EARTH SCIENCE
What is Earth Science?
It is the study of our Earth, its life-
supporting properties, materials and
geologic processes occurring in its layers
and all the important natural changes in its
over-all environment.
Geomorphic processes, could be endogenic
or exogenic.
SOME FIELDS RELATED TO EARTH
SCIENCE
• Geology(“Geo” meaning Earth, “Logos”
meaning study) – the study of the materials
and processes that operate beneath and upon
the earth’s surface.
• Oceanography – the study of the
composition and movements of seawater as
well as coastal processes, seafloor
topography and marine life
• Meteorology – the study of the
atmosphere and the elements that produce
weather and climate.
• Astronomy – the study of the universe,
our planet’s origin, and the members of the
solar system.
• Cosmology – the science of the origin and
development of the universe. Modern
astronomy is dominated by the Big Bang
theory, which brings together observational
astronomy and particle physics.
- an account or theory of the origin of the
universe.
UNLOCKING OF TERMS
• Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter
consisting of protons, electrons, and
neutrons that comprises atoms, planets,
stars, galaxies, and other bodies
• Dark matter - matter that has gravity but
does not emit light.
• Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a
force that counteracts gravity and causes the
universe to expand.
• Protostar- an early stage in the formation
of a star resulting from the gravitational
collapse of gases.
• Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear
fusion reaction responsible for the energy
produced by stars.
Nuclear Fusion- Combine
Nuclear Fission- Split
• Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse
hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in
their
cores; outward pressure resulting from
nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational
forces
• Light years - the distance light can travel
in a year; a unit of length used to measure
astronomical distance
WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
STUDYING EARTH SCIENCE?
 Develop an understanding of the earth’s
structure, composition and natural processes
significant to ones environment
 Recognize and appreciate the importance of
sunlight, resources, minerals and
atmospheric conditions favoring the
existence and growth in one’s current
environment
 Learn the natural hazards brought by
earthquakes, volcanoes, floods and typhoons
that enable us to prepare for the dangers to
our lives and properties
 Improve standard of living
STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION AND
AGE
It comprises all space and time, and all
matter & energy in it.
• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter, 24%
cold dark matter, and 71.4% dark energy
(a source of antigravity)
• Hydrogen, helium, and oxygen are the
three most abundant elements.
 Stars - the building block of galaxies born
out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies
Instabilities within the clouds eventually
results into gravitational collapse, rotation,
heating up, and transformation to a
protostar-the core of a future star as
thermonuclear reactions set in.
 Stellar interiors are like furnaces where
elements are synthesized or combined/fused
together. Most stars such as the Sun belong
to the so- called “main sequence stars.” In
the cores of such stars, hydrogen
 A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and
clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In
between the clusters is practically an empty
space. This organization of matter in the
universe suggests that it is indeed clumpy at
 a certain scale. But at a large scale, it
appears homogeneous.
 Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8
billion years old. The diameter of the
universe is possibly infinite but should be at
least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year =
9.4607 × 1012 km). Its density is 4.5 x 10-
31 g/cm3.
Diameter
- 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607
× 1012 km).
Density
- 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3.
*Nucleosynthesize means to form.
INTERPRETATION
- The galaxies are less dense than water and
so it can float on water.
CLASSICAL ASTRONOMY
•Plato and Aristotle were the two greatest
philosophers that shaped the history of
astronomy.
•Main method used in investigating –
reasoning from first principles.
FIRST PRINCIPLE
- They can just reason out
- If possibly true, it is already considered true.
- Based on observations only.
*People back then did not believe that the
Earth moved until Galileo Galilei.
*Anything observed is considered to be true.
• Has three important ideas
THREE IMPORTANT IDEAS OF THE
FIRST PRINCIPLE
1. The Earth was located at the center
(geocentric) and that everything in the
heavens moved in uniform circular motion.
They did not see the shifting of the shifting
of the stars called parallax.
2. Observed that the motion of the planets did
not fit the theory well because of the
retrograde motion of the planets.
3. Claudius Ptolemy explained the motion of
planets mathematically by devising a small
circle called epicycle rotating along the edge
of a larger circled called the deferent. The
speedof the planets vary slightly.
PLANET
- Came from the word “Planetis” meaning
“wanderer.”
- 7 planets back then including the sun and
moon.
- Stars twinkle, planets do no.
