evaporation, which can dehydrate o Crops and their productivity are directly
plants to the point of death. influenced by the soil's fertility, as well as
• Soil: by its texture, structure, and humus
o In agricultural operations, the soil is content.
probably the most important determining
physical factor.
Institutional Factor • Agricultural Credit:

• Farm Land-Holding: o It helps farmers, to meet the
o The average size of landholding has investment as well as working capital
been continuously decreasing on requirements.
account of an increasing number of o Availability of Credit must be timely,
landholders. easy and adequate.
o From an average of 2.28 hectares in o Formalisation of Rural Banking
1970-71, it went down to 1.15 hectares Insititutions.
in 2010-11. o Poor eligibility, security issues, and a
o As per Ministry of Agriculture, in 2015 lack of trained technical staff to
farm land holdings further decreased recognise potential activity in this area
to 1.08 hectares. are some of the causes of the lack of
o Marginal and small farmers have a credit flow to the agricultural sector.
weak economic foundation. As a result,
it has a negative impact on the Some other determinants
expansion of the agriculture industry. • Infrastructural Factor
o High fragmentation of land restricted 1. Irrigation:
and hindered the dissemination of 2. Power
modern technology in agriculture. 3. Road
• Land Tenure: 4. Market
o It is the time for which a particular land 5. Insurance
is cultivated by a particular person. • Technological Factor
• Land Reforms: 1. HYV Seeds
o Land Reforms is a planned and 2. Fertilizers
institutional reorganization of the 3. Machinery
relation between man and land i.e.
changes introduced into the system of
land tenure and the farming structure.
GREEN REVOLUTION o Jalandhar,

o Aligarh,
o Shahabad (Bihar),
• In 1968, term first used by William Gaud and
o Raipur,
Norman Borlaug is the father of the green
o West Godavari (Andhra Pradesh),
revolution.
o Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu),
• The father of the green revolution (India) M.S.
o Pali (Rajasthan).
SWAMINATHAN.
SERVICES ENHANCED BY THE GREEN
• It is a process of increasing agricultural
REVOLUTION
production by incorporating modern tools and
✓ Acquiring more area for cultivation
techniques. Green revolution is associated
purposes.
with agricultural production.
✓ Expanding irrigation facilities.
• Agriculture of the country was converted into ✓ Use of improved and advanced high-
an industrial by modern techniques like the yielding variety of seeds.
use of HYV seeds, tractors, irrigation ✓ Implementing better techniques that
facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers. emerged from agriculture research.
• Immediate action to increase yield came in ✓ Water management.
the form of the green revolution. ✓ Good network of rural credit and micro
• As a result of the program's success, 32 financing.
districts were added in 1964–1965 under the ✓ Plan protection activities through prudent
Intensive Agriculture Area Program (IAAP). use of fertilizers, pesticides.
• The HYV programme, which marked the ✓ Technology Mission on oilseeds was
beginning of India's Green Revolution, was introduced in 1986.
launched in 1965–1966. ✓ Commercialisation of agriculture.
• In India Green Revolution was introduced with ✓ Use of insecticide, Pesticide, weedicides.
the Intensive Agriculture District Program
(IADP) on an experimental basis in 7 districts
i.e.,
SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION (1980-1991) • The Krishna-Godavari delta and the Cauvery
• The first Green Revolution was to ensure food basin produced the desired outcomes in this
security as there was severe scarcity of food in phase.
the country. • Additionally, West Bengal demonstrated
• The second Green Revolution aims at increased productivity, and the Bhojpur
creating sustainable agriculture by leveraging region of Bihar benefited from the Green
advancements in technology. Revolution.
• Only 1.5 times more rice was produced during • However, institutional factors like land
the first phase. reforms, tenancy, etc. prevented the full
o Targeted areas included West potential of rice productivity from being
Bengal, Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, realised.
Assam, and the Coastal Plains, which • In places like UP, West Bengal, and Bihar, land
receive more than 100 cm of rain reforms should have been implemented, but
annually. they were not done at the appropriate time.
• The traditional mindset of farmers was environmental consequences and ecological

another significant barrier to the Second costs are offsetting the progress made.
Green Revolution's success. • The ground water is depleted and polluted.
The lakes and ponds are becoming life less due
Need for Second Green Revolution to eutrophication – a direct consequence of
• With the growing population and over- Green Revolution.
exploitation of land resources, the pressure on • Growth in the agricultural sector has been
food security will continue and rise. almost stagnant.
• 65% of the population is still living in the • GM Crops are marred in various controversies
villages and over 70% of the rural people are related to intellectual property, ecological
dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. consequences, health consequences etc.
• Green Revolution, launched in mid-1960s, was • Global warming is said to engulf productive
mainly confined to well irrigate areas. It was coastal lands due to rise in sea levels. This
not successful in rain-fed areas, which creates an urgent need to raise agricultural
contribute significantly to the country’s total productivity.
food-grain production. • It is necessary to develop a suitable strategy to
• The Green Revolution has made us self- improve agricultural development in India.
sufficient in food grains, but the • Increase in wage rate led to availability of cash
money to the farmers.
ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN dominant share in country’s Gross

Domestic Products (GDP).
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
o Agriculture share in Country’s GDP has
come down to 19.9% in 2020-21 from the
• The agricultural sector contributes high level of more than 50% of the year
strategically to a nation's economic growth. 1950-51.
• It has already had a substantial impact on the o At the current price, the contributory
economic prosperity of industrialised nations, share of agriculture and allied activities in
and its contribution to the economic growth country’s Gross Value Added (GVA) stood
of less developed nations is crucial. at 18.8% in the year 2021-22.
• Main source of livelihood: Indian agriculture • Source of Industrial Development:
provides livelihood directly and indirectly to Agriculture makes important contribution in
about two –third of total population of the industrial development because it supplies
country. industrial raw material like cotton for the
• Contribution to National Income: textile industry, seeds for the oil industry, and
o Indian agriculture has a decisive role in sugarcane for the sugar mills.
country’s economic development even • Supply of foodgrains: The most important
today. contribution of agriculture is to provide food
o Although the contributory share of supply to increasing population of the
agriculture sector in country’s national country. During planning era,due to
Income has come down but it still holds a agricultural development, India has become
self-sufficient in food grain supply.
CONTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURE • Absolute number of people engaged in

agriculture has become exceedingly large.
National Income International Trade

• National income or NNP at factor cost is the • Major agri-exports in 2021:
total net earnings from the production of o Other Cereals, Rice (other than
goods and services in a country over a period Basmati), Soya meal, Spices, Sugar,
of time. Raw Cotton, Fresh Vegetable,
• Considered the backbone of Indian economy. Processed Vegetables, and Alcoholic
• Share of agriculture in GDP has been in the Beverages etc High tariffs and non-
range of 20 to 25 %. tariff barriers- deterrent for the
• Due to industrialisation the share of exports.
agriculture indicated a sharp decline and • Agri imports constitute only a small proportion
reached 11.65%. of the country’s total imports i.e., less than
• Policies of FDI, SEZs and NRI investment have 5%.
been framed to give a push for increasing
agriculture share Industrial Development
• Reason For Agriculture Has Dropped In GDP • Role in the development of human civilization.
o Governmental intervention in labour, land, • Raw materials to the industries.
and credit markets, o Example: cotton and jute textile
o Lack of infrastructure, industries, sugar, vanaspati and
o Small size of land holdings, plantations.
o Poorly maintained or non-existent land • Industrial inputs like fertilizer, pesticides,
records, machinery.
o Inadequate use of modern technology, • Output of industrial consumer goods through
o Illiteracy, demand.
o Inadequate finance and marketing • Fluctuations in agricultural production may
services, affect private corporate investment decisions.
o Inadequate irrigation facilities, and • Agriculture savings, mobilized for investment
o More importance given to non-agricultural in industry, and other sectors of the economy.
sectors by government. • Linkages between agriculture & industry can
indicate a sector’s economic PULL AND PUSH.
Employment • Transfer of surplus resources in production
• Agricultural labourers increased from 37.5% in such as capital, labour and raw materials.
1981 to more than 54 % in 2011. • Rangarajan finds that a 1% addition to the
• Cultivators (self- employed) declined from agricultural growth rate stimulates a further
62.5% in 1981 to 33% in 2011. 0.5% increase in the growth rate of industrial
• Total working population increased by 1.7 output and hence a 0.7% in the growth rate of
times up to 263 million in 2011 national income.
• Percentage of rural population out of total
population declined consistently from 76.9 per Tertiary Sector
cent in 1981 to 68.8 per cent in 2011 • Service sector can be classified into four broad
categories:
I. Trade, hotels, and restaurants o Services sector has the highest

II. Transport, storage, and growth rate and is the least volatile
communication sector.
III. Financing, insurance, real estate, o India remained among the top ten
and business services services exporter countries in 2020.
IV. Community, social, and personal o India’s share in world commercial
services. service exports increased to 4.1% in
• Growth rate of services has overtaken both 2020.
agriculture and industry and is now more than
50% of GDP.
Major measures taken for agricultural • Provision of urban amenities in rural areas
development through creation of new growth poles.
• Agricultural diversification with focus on • Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS).
horticulture, floriculture, animal husbandry • Food Security System.
and fisheries. • Input subsidies to agriculture.
• Strengthening of agriculture marketing • Rural employment programme.
infrastructure.
• Institutionalizing Credits. Contribution of agriculture to revenue to
• Focus on micro irrigation, micro finance, government
micro-insurance and rural credits. • State Government- land revenue, irrigation
• Knowledge centre in every village. charges, agricultural income tax.
• National fund for strategic agricultural • Central Government- export duties on the
research. (Agriculture Infrastructure Funds) agricultural production.
TYPES OF FARMING SYSTEMS

SUBSISTENCE FARMING / AGRICULTURE • It is mostly perform at equator by tribal people.
• Majority of farmers in the country practise subsistence
farming.
• This type of farming is still practised in small patches of
Indian land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao,
and digging sticks and family / community labour.
• There is a total absence of modern equipment like
tractors and farm inputs like chemical fertilizers,
insecticides, and pesticides.
SHIFTING AGRICULTURE • In this farming system, farmers cleared a small forest
land for growing crops.
• These are mostly practice by tribal farmers.
• After the land is cleared, Crops are grown for 2 to 3 years
as the soil fertility decreases.
• Then, the farmers migrate to new land and the process

is repeated.
• Dry paddy, maize, millets and vegetables are the crops
commonly grown in this type of farming.
• This practice is known by different name in different
regions of India like:
• Jhum in Assam,
• Ponam in Kerala,
• Podu in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha and
• Bewar masha penda and Bera in various parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE • Form of Industralised agriculture.
• This type of farming cultivates closer the equator /
tropical region.
• It requires high temperature and high rainfall.
• Plantation farming is a tree or bush farming which has
been introduced in the colonial time in the 19th century.
• The selected crops are tea, rubber, spice crops, coconut,
tobacco, cocoa, coffee, lime, oranges, apples etc.
• Plantation farming is very useful for commercial
purposes. These crops are more profitable.
• Export oriented agriculture.
INTENSIVE FARMING / AGRICULTURE • It is a cultivation practice where intensive use of land to
obtain high yield per unit area.
• Here, farmers applied more fertilizers, pest controls and
availability of irrigation facilities.
• They also use modern technology for increasing crop
yield.
DRY FARMING / AGRICULTURE • Majority of cultivation area in India is dry-land.
• This type of farming is cultivated where is lack of water.
• Farmers mostly selected water extensive crops.
• Annual rainfall is low and partial irrigation available in
dry-land farming.
• It is irrigation in areas which receive an annual rainfall of
750 mm – 500 mm or even less.
MIXED AND MULTIPLE FARMING / • Mixed Farming is growing crops along with livestock.
AGRICULTURE • They can be benefiting to each-others.
• This can be done at the region of high rainfall and good
irrigation facilities.
• In such case a number of crops having varying maturing
periods are sown at the same time.
CROP ROTATION • Systematic growing number of crops in rotating manner
to boost fertility of the soil.
• The rotation of crops take one year or more than one

year.
• Leguminous crops, such as pulses, are grown after
cereal crops.
• Legumes can help the soil by fixing nitrogen.
• Crops that require a lot of fertiliser, like sugarcane or
tobacco, are alternated with cereal crops.
• The choice of crops for rotation depends on the
regional soil characteristics, as well as the farmers'
knowledge and experience.
PERMANENT AGRICULTURE OR • Sedentary agriculture is mostly confined to the tropical
SEDENTARY CULTIVATION lands where the fallowed fields are frequently reused
and the cultivator stays permanently at one spot.
• The rotation of crops is practiced and in comparison to
shifting cultivation, greater attention is paid to the land
and to the crop sown.
• The farmer keeps many more cattle including cows and
buffaloes.
• The domesticated animals are used for draught
purposes as well as for milk and meat purposes.
• The crops are generally sown in the cool season which
grow throughout the rainy period and are har-vested in
the dry season.
• The crops, like maize, millets, paddy, vege-tables, sweet-
potatoes, root-crops, banana, tapioca, squash, tobacco,
small millets and pulses are grown in this type of
agricultural system.
TERRACE CULTIVATION / FARMING • This cultivation done at the hill and mountain are cut to
form terraces.
• The flat land availability is limited on terraces are made
small patch of level land.
• Soil is eroding due to physical features of the land
(slopes) but terrace Farming reduce soil erosion
STUDYIQ.COM ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY 1
• Thus, creating facilities & transforming the life

of citizens and ensuring all round progress of
INFRASTRUCTURE the nation is the main aim of infrastructure
development.
• Infrastructure sector is a key driver for the
Indian economy. The sector is highly INDIA’S MANUFACTURING SECTOR
responsible for propelling India’s overall
development and enjoys intense focus from •
Manufacturing has emerged as one of the
Government for initiating policies that would high growth sectors in India.
ensure time-bound creation of world class • Manufacturing sector's share in India's GDP
infrastructure in the country. is estimated at around 17 percent currently.

• Infrastructure sector includes power, bridges, • The manufacturing sector of India has the
dams, roads, and urban infrastructure potential to reach US$ 1 trillion by 2025.
development • The Mega Investment Textiles Parks
• Government aims to create housing (MITRA) scheme to build world-class

infrastructure through- Pradhan Mantri Awas infrastructure will enable global industry
Yojana, ‘housing for all’ by 2022. champions to be created, benefiting from
• Infrastructure policy of government aims the economies of scale and agglomeration.
following: Seven Textile Parks will be established over
✓ Ensuring electricity connectivity to three years.
the villages- DDUGJY and • India has emerged as the second most sought
SAUBHAGYA. after manufacturing destination across the

✓ Creation of smart cities - create world indicating the growing interest shown
inclusive and collaborative cities. by manufacturers in India as a preferred
✓ Infrastructure in various fields such manufacturing hub over other countries,
as education, health etc. is backbone including the U.S and those in the Asia-Pacific
of economy. region
✓ Connectivity is a crucial aspect of • Every job created in the manufacturing sector
infrastructure e.g., Bharatmala, has a multiplier effect in creating 2 to 3 jobs

Diamond Quadrilateral, UDAN in the service sector.
scheme.
POTENTIAL OF INDIA TO PROMOTE purchasing power is increasing, the