- The Morningstar is Venus.
- Uniform circular motion
- Geo-centric meaning Earth-centered.
RETROGRADE MOTION
- Different motion from what is believed to
be.
THREE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH
a. Rotation
b. Revolution
c. Precession(Wobbling Motion)(every 26000
years)
*The moon rotates if seen farther away.
*The retrograde motion cannot be explained
by the Geocentric Model.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
A. THE CREATIONIST THEORY
•This is also known as the Biblical
theory(needs to be proven) of the origin of
the universe
•God, the Supreme Being created the whole
universe in 6 days out of nothing
•The proof can be read in the Holy Bible
*Everything started with Oral Traditions.
*Under the influence of the Holy Spirit.
*Supreme being.
B. THE BIG BANG THEORY
 Started from the ideas of Belgian priest of
Georges Henri Lemaitre
 The universe started as a single point, it
stretched and expanded up until now
(happened 13.8 billion years ago)
 The universe sprang into existence as a
“singularity”
What is a Singularity?
- A point at which a function takes an infinite
value, especially in space-time when matter
is infinitely dense.
 The universe originated in an explosive act
of a primeval atom or the “Cosmic Egg.”
 The universe came from a hot state and as a
proof traces of cosmic rays are present.
 What are a Cosmic Rays?
- Are showers of high energy particles occur
when energetic cosmic rays strike the top of
the Earth’s Atmosphere.
BIG BANG
- Came from something full of energy.
- Matter when heated expands.
TIMELINE
Trend of the timeline
- The temperature is gradually cooling.
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
- American astronomer Edwin Hubble
showed that the universe is expanding in
1930.
- The universe after the Big Bang was filled
with intense, high energy radiation that
extends in all directions.
- The universe expands slowly in a Doppler
red shift in the light we receive.
- The expansion is caused by the mysterious
force known as the Dark energy.
WHAT IS DOPPLER RED SHIFT?
- The light from distant stars and more distant
galaxies is not featureless, but has distinct
spectral features characteristic of the atoms
in the gases around the stars. When these
spectra are examined, they are found to be
shifted toward the red end of the spectrum.
This shift is apparently a Doppler shift and
indicates that essentially all of the galaxies
are moving away from us. Using the results
from the nearer ones, it becomes evident that
the more distant galaxies are moving away
from us faster. This is the kind of result one
would expect for an expanding universe.
WHAT IS DOPPLER EFFECT?
- Change in frequency or wavelength in
relation to an observer who is moving.
EVIDENCE OF UNIVERSE EXPANSION
1. Hubble’s Observations of Redshift, tells us
that most galaxies and stars are moving
apart.
2. Temperature Measurements of Cosmic
Microwave Background(CMB) Radiation
are as the predicted by the Big Bang Theory.
3. The darkness of the Night Sky tells us there
must be galaxies whose light has still to
reach us. So they cannot be infinitely old.
HUBBLE’S LAW
- The speed of motion stars or planets is
directly proportional to their distance.
- The objects are moving fast from afar.
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
- The farther the objects are, the more the area
it appears to cover.
Oscillating Universe Theory
- The Oscillating Universe Theory simplified,
is that the universe will continue expanding
and contracting forever.
- Richard Tolman from Massachusetts
created Oscillating Universe Theory in the
1920's.
- The Oscillating Universe theory is the best
of both worlds, it states that the universe
keeps expanding and contracting, so that it
will never explode, or implode.
*This theory was created after Big Bang
Theory and The Crunch Theory.
The Steady State Theory
- Scientists first thought the universe was
static(at rest) and the appearance never
changed.
- The creators of this theory were Thomas
Gold, Fred Hoyle, and Hermann Domdi.
- In this theory, galaxies are not moving away
from one another.
- New stars are made from energy in the
center of galaxies.
MILKY WAY GALAXY
- is a spiral galaxy.
- Constellations look the same.
- Even thought it is expanding but its
appearance never changes.
- No beginning, no end.
 THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
A. Nebular Hypothesis
B. Two Star Hypothesis
C. Big Bang Theory
PLANETISIMAL VS. PROTOPLANET
a. Planetesimal
– solid bits of matter – metal, rock, ice, that
will eventually make planets.
b. Protoplanet
– the massive objects destined to become
planets made from the coalescing
Planetesimal.