MANUFACTURING SECTOR demand is also increasing.
• Democracy: When there is democracy,
political stability, productive policy,
independent judiciary, then there exists ISSUES & CHALLENGES IN IFRASTRUCTURE
safety and security of investment. SECTOR
• Demography: Growth is facilitated by • Infrastructure & Logistic
India's demographic dividend and young • Labour Law
and talented people. India today is one of • Skill Mismatch
the world's biggest believers in research • Domination of Small Firms & Low
and development [R&D]. India's youth Productivity

are being encouraged to be innovative. • Business Environment
And because of this, after the US and • R&D
China, India stands at number 3 when it • Technology Adoption
comes to unicorn investments. • Export Challenges
• Demand: As the population of India is • Tax & Tariff Policies
getting economically empowered and • Capital Access
Government Initiatives for boosting • Capital creation- Sagarmala Project

economy • Regulatory Overhaul- Insolvency code
• Taxation- GST Bill
• Infrastructure development-Smart cities,
• R&D, IPR
PRASAD Scheme, SEZ etc.
• Export Promotion
• Logistic development- e.g., Indian Strategic
• Intentional Collaboration
Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL)
• Easy Exit
• Labour Reforms- Recently, the recent
versions of three labour codes
namely Industrial Relations Code Bill, 2020, Solution to improve infrastructure
Code on Social Security Bill, • Growth of Labour- Intensive Industries
2020 and Occupational Safety, Health and • Industry 4.0 (The Fourth Industrial Revolution
Working Conditions Code Bill, 2020 have is a term that describes present technological
been introduced in Lok Sabha. age. It is the fourth industrial era since the
• Skill development- The National Skill inception of the initial Industrial Revolution
Development Corporation, (NSDC) is a Public of the 18 century. The key elements of the
th
Private Partnership in India, under the fourth revolution are the fusion of
Ministry of Skill Development & technologies ranging from the physical,
Entrepreneurship. digital to biological spheres.)
o The overall objective of NSDC is to • Promote MSMEs
create training capacity in the • Labour Reforms
country; fund vocational training • Improve Education Quality
initiatives and create a market • Labour Productivity
ecosystem for skill development. • Power
The mandate of NSDC was to train • Integration in global value chain
150 million people by 2022. • Improving Logistics
• Promote Research and Development

Need for industrialization in India
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LOCATION OF • The industrialization is required for the
INDUSTRIES following purposes:
• Geographical Factors o To reduce dependence on the other
• Raw Materials countries and become self sufficient
• Power o To maintain the balance of trade
• Labour o To accelerate the economic growth
• Transport o To solve the problem of unemployment
• Market
• Water Need for decentralization of industries
• Site • The decentralization of industries is required
• Climate for the following purposes:
• Non-Geographical Factors o Employment opportunities in every region
• Capital of the country
• Government Policies o Equitable distribution of national income
• Industrial Inertia o Removal of regional disparities
• Efficient Organisation o Check upon the concentration of population
• Banking Facilities in certain parts of the country
• Insurance
COTTON AND TEXTILE INDUSTRY • Power

• Climate
• A cotton mill houses weaving machinery for • Water
the production of cloth. • Government Interventions
• Till the industrial revolution, cotton cloth was
made using hand-spinning. COTTON TEXTILE MANUFACTURING REGIONS
• In 18th century, power looms came, first in OF THE WORLD
Britain and later in other parts. • China
• In India, it is the single largest organised • India
industry. • United States of America
• Being labour intensive at all stages, it employs • Russian Federation
a large number of people. • United Kingdom
• Textiles & garments sector employs 45 million • Japan
people in India is second only to the • Brazil
agriculture sector in terms of employment. • Pakistan
• Factors affecting location of cotton textile
industry
• Raw Material Cotton Textile Industry in India
• Technological Developments
• 1500 BC to 1500 AD India dominated the
• Transportation Linkages
industry.
• Access to market for the cotton textiles
• India was famous worldwide for the
• Access to market for the by-products of
production of muslin.
cotton textile industry
• Indian industry was decimated due to • 3-tier structure of Indian cotton textiles
competition from the mill industry of Britain. industry:
• The first successful modem cotton textile mill 1. Low capital but labor-intensive handspun
was established at Mumbai in 1854 with local khadi sector
capital. 2. An intermediate, labor-intensive sector of
• This industry around Mumbai grew handlooms and power looms
tremendously in the 1870s because of the 3. The large scale mill sector which is capital
American civil war. intensive.
• Indian industries made rapid strides during
WWI due to a rise in demand for industrial Localization of Cotton Industry in
goods. Mumbai/Ahmadabad
• It was concentrated in the cotton belt of • Mumbai is called the cotton-polis of India.
Rajasthan, Maharashtra & Gujarat. • Ahmadabad (Manchester of India) is now the
• The real spurt was provided by the Indian second-largest centre of cotton textile
fiscal commission 1921-22. industry after Mumbai.
• This gave protection to industries like iron and • Various factors which have led to the
steel, textiles, cement, sugar, paper and localization of cotton industry in
metals. Mumbai/Ahmadabad are: Raw Material,
• This led to the dispersal of the cotton textile connectivity, early start, market, location,
industry away from the main cotton belt. power, climate, technology, water, ancillary
• The world wars and the swadeshi movement industry, capital, labour, etc.
favoured the growth of this industry at a rapid
pace.
Issues faced by the Cotton Textile Industry
• This industry suffered severe setback after
partition.
in India
• Cotton crop is highly vulnerable to vagaries of
• With the introduction of BT cotton, India is
now one of the leading producers of cotton monsoon
• Cotton yields in India are among the lowest in
textiles.
• Post partition, the share of the mill sector the world
• Lack of modernization
declined with the growth of power looms and
• Good spinning sector but weak weaving,
handlooms.
• At present, the bulk of India's cotton cloth knitting and processing sector
• Loss of market
comes from the power loom sector.
• Erratic power supply to cotton textile mills.
• India is now the world’s largest cotton
• Lack of labour reforms leads to frequent
producer, accounting for ~38% of global
cotton acreage but only ~24% of global cotton strikes by the labour force.
• Facing stiff competition with synthetic fibres.
production.
• India is among the largest exporters and the
largest consumers of the cotton in the world.
IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY • Heavy industry because it uses large

• Base of all other industries and, therefore, it quantities of bulky inputs and outputs.
is called a basic industry. • Iron is extracted from ore by smelting.
• The molten iron is cooled and moulded to

form pig iron. PROBLEMS OF IRON AND STEEL
• The pig iron is used for converting into steel INDUSTRY
by adding strengthening materials like
• Capital
manganese.
• Technology
• India was the 2 largest steel producer in
nd
• Productivity
2019.
• In efficient PSUs
• The growth is driven by domestic availability
• Low Utilisation
of raw materials and labour.
• Heavy Demand
• The Indian steel industry is modern with
• Shortage of Coal
state-of-the-art steel mills.
• Inferior Quality
• Indian steel industry is classified into three
categories - major producers, main producers
and secondary producers.
Suggestions
FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF IRON & • Comprehensive planning for modernisation &
STEEL INDUSTRY up-gradation of technologies.
• Raw Material • Needs long-term finance, such as, pension
• Transportation: near coastal areas for funds, savings etc., which can withstand
cheaper raw material imports cyclical volatility of profits unlike funding from
• Access To Markets: Mini Steel Plants banks or capital markets.
• Economies of linkages and • Anti-dumping duties on cheap import to
agglomerations: Duluth-Detroit- protect domestic producers.
Cleveland-Pittsburgh • More focus on infrastructure and automobile
• Competition industry to increase domestic demand.
• Technology • Servicing of bad loans by government to
• Quality of Ore, Economies of Scale, provide capital.
• Cheap Labour • Increased foreign investment.
• Industrial Inertia • More emphasis on green climate fund to
• Rules and Regulations procure environment friendly technology.
• Strategic Reasons • Decrease iron ore exports to ensure raw
• Government Policies material supply.
PETRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRY • Surfactant Intermediate

• It includes chemical & compound derived • Cracker units are also located in Auraiya (UP),
from petroleum resources. Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira
• It is used for making synthetic fibres, rubber, (Gujarat), Nagothane, Ratnagiri
insecticides & drugs.
• Mumbai is the hub of Petro Chemical Industry.
It includes the following:
• Polymers
• Synthetic Fibres
• Elastomers
(Maharashtra), Haldia (WB)

and Vishakhapatnam (AP)
• Petro Chemical Industries comes under the
department of chemicals & petrochemical.
CHEMICAL AND FERTILIZER INDUSTRY

• The ministry of chemicals & fertilizers
comprises a combination of three
departments:
o Affordable prices ensured by
Department of fertiliser.
o Department of chemicals and
petrochemicals: Policy, planning,
development and regulation of • The benefits of use of NCU are as under:
chemicals and petrochemicals 1. Improvement in soil health
industries. 2. Reduction in usage of plant
o Department of protection chemicals
pharmaceuticals: Provide greater 3. Reduction in pest and disease attack
focus for the growth of the high 4. An increase in yield of paddy,
potential pharmaceuticals industry sugarcane, maize, soybean, tur/red
• India is 3 largest producer and 2nd biggest
rd gram
consumer of fertilizers and meets half of the 5. Negligible diversion towards non-
requirements through imports. agricultural purposes.
6. Due to slow release of nitrogen,
Neem Coating of Urea enhance nitrogen used efficiency
• Mandatory for all the domestic producers to
produce 100% urea as neem coated urea
(NCU).
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY • Fixed dose combination (FDC) drugs are

considered an innovation of India's national
• India is the largest provider of generic pharmaceutical industry.
drugs globally. • FDC are being used in the treatment of
• The Indian pharmaceutical industry meets diseases like HIV, for Parkinson's disease and
over 50% of global demand for various in contraceptive pills
vaccines, 40% of generic demand in the U.S. • Plants at:
And 25% of all medicine in the U.K. ✓ Rishikesh- synthetic drugs
• Presently, over 80% of the antiretroviral drugs ✓ Chennai- surgical instruments
used globally to combat AIDS ✓ Gurgaon- formulation
• India is 3 -largest in terms of volume, 14 by
rd Th ✓ Hyderabad- synthetic drug plant
Value to the indudtry.. ✓ Muzaffarpur- chemical
• Lowest manufacturing costs in the world. intermediates
• Associated challenges: • The IT sector has increased its contribution to

✓ Dependence on China India’s GDP from 1.2% in 1998 to almost 10%
✓ Hollowing Out in 2019.
✓ Spurious Medicine • According to NASSCOM, the sector
✓ Price Capping aggregated revenues of 180 billion dollars in
2019 with export revenue standing at 99
Way Forward billion dollars and domestic revenue at 48 US
• India should look up to and invest in billion dollars, growing by over 13%.
biotechnology. India’s biotechnology industry, o As of 2020, India’s IT workforce
comprising biopharmaceuticals, bio-services, accounts for 4.36 million employees.
bio agriculture, bio-industry and The United States accounts for two-
bioinformatics is expected to grow and reach thirds of India’s IT services exports.
$150 billion by 2025. • In the present time, when the COVID-19
• To ensure health security of Indian people, pandemic has grappled the whole world and
revival of R&D and public sector API economies have been hard hit. The Indian IT
manufacturers is necessary. For example, the industry is still showing positive signs and has
council of scientific and industrial research the ability to overcome this exceptional
(CSIR) should be promoted to invest in R&D. catastrophe.
• India needs user friendly government policy o It has arisen as a global economic
for the common man to establish small scale, force and a major contributor to the
raw material manufacturing units/ incubators Indian economy in particular and the
in all states of the country to improve world in general.
availability of raw materials to manufacture
generic drugs at affordable rates. Government Initiatives in IT Sector
• There is a need for a functional testing • Digital India Program
laboratory in every state to fasten the work of • Meghraj Initiative Computing
specification of raw materials. • Code Free For India
• Skilled manpower from academic institutions • E-Kranti: NEGP 2.0
can be achieved through continuing education • Use of it in financial inclusion
programmes. • Internet of Things (IoT)
• The regulatory policies need to be improved, • Big Data Initiative
especially in the area of patent, price control • Google Project Loon
and to boost the pharma sector growth • UPI / BHIM / USSD / Aadhar Pay
• Bharat Net Project
IT INDUSTRIES
• It includes Software & hardware.
• Indian software sector has expanded almost
twice as fast as US software industry.
• Providing for an institutional framework for

CURRENT INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN
ensuring inter-agency and ministries
INDIA
collaboration.
• Also aims to modernize and setting up of new
ports.
• According to the Department for Promotion of
• Efficient Evacuation to and from hinterland.
Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), FDIs in the
construction development sector (townships,
Way Forward
housing, built up infrastructure and
• Developing India’s 7500Km long coastline.
construction development projects) and
• Reducing coast of import and export.
construction (infrastructure) activities stood
• Developing rivers as inland waterways to
at US$ 26.14 billion and US$ 25.38 billion,
reduce logistics cost.
respectively, between April 2000 and June
• Boost India’s merchandise exports to $110
2021. In FY21, infrastructure activities
billion by 2025.
accounted for 13% share of the total FDI
• Create an estimated 10 million new job.
inflows of US$ 81.72 billion.
• Various infrastructure projects are discussed Sagarmala Seaplane Services
below. • A seaplane is an airplane designed for taking
off and landing on water.
• Project execution and implementation would
SAGARMALA PROJECT
be through Sagarmala Development
• Developing road connectivity of ports around
Company Ltd.
India’s coastline.
• Project will be under administrative control of
• Aim to enhance connectivity with major
the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and
economic centres.
Waterways.
• Initiative will be led by ministry of Shipping.
• The route will be operated under UDAN.
• State governments would set up State
Sagarmala committees headed by CM.
• Sagarmala Development Company (SDC) acts DEDICATED FREIGHT CORRIDORS
as SPV for the project. • First proposed in April 2005.
• DFC ensure a more reliable, economical and
Aim of Sagarmala Project faster transportation of goods.
• Helps in making goods transport cheap
• Supporting and enabling Port-led
between industrial heartlands in the North
Development.
and ports on the Eastern and Western coasts.
• Also providing relief to the heavily congested • Funded by Japan International Cooperation
Golden Quadrilateral (Delhi, Mumbai, Agency.
Chennai and Kolkata).
• Eastern and Western DFCS Benefits of DFC
o Eastern DFC passes through Punjab, • Logistics costs will be reduced.
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand • Higher energy efficiency.
and West Bengal. • Faster movement of goods.
o Western will be from JNPT to Dadri via • It is environmentally friendly.
Vadodara-Ahmedabad- Palanpur-Phulera- • It will provide ease of doing business.
Rewari, Western DFC will pass through • Helps in generating more employment
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Uttar Pradesh.
BHARTMALA PROJECT
Eastern DFC • Aims for improvement in efficiency of existing
• Sahnewal (Ludhiana) in Punjab to Dankuni in corridors.
West Bengal. • Improving connectivity in North East.
• It covers Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, • 7 Waterway terminals on River Brahmaputra
Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. – Dhubri, Silghat, Biswanath Ghat, Neamati,
• It will double the speed of freight trains from Dibrugarh, Sengajan, Oriyamgh.
25 kmph to 75 kmph. • It emphasis on the use of technology &
• It will be funded by WB. scientific planning.
• EDFC is 1,839-km long DFC • Satellite mapping of corridors to identify
upgradation requirements
Western DFC • It calls for seamless connectivity
• WDFC is the around 1,500-km. with neighboring countries:
• Extended from Dadri in Uttar o 24 Integrated check posts (ICPs) identified
Pradesh to Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust in o Transit through Bangladesh to improve
Mumbai. North East connectivity

• WDFC covers Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, o Integrating Bangladesh – Bhutan – Nepal
Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. and Myanmar – Thailand corridors which

will make North-East hub of East Asia
COMPONENTS OF BHARATMALA PROJECT

UDAN o Sagarmala Seaplane Services is an

• UDAN stands for ‘Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagarik’. ambitious project under the Ministry of
• It aimed at enhancing connectivity to remote Ports, Shipping and Waterways with
areas. potential airline operators.
• Making air travel affordable. o One such seaplane service is already in
• Seeks to improve air connectivity to tier-2 and operation between Kevadia and Sabarmati
tier-3 cities. Riverfront in Ahmadabad, which was started
• Revival of unused and underused airports. in October 2020.
• Nearly half of the seats in UDAN flights are
offered at subsidized fares. METRO PROJECTS
• Loss will be compensated via viability gap • There are currently 13
funding (VGF) – an amount shared between operational ’metro‘systems in 21 cities in
the Centre and the concerned states. India.
• The scheme will run for 10 years. • For instance, the Delhi metro itself is
• UDAN 1.0: Under this phase, 5 airlines connected to few others nearby cities in
companies were awarded 128 flight routes to the national capital region.
70 airports (including 36 newly made • As of august 2019, India has
operational airports). 678.52 kilometres (421.61 miles) of
• UDAN 2.0: operational metro lines and 540 stations.
• In 2018, the Ministry of Civil Aviation • Metro rail lines in India are composed of
announced 73 underserved and unserved mainly standard gauge.
airports. • Rapid transit metro lines are not operated
• For the first time, helipads were also by Indian railways but by separate local
connected under phase 2 of the UDAN authorities.
scheme • The first rapid transit system in India is the
• UDAN 3.0: Kolkata metro (1984).
• Inclusion of Tourism Routes under UDAN 3 in
coordination with the Ministry of Tourism. RIVER INTER-INTERLINKING
• Inclusion of Seaplanes for connecting Water • Idea was first mooted by the chief engineer of
Aerodromes. the madras presidency in 1919, sir Arthur
• Bringing in a number of routes in the North- Cotton.
East Region under the ambit of UDAN. • In 2002, the Supreme Court asked the
• UDAN 4.0: government to finalise a plan for interlinking
• In 2020, 78 new routes were approved rivers by 2003 and execute it by 2016.
under the 4 round of Regional Connectivity
th
• A task force was formed by the government
Scheme (RCS) – Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik for the same in 2003.
(UDAN) to further enhance the connectivity • In 2012, the SC again asked the government to
to remote & regional areas of the country. start the project.
• Kavaratti, Agatti, and Minicoy islands of • In 2014, the Ken-Betwa River linking
Lakshadweep will be connected by the new project got cabinet approval.
routes of UDAN 4.0.
• UDAN 4.1
o Focus on airports, along with special
helicopter and seaplane routes.
What is inter-linking of rivers?

• The Indo-Gangetic Rivers are perennial since Benefits of river interlinking
they are fed by rains as well as the glaciers • It can control both floods and droughts.
from the Himalayas. • Solve the water crisis in many parts of the
• The peninsular rivers in India are seasonal. country.
• Due to this, the Indo-Gangetic plains suffer • Can generate about 34000 MW of electricity if
from floods and the peninsular states suffer the whole project is executed.
from droughts. • Improve irrigation facilities.
• By ILR the problem of floods and droughts can • Betterment of the Inland Waterways
be solved to a large extent. Transport System.
• Hence, the interlinking of rivers will bring
about an equitable distribution of river waters Challenges in river interlinking
in India. • The cost and manpower requirement is
immense.
National River Linking Project (NRLP) • Environmental impact: the huge project will
• This project envisages the transfer of water alter entire ecosystems.
from the water-excess basin to the water- • Building dams and reservoirs will cause the
deficient basin by interlinking 37 rivers of India displacement of a lot of people.
by a network of almost 3000 storage dams. • There have been instances where big dams
This will form a gigantic south Asian water grid. like Hirakund dam, Damodar dam, etc. Have
• There are two components to this project: brought flooding to Odisha, West Bengal.
o Himalayan component • Inter-state disputes.
o Peninsular component • International disputes
INLAND WATERWAYS • The network requires no green field

• Development of transport system using the investment.
connections between inland waterways is an • Waterways can decongest roads, including
alternative to automotive communication. highways by moving cargo away.
• The national waterways act 2016, has • Waterways do not involve challenges
declared 111 rivers or river stretches, creeks, associated with land acquisition.
estuaries in India as national waterways. • The significant investment which India needs
• In a few cases, especially near ports and to build its roads/highways infrastructure
coastal areas, this has also evolved to large- network can be conserved through increased
scale, commercial shipping. utilisation of the waterways. User charges can
• Decrease the level of harmful emissions and be levied to meet the expenses on
amount of waste. maintenance of the waterways.
• Relieve the burden on land roads in • Waterways are a cheaper mode of
international scale. transportation vis-à-vis the available
alternatives.
Advantages
• It represents a ready built infrastructure Implementation Challenges
network, which can be utilised without any • Implementation of the national waterways
further capital investment. network is, however, fraught with challenges.
• The channel draft of the national waterways is • Could be resisted by the local community on
not uniform at 2 meters throughout the year, environmental grounds.
as is required. • Displacement fears posing implementation
• Some of these rivers are seasonal and do not challenges.
offer navigability through the year. • It would not be possible for local
• All the identified waterways require intensive government/others to overlook these needs.
capital and maintenance dredging.
Important National Waterways

National Waterways 1 It starts from Allahabad (Prayagraj) to Haldia with a distance of 1620 km.
or NW1
National Waterways It is a stretch on the Brahmaputra river from Sadiya to Dhubri in Assam state.
2
National Waterway 3 It is located in Kerala state and runs from Kollam to Kottapuram
National Waterway 4 It is connected from Kakinada to Pondicherry through Canals, Tank, and River
Godavari along with Krishna river.
National Waterway 5 It connects Orissa to West Bengal using the stretch on Brahmani River, East
Coast Canal, Matai river, and Mahanadi River Delta.
National Waterway 6 It is the proposed waterway in Assam state and will connect Lakhipur to Bhanga
in river Barak.
NATIONAL WATER GRID transfer excess water from water-rich

• National Water Grid is a large-scale to water-deficit regions.
engineering proposal for the management of • This is to help improve irrigation,
water resources in India by the interlinking of increase water for drinking and industrial
the Indian rivers through networks of use.
reservoir and canals. • Mitigating drought and floods to an extent are
• A national water grid aims to connect various also part of the objectives.
surplus rivers with deficient rivers. It aims to
COAL 4. Anthracite.
• Coal is also called black gold. • Coal’s other constituents include hydrogen,
• It is found in sedimentary strata (layers). oxygen, nitrogen, ash, and sulphur.
• Coal contains carbon, volatile matter, • Some of the undesirable chemical
moisture and ash (in some cases sulphur and constituents include chlorine and sodium.
phosphorous).
• Most of the world’s coal was formed in Peat
carboniferous age (350 million years ago – • Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon
best quality coal). (has more impurities).
• Coal formed millions of years ago when the • Contains sufficient volatile matter and lots of
earth was covered with huge swampy moisture (gives out a lot of smoke when burnt
(marshy) forests. ➔ pollution).
• After millions of years many layers had • Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less heat,
formed, one on top of the other. emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash.
• The weight of the top layers and the water and
dirt packed down the lower layers of plant Lignite (Brown Coal)
matter. • Contains 40 to 55 per cent carbon.
• Heat and pressure produced chemical and • Moisture content is high (over 35 per cent).
physical changes in the plant layers which • It undergoes spontaneous combustion (this is
forced out oxygen and left rich carbon undesirable because it creates fire accidents in
deposits. mines).
• Distribution: Rajasthan, Lakhimpur (Assam),
Classification of Coal and Tamil Nadu.
• These classifications are based on the amount Bituminous Coal (Black Coal)
of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present in • Bituminous coal is soft, dense, compact coal
the coal. with 40 to 80 per cent carbon.
• Coals are classified into • Bituminous coal is the most widely available
1. Peat and used coal.
2. Lignite • It derives its name after liquid called
3. Bituminous coal bitumen.
• Moisture and volatile content are low (15 to • Anthracite coal is the best quality, hard coal
40 per cent). with 80 to 95 per cent carbon.
• It does not have traces of original vegetable • It has very little moisture and volatile matter.
material. • It ignites slowly and hence there is less loss of
• Calorific value is very high due to high heat (highly efficient).
proportion of carbon and low moisture. • It burns with a short blue flame (complete
• It is used in the production of coke and gas. combustion ➔ flame is blue ➔ very few
• Distribution: Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, pollutants).
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. • In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir
and that too in small quantity.
Anthracite Coal
Maharashtra • Kamptee coalfields (in Nagpur district) and Wardha valley (stretched over Nagpur and
Yavatmal districts) carry most of the coal deposits in the state.
• The coal deposits of Maharashtra mainly belong to the Tertiary period.
Tamil Nadu • The coal deposits of Tamil Nadu (80% lignite coal reserves) are found in Neyveli in the
South Arcot district.
Rajasthan • Palana and Khari mines of Bikaner district in Rajasthan carry Lignite deposits (inferior
quality of coal). The coal produced is mainly used in the thermal power plants and
railways.
Gujarat • The coal found in Gujarat is of poor quality and contains only about 35 per cent of
carbon.
• The moisture content in this coal is quite high.
Jammu & • Coal in the state is of inferior quality and is found at Shaliganga, Handwara, Baramulla,
Kashmir Riasi, and Udhampur districts along with the Karewas of Badgam and Srinagar.
Assam • Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is the most developed field.
• Assam coals contain very low ash and high coking qualities, but the sulphur content is
high, as a result of which this coal is not suitable for metallurgical purposes.
• The coal is best suited for hydrogenation process and is used for making liquid fuels.
• Upper Assam Coal belt extends eastwards as Namchick-Namrup coalfield (Arunachal
Pradesh).
Meghalaya • Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills.
• Darrangiri field is in Garo hills.
• Cherrapunji and Langrin coalfields are in Khasi and Jaintia hills.
PETROLEUM AND MINERAL OIL • Constituents of petroleum include 90 to 95

• Petroleum (petra means rock; oleum means per cent hydrocarbons
oil) is obtained from sedimentary rocks of the • 5 – 10% organic compounds containing
earth. oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of
organometallic compounds.
Assam • Oldest oil producing state in India.

Oilfields • The Digboi field in Dibrugarh district is the oldest oil field of India.
• The Naharkatiya field and The Moran-Hugrijan field are also important.
• The main oil bearing strata extend for a distance of 320 km in upper Assam along the
Brahmaputra valley.
• Oilfields of Assam are relatively inaccessible and are distantly located from the main
consuming areas.
• Oil from Assam is therefore, refined mostly in the refineries located at Noonamati in
Assam (443 km), Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni in Bihar (724 km) and
Numaligarh.
Gujarat • Ankleshwar, Khambhat, Ahmedabad, Barkol, and Sanand are important oilfields of this
Oilfields region.
• Oil from these fields is sent to refineries at Trombay and Koyali.
Rajasthan • Rajasthan is the largest on shore oil producing state of India.

Oilfields • One of the largest inland oil discoveries was made in Barmer district.
• Other important discoveries are Mangala oil field, Sarswati and Rajeshwari.
Off-Shore Oil Production in India
OPEC – ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM • The current OPEC members are the following:
EXPORTING COUNTRIES o Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea,
• OPEC is a 13-member oil supply cartel. Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
• It is founded by the first five members (Iran, Nigeria, the republic of the Congo,
Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela). Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates,
• This group bargains with international oil and Venezuela.
• Indonesia and Qatar are former members.
companies to maximize their profit margin.
• They control production and supply of crude
oil to keep it below international demand. BIO-FUELS
• Any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an Advantages of Biofuels

organic matter is considered a biofuel. • Availability: biofuels are produced from
• Biofuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous in biomass and thus are renewable.
nature. • Source material: whereas oil is a limited
o Solid: wood, dried plant material, and resource that comes from specific materials,
manure biofuels can be manufactured from a wide
o Liquid: Bioethanol and Biodiesel range of materials including crop waste,
o Gaseous: Biogas manure, and other by-products.
• Some of the main reasons for shifting to • Biofuels do not release as much carbon as
biofuels are: fossil fuels do.
1. Rising prices of oil • Decreases the nation's dependence upon
2. Emission of the greenhouse gases from fossil foreign energy.
fuels • Biofuel manufacturing plants can employ
3. Interest for obtaining fuel from agricultural hundreds or thousands of workers, creating
crops for the benefit of farmers. new jobs in rural areas.
Categories of Biofuels
• First generation biofuels: made from food Disadvantages of Biofuels
sources such as sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or • Fossil fuels produce more energy than some of
animal fats using conventional technology. the biofuels.
• Second generation biofuels: These are • Production of biofuels require land, this
produced from non-food crops. impacts cost of biofuels as well as that of food
• Third generation biofuels: These are crops.
produced from micro-organisms like algae. • Growing engineered biofuel crops can benefit
• Fourth Generation Biofuels: crops that are farmers commercially but the excess number
genetically engineered to take in high amounts of such crops can also lead to loss of
of carbon biodiversity.
• Using valuable cropland to grow fuel crops
could have an impact on the cost of food and
could possibly lead to food shortages.
• Massive quantities of water are required for
proper irrigation of biofuel crops.
NUCLEAR ENERGY • Atoms of uranium are split, which creates

• Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus or fission products which cause other uranium
core of an atom. Tiny units that make up all atoms to split, thus creating a chain reaction.
matter in the universe are called atoms. • The energy from this chain reaction is released
• Nuclear energy is released by splitting the in the form of heat.
atom, using the process called nuclear fission. • This heat is used to warm the nuclear reactors
• A nuclear reactor is a power plant that can cooling agent, which results in the formation
control nuclear fission to produce electricity. of steam.
In the nuclear reactor, uranium is used as • This steam turns the turbines, which drive the
fuel. engines or generators to produce electricity.
Advantages of electricity produced using 5. Bioenergy

nuclear energy
• It is a source of clean energy. Initiatives taken by the government
• It helps in the development of a country’s • India is the first country in the world to have
economy without adversely contributing to an exclusive ministry that is involved in the
climate change. promotion and development of the
• It does not emit any greenhouse gases. renewable – ministry of new and renewable
• It can be built in urban or rural areas. energy (MNRE)
• Nation green corridor programme
RENEWABLE ENERGY • National clean energy fund
• National biogas and manure management
• Renewable energy is an energy that is
produced from natural processes and programme
• Draft national wind-solar hybrid policy
continuously replenished.
• Off-grid and decentralised solar photo voltaic
• Few examples of renewable energy are
sunlight, water, wind, tides, geothermal heat, applications programme
• Promotion of solar parks and ultra mega solar
and biomass.
• Types of renewable energy
power projects
• Grid connected solar rooftop programme
1. Solar energy
• National solar mission
2. Wind energy
3. Hydroelectricity
4. Geothermal energy
UNCLOS 1. International tribunal for the law
of the sea (ITLOS)
• It is an international agreement that
2. International seabed authority
resulted from the third United Nations
(ISA)
Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS
3. Commission on the limits of the
III).
continental shelf (CLCS)
• It was adopted in 1982 and replaced the
quad-treaty 1958 Convention on the High UNCLOS divides marine areas into five main zones
Seas and came into force in 1994. Internal Waters
• It is also called the Law of the Sea
Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty. • Internal waters are all the waters that
• It defines the rights and responsibilities of fall landward of the baseline, such as
nations with respect to their use of the lakes, rivers, and tidewaters.
world's oceans, establishing guidelines for • States have the same sovereign
jurisdiction over internal waters as they
businesses, the environment, and the
do over another territory in the country.
management of marine natural resources. • There is no right of innocent passage
• The convention has been ratified by 168 through internal waters.
parties, which includes 167 states and the
European Union.
• India signed the Convention in 1982 and
ratified in 1995.
• The Convention has created three new
institutions on the international scene:
Territorial Sea • In this zone, a coastal State has the

exclusive right to exploit or conserve any
• Everything from the baseline to a limit not resources found within the water, on the
exceeding twelve nautical miles is seafloor, or under the sea floor’s subsoil.
considered the State’s territorial sea. • It does not give a coastal state the right to
• Much like internal waters, coastal States prohibit or limit freedom of navigation or
have sovereignty and jurisdiction over the overflight, subject to very limited
territorial sea. exceptions.
• These rights extend not only on the
surface but also to the seabed and subsoil, High Seas and Deep Ocean Floor
as well as vertically to airspace.
• The ocean surface and the water column
Contiguous Zone beyond the EEZ are referred to as the high
seas.
• The contiguous zone extends • It is considered as “the common heritage
seaward up to 24 nautical miles of all mankind” and is beyond any national
from its baselines. jurisdiction.
• It is an intermediary zone between • States can conduct activities in these
the territorial sea and the high areas as long as they are for peaceful
seas. purposes, such as transit, marine science,
• The contiguous zone only gives and undersea exploration.
jurisdiction to a state on the
ocean’s surface and floor. INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY
• It does not provide air and space
rights. • It is an autonomous international
organization that organizes, regulates and
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) controls all mineral (non-living resources)
related activities in the international seabed
• It extends 200 nautical miles from the
baseline.
area beyond the limits of national Function of ISA

jurisdiction.
1. To administer the mineral resources of
• HQ: Kingston, Jamaica
ISA known as the heritage of mankind.
• Established in 1994 2. To follow set rules, regulations, and
• It is an organization established by the Law procedures for conducting activities in
of the Sea Convention. the area.
• It functions under the aegis of the United 3. To promote and engage in marine
Nations Convention on Law of the Sea scientific research in the area.
(UNCLOS). 4. To conserve and protect the natural
• It has an observer status to UN. resources of the seabed, and at the same
time prevent damage to flora and fauna
within the seabed.
15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to be

ATOMIC MINERALS contained in monazite.
• Ilmenite: The deposits of Ilmenite occurs in
• India has huge reserves of Atomic the state of Jharkhand.
minerals. Uranium and Thorium are the • Beryllium: Beryllium oxide is used as a
main atomic minerals to which may be ‘moderator’ in nuclear reactors for atomic
added i.e., beryllium, lithium, and power generation. India has sufficient
zirconium. reserves of beryllium to meet its
• Thorium is derived from monazite which requirement of atomic power generation. It
contains 10 percent thoria and 0.3 percent is found in the states of Rajasthan,
urania. The other mineral carrying thorium Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil
is thorianite. Nadu.
• India has the largest deposits of Thorium in • Zirconium: Zirconium is found along the
the world and is trying hard to get on to the Kerala coast and in alluvial rocks of Ranchi
third stage of nuclear fuel consumption in and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand.
order to get self-reliant in the nuclear fuel • Lithium: Lithium is a light metal which is
supply. found in lepidolite and
• India produces about 2 percent of the spodumene. Lepidolite is widely
world’s uranium. The total reserves of distributed in the mica belts of Jharkhand,
uranium are estimated at 30,480 tonnes. Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan as well as
• In India, Uranium deposits occur in in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh.
crystalline rocks.
Uranium
Others:
• Uranium is a silvery-gray metallic
• Monazite: Although monazite sands occur
radioactive chemical element. It is only
on east and west coasts and in some places
naturally formed in supernova explosions.
in Bihar, the largest concentration of
monazite sand is on the Kerala coast. Over
• Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the • The leading producer states are Jharkhand,
main elements contributing to natural Andrapradesh, and Meghalaya.
terrestrial radioactivity.
• Uranium has the chemical symbol U and Uranium mines in India
atomic number 92.
• Jharkhand
Distribution of Uranium across the World
✓ Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar,
• About 96% of the global uranium reserves Bagjata, Turamdih, Banduhurang,
are found in these ten countries: Australia, Mohuldih
Canada, Kazakhstan, South Africa, Brazil,
• Meghalaya
Namibia, Uzbekistan, the United States,
Niger, and Russia.
✓ Kylleng, Pyndeng-Shahiong
• The largest viable deposits are found in
(Domiasiat), Mawthabah, Wakhym
Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.
• Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in
• Andhra Pradesh
Southern Australia are important mines in
Australia. ✓ Lambapur-Peddagattu,
• High-grade deposits are only found in the Tummalapalle
Athabasca Basin region of Canada.
• Cigar Lake, and the McArthur River basin in • Jadugora
Canada are other important uranium mining
sites. ✓ Located in the Singhbhum district of
• The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan Jharkhand
alone accounts for over half of the country’s ✓ The first uranium mine opened by
known uranium resources. UCIL in 1968
✓ Ores are treated in a mill located a
Distribution of Uranium in India Jaduguda itself
✓ UCIL is located here itself
• Uranium deposits occur in the Singhbhum
and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Gaya • Tummalapalle
district of Bihar, and in the sedimentary
rocks in the Saharanpur district of Uttar ✓ It is located in the YSR district of
Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh.
• But the largest source of uranium comprises ✓ The combined reserve in 49000
the monazite sands. tonnes of uranium. It can be
• Monazite sands occur on the east and west increased three times, which will
coasts and in some places in Bihar. But the make it the mine with the largest
largest concentration of monazite sand is on uranium deposits in the world.
the Kerala coast.
• Mohuldih
• Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated
to be contained in monazite.
✓ It is located in the Seraikella –
• Some uranium is found in the copper mines
Kharsawan district of Jharkhand.
of Udaipur in Rajasthan.
✓ It was commissioned by UCIL on 17 Monazite – Rare Earth Metals

April 2012.
✓ The ore produced here were be • Monazite is a widely scattered on the
sent to Turamdih Processing Plant. Kerala Coast
• Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate
• Turamdih mineral containing rare earth metals.
• Monazite contains 2.5% thorium
✓ It is located in the East Singhbhun • The state-wise resources of in situ monazite
district of Jharkhand. established by The Atomic Minerals
✓ It has 7.6 million tonnes of uranium Directorate for Exploration and Research
are reserves. (AMD) are as follows:
✓ A new uranium procession plant has
been constructed here. State Monazite
(Million tonnes)
Odisha 2.41
Andhra Pradesh 3.72
Thorium Tamil Nadu 2.46
Kerala 1.90
• Thorium is a chemical element with the West Bengal 1.22
symbol Th and the atomic number 90. Jharkhand 0.22
• It is one of only two significantly radioactive
Total 11.93
elements that still occur naturally in large
quantities (the other being uranium). (Source-PIB)
• Uranium and Thorium have distinctive
characteristics governing their utilization in OTHER MINERALS
nuclear reactors.
• Unlike uranium, thorium alone cannot be Iron Ore
directly used as nuclear fuel in a reactor.
• Utilization of Thorium with either uranium • India is endowed with fairly abundant
or plutonium, without going through the resources of iron ore and the quality of
second stage of Fast Breeder Reactors, to Indian ore is very high with iron content
build a sufficient inventory of plutonium of above 60 percent.
first, will be counter-productive by limiting • Most of iron ore found in the country is
thorium utilization to a tiny fraction of the of three types:
total available resources in the country. 1. Haematite
• The utilization of Thorium in the third stage 2. magnetite
has made it available as a sustainable energy 3. limonite
resource for centuries.
• With this mode of utilization, Thorium offers Types of Iron Iron content
not only a sustainable energy resource but ore
also excellent fuel performance Haematite (red 68%
ore)
characteristics in a reactor, better than
Magnetite (black 60%
Uranium with respect to a lower inventory ore)
of long-lived nuclear waste. Limonite (yellow 35%-50%
ore)
• The iron ore mines occur in close

proximity to the coal fields in the north-
eastern plateau region of the country.
• About 95% of total reserves of iron ore
are located in the States of Odisha,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
• The major iron ore producing
regions/mines in Odisha are
Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, and
Badampahar (in Mayurbhanj district);
Kiriburu and Bagiaburu (in Keonjhar
district); and Bonai (in Sundargarh
district).
• The major iron ore-producing
regions/mines in Chhattisgarh are Dhalli
Rajhara (in Durg district) and Bailadila (in
Bastar district). • The important areas of production are
Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
regions/mines in Karnataka are Donai
Malai (in Bellary-Hospet); Bababudan (in • Over 78% of the total reserves of
Chikmagalur district); Kudremukh (in manganese ore in India occur in a belt
Chittradurg district); and Arasul (in stretching from Nagpur and Bhandara
Shimoga district). districts of Maharashtra to Balaghat and
Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
➢ Odisha is the leading producer
regions/mines in Jharkhand are
of Manganese and accounts for
Noamundi, Gua, Budaburu, etc.
37% of the total production of
However, recently one of the largest
the country. The important
iron ore reserves has been discovered at
mining areas are Sundargarh,
Chiria.
Rayagada, Bolangir, Keonjhar,
• The major iron ore producing
Jajpur, Mayurbhanj, Koraput,
regions/mines in Goa are Pirna, Sirigao,
Kalahandi and Bolangir.
Kudnem, Baragan, etc.
➢ Karnataka is another major
producer which accounts for
Manganese
26% of the country’s total
• India ranks third in the production of production and here the mines
manganese ore in the world, next only are located in Dharwar, Ballari,
to Russia and South Africa. Belagavi, North Canara,
• Although Manganese deposits are found Chikkmagaluru, Shivamogga,
in almost all geological formations, it is Chitradurga, and Tumakuru.
mainly associated with the Dharwar ➢ Maharashtra is also an
system. important producer of
manganese, which is mined in
Nagpur, Bhandara, and requirements and India has to import

Ratnagiri districts. copper from other countries.
➢ The manganese belt of Madhya • The major part of imports comes from
Pradesh extends in a belt in the USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan and
Balaghat-ChhindwaraNimar- Mexico.
Mandla and Jhabua districts.
➢ Telangana, Goa, and Gold
Jharkhand are other minor
producers of manganese • Gold is a precious metal and it occurs in
Manganese is an important raw auriferous lodes.
material for the smelting of iron • It is used for making ornaments and is
ore and is also used for also used as the international currency.
manufacturing ferroalloys. • There are three gold fields in the
• About 85% of total manganese country
consumption in India is used by 1. Kolar Gold Field, Kolar
metallurgical industries. district, (Karnataka)
2. Hutti Gold Field in Raichur
Copper district (Karnataka)
3. Ramgiri Gold Field in
• Copper is an important metal in the Anantpur district (Andhra
electrical industry for making wires, Pradesh)
electric motors, transformers, and • Karnataka is the largest producer of
generators. gold in India.
• India is a poor country with regard to • The gold deposits in Kolar Gold Field
reserves and the production of copper. occur in around 80 km long stretch. The
• Major copper ore deposits are located area still continues to be the largest
in Singhbhum district (Jharkhand), supplier of gold in India.
Balaghat district (Madhya Pradesh), • Kolar Gold Fields is one of the deepest
and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts mines of the world.
(Rajasthan). • Geological Survey of India (GSI) is
• There are small deposits in Gujarat, actively engaged in geological mapping
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar followed by mineral exploration
Pradesh, Sikkim, Meghalaya, (survey) for various mineral
Maharashtra and West Bengal also. commodities including gold with the aim
• Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer to identify potential mineral-rich zones
of copper in India. and establish resources.
• Rajasthan is the second largest • Every year, as per the approved annual
producing state in India and Khetri Field Season Program, GSI takes up
Singhana belt in the Jhunjhunu district mineral exploration projects in various
is the most important copper- parts of the country for augmenting
producing area. mineral resources.
• The production of copper ore in the • Recently, the Government of India has
country always falls short of our amended the MEMC Rules to allow the
auction of composite licence at G4 level
for deep-seated minerals including Gold. • Silver is also produced by Vizag Zinc smelter
This is expected to bring more in Andhra Pradesh from the lead
participation from private players with concentrates.
advanced technology in the field of • Traces of silver are also found in Jharkhand,
exploration & mining of deep-seated Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Jammu
minerals which is expected to reduce the and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand.
cost of extraction of gold.
Lead
Gold Mines State
Hatti Gold Mines Karnataka • Lead does not occur free in nature.
Kolar Gold Fields Karnataka • Native lead is rare and the only
Lava Gold Mines Jharkhand commercial source of the metal is
Sonbhadra Mine Uttar Pradesh
GALENA which is usually found in veins
Parasi Jharkhand
and masses in many crystalline rocks
Pahadia Jharkhand
Kunderkocha Jharkhand (schist’s).
Bhitar Dari Jharkhand • It also occurs in the pre-Cambrian rocks
and the Vindhyan limestone.
Silver • Malleable (can be hammered into thin
sheets), soft, heavy, and bad conductor.
• Silver is also a precious metal and it is valued • Lead is a constituent in bronze alloy and
next to gold for making ornaments. is used as an anti-friction metal.
• It is found mixed with several other metals • Reserves – Ores of lead occurs at a
such as copper, lead, gold, zinc, etc. number of places such as the Himalayas,
• India is not a major producer of silver. Most Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Andhra
of the silver consumption in India is driven Pradesh.
by imports. • Mines
• It occurs generally with lead, zinc, copper, ➢ Rajasthan produces about
and gold ores and is extracted as a 94%of the total production of
byproduct of electrolysis or chemical India. The Zawar, Debari mines
methods. of Udaipur are the major
• Rajasthan is the largest producer followed producers.
by Gujarat and Jharkhand. ➢ It s is also produced in
• The major production of Silver comes from Dubgarpur, Banswara, and
“Zawar mines” in Udaipur (Rajasthan). Here Alwar in Rajasthan.
Silver is obtained as a by-product of Galena ➢ Kurnool and Nalgonda mines in
ore (lead) in Hindustan Zinc Smelter. Andhra Pradesh are also
• Silver is also produced by Kolar Goldfields famous for lead mining.
and Hutti Gold Fields during the refining of
Gold.
• The Tundoo lead smelter in the Dhanbad
district (Jharkhand) produces silver as a
byproduct of lead.

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COM BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY

The term Geography

It also includes interaction between Human Being and Physical environment

GEOS means EARTH

Putting together, they

PHYSICAL It is study of the processes that

HUMAN It is associated with humans and

THE UNIVERSE smaller than an atom, an infinite

GALAXIES • Some galaxies are called “spiral” because

Elliptical Galaxies Spiral Galaxies Irregular Galaxies

Flattened balls of old Flattened shape and No particular shape

Universe is expanding or contracting? us learn how the early universe was

COSMOLOGICAL RED SHIFT space in a phenomenon known as

SOLAR SYSTEM: • All the planets were formed in the same

Sun Reference Data

Diameter: 1.39 million km (870,000 Age: 4.5 billion years

PLANET • Eventually, only the planets and other small

THREE CRITERIA FOR A

Orbit around the Enough gravity to force It has removed debris

ASTEROID BELTS : asteroid belt between Mars and

by that of Earth. Asteroids that

KUIPER BELTS : • The Kuiper Belt (also known as the

METEORS, METEORITES & METEOROID:

METEOROID It is solid debris originating from any celestial objects.

When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere at high speed

METEORITES When a meteoroid doesn’t melt up completely and reach

• Earth is an oblate spheroid.

MOTION OF THE EARTH

• Motion of earth along its axis is known as

• It is a Latin word that means ‘Stalled Sun’.

SUMMER SOLISTICE WINTER SOLISTICE

• On 21st June, the northern • On 22nd December, the tropic of

EQUINOX : • This occurs twice each year, around 20

PERIHELION AND APHELION :

• Partial: When the moon is not perfectly

• Instead of light hitting the Moon's surface, 1. Total lunar eclipse.

LATTITUDE OR PARALLEL: It is angular distance of • It is measured in degrees from the centre of

Important Latitude includes:

LONGITUDE OR MERIDIAN: • Places east of Greenwich gain time,

Indian Standard Time • India standard Meridian passes through UP,

The International Date Line

• The international date line (IDL) is an

• Rule: On crossing the date line, the ships

Origin and evolution of

Early Theories Modern Theories

Big Bang Theory

Other Early Theories

Gaseous Tidal Binary Star

1) Gaseous Hypothesis by Immanuel Kant (1755):

• Primordial matter was scattered in the universe,

• Kant’s theory was based on Newton’s Law of

• He did not explain from where the

2) Nebular Hypothesis by Pierre Laplace (1796):

• Gradual loss of heat resulted into cooling of

3) Planetesimal Hypothesis by Chamberlain and Moulton (1905):

• Sun existed before the formation of planets.

• Close approach of two stars is extremely unlikely.

II) Other Early Theories:

3) Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys (1918):

• The primitive Sun was stationary and was

• Angular momentum is not enough to detach

4) Binary Star Hypothesis by Russell (1937):