*planetesimal coming together.
NICOLAUS COPERNICUS’S IDEAS
- Proposed the heliocentric (sun-centered)
model of the universe.
- Suggested the moon(first
planet)(Geocentric).
- He proposed that the Earth rotates on its axisII.
and revolves around the sun.
- This solved the problem as to the place of
the earth in the system.
- However, the model is inaccurate because
the planets don’t follow circular orbits and
uniform circular motion.
JOHANNES KEPLER’S IDEAS
• Adopted the Copernican model
• Discovered that the orbit of Mars is not a
circle but slightly elongated ellipse
• Planets do not move at uniform speeds
• Planets move faster when closer to the sun
(perihelion) and slower when farther away
(aphelion)
• Formulated the 3 Laws of Planetary
Motion
APOGEE
- Farther from the moon.
PERIGEE
- Nearest to the moon.
PERIHELION
- Near the sun.
APHELION
- Far from the sun.
KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY
MOTION
I. The orbits of the planets are ellipses with the
sun at one focus.
A line from a planet to the sun sweeps over
equal areas in equal intervals of time.

HELIOCENTRIC MODEL
- In 1543, Copernicus proposed that: III. A planet’s orbital period squared is
proportional to its average distance from the
o The sun, not the Earth, is the center of the
sun cubed.
solar system.
- Such a model is called a heliocentric system.
- Ordering of planets known to Copernicus in
this new system is illustrated in the figure.
- Represents modern ordering of planets.

TYCHO BRAHE’S IDEAS

• Rejected the Copernican hypothesis and
the Ptolemaic model.
• Earth is immobile and is the center of the GALILEO GALILEI
system.
• The moon and the sun revolves around the
Earth while the other planets revolve around
the sun.
• All motion was along circular paths.
• He successfully mapped the position of
stars.
WHAT ABOUT NEWTON’S
CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOTION
OF PLANETS?
TWO CONCEPTIONS OF EARTH’S
HISTORY: Catastrophism
• Assumption: Great Effects Require Great
Causes
• Earth History Dominated by Violent
Events
Uniformitarianism
• Assumption: We Can Use Cause And
Effect to Determine Causes of Past Events
• Finding: Earth History Dominated by
Small-scale Events Typical of the Present.
• Catastrophes Do Happen But Are
Uncommon
THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
• This theory was proposed by French
astronomer Marquis de Laplace
• The solar system evolve from a slowly
rotating gaseous cloud (nebula)
• Cooled and contracted and rotated faster
and faster causing the gas to take a disk-like
form
• At high speeds, gravity could no longer
hold the outer material and broke into ring
• The ejected material condensed and
formed the planets.
*FOG THEORY
HOW WERE PLANETS FORMED?
• Solar Nebula Disk starts condensation
• Formation of planetisimal – an aggregate
of solid bits of matter (metal, rock, ice). The
planetisimal grows by a process called
accretion or by gravitational collapse (rapid
accumulation of gas)
• Planetisimals coalesce to form massive
objects called protoplanets
• Protoplanets undergoes differentiation –
separation of material according to density.
This is caused by heat from short-live
radioactive elements
• The resulting planet has a metallic core and
low density crust
• Outgassing – the release of gas from the
planet’s interior resulting to the planet’s
atmosphere.
1. CONDENSATION,
2. ACCRETION/GRAVITATIONAL
COLLAPSE
3. DIFFERENTIATION
4. OUTGASSING
TWO STAR HYPOTHESIS / CAPTURE
THEORY
• One star passed by a protostar of lesser
mass
• Attraction between the two star pulling
each other due to
gravity
• This attraction flattened the stars
• The flattened protostar disintegrated and
broke into pieces
• The pieces contracted into discs of
different sizes and cooled to form the planets
• The moons are captured asteroids
PLANETESIMAL THEORY
• By Thomas Chrowder Chamberlain and
Forest Ray Moulton
• A passing star caused the sun to eject
filaments of material that condensed into
planetesimals from which planets form by
accretion
• The oceans and the atmosphere were
formed by volcanic eruptions
Planet Earth – Could There be Life?
- Between Mars and Jupiter there is a
large number of rocks orbiting the
sun.
- Each rock is known as an asteroid.
- The ring of rocks is called the
Asteroid Belt.
- Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are
the inner planets and are also known
as Terrestrial planets.
- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto are
outer planets and are also known as
Jovian or gas giants.
- Pluto is a big ball of ice.
The Solar System
Large Scale Characteristics
1. Much of the mass of the Solar
System is concentrated at the center
(Sun)
2. Orbits of the planets are elliptical
and are on the same plane.
3. All planets revolve around the sun.
4. The periods of revolution of the
planets increase with increasing
distance from the Sun; the innermost
planet moves fastest, the outermost,
the slowest;
5. All planets are located at regular
intervals from the Sun.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Mass
- Much of the mass of the Solar
System is concentrated at the
center(Sun).
2. Orbits
- Orbits of the planets are elliptical
and are on the same plane.
3. Revolution
- All planets revolve around the sun.
- The periods of revolution of the
planets increase with increasing
distance from the sun; the innermost
being the fastest, and the outermost;
the slowest.
- All planets are located at regular
intervals from the sun.
Small Scale Features
1. Most planets rotate prograde
2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of
materials with high melting points
such as silicates, iron , and nickel.
They rotate slower, have thin or no
atmosphere, higher densities, and
lower contents of volatiles -
hydrogen, helium, and noble gases.
3. The outer four planets - Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are
called "gas giants" because of the
dominance of gases and their larger
size. They rotate faster, have thick
atmosphere, lower densities, and
fluid interiors rich in hydrogen,
helium and ices (water, ammonia,
methane).
Galactic Neighborhood
- Galactic environment impacts
habitability.
- Milky Way galaxy’s edge is a life-
favorable spot.
- Not near active gamma ray source.
- Not near galactic center with high
star density and ionizing radiation.
 - Loneliness in galaxy is helpful for
life.
Spectral Class of Star Needed for Life:
- Spectral class indicates photospheric
temperature
o 4000K to 7000K
- Emit high-frequency UV radiation to
trigger atmospheric ozone formation
- Emits not so much that ionization
destroys life
Spectral Class of “Sun”
- Earth rotates around the star, the
“Sun.”
- Sun
o G2 V star
o ~6,000K
- Sun is in “Habstar” range!
- Ozone can form in atmosphere.
- Ionization is not deadly for life.
*Blue Flame(non-luminous)
- less visible.
*Main Sequence Stars
- 4000-7000K.
Low Stellar Variation?
- All stars change luminosity
- Stars vary in stability… stars that
fluctuate luminosity violently are
poor candidates for hosting life
SUN
- Is relatively stable
o Star variation is
approximately .1% over an
11-year cycle.
o Slight variations dramatically
impact Earth.
- Can burn its Hydrogen for 10 billion
years.
- AGE: 4.8 Billion Years old
Habitable Zone
- Theoretical shell around a star where
any planet present would have liquid
water on its surface
- HZ range should not vary over time
o Stars increase luminosity as
they age
o If this happens too quickly
(super-massive star), planets
are only in window for life
for short amount of time
o Lowers time to develop life
- Stars increase luminosity as they age.
- If this happens too quickly(super-
massive star), planets are only in
window for life in a short amount of
time.
- Lowers time to develop life.
- Theorized that HZ can move.
- Mars might be habitable.
Is Earth Located in Habitable Zone?
- Yes!
- Earth is located within the expected
shell of distance in which liquid
water can be on the surface of the
planet!
- Pictures of the planet show liquid
water covering a large portion of the
Earth’s surface!
- The relative position of Earth
appears capable of supporting life…
so let’s look at the planet itself!
Planet Characteristics that Support Life
- Terrestrial
o Silicate rocks
o Rocks not accreted to
gaseous outer layers
- Gas Giants = no life
o No surface
o Enormous Gravity
o Satellites are good candidates
Composition of Earth?
- Earth is a terrestrial planet, not a gas
giant
Mass of Planets need to be Just Right for
Life
- Low Mass
- Bad news for life
- Lesser gravity – difficult for
atmosphere retention
- Smaller planets lose energy from
formation quickly geologically dead
- Approximately 0.3 Earth masses
needed to sustain life
Mass of Earth
- High Mass
o Earth is largest by mass and
density of terrestrial bodies in
the Solar System
o Large enough for molten core
(heat engine)
o Large enough for atmosphere
through gravity
o Large enough for liquid outer
core and metal inner core
(magnetic field)
- Can hold its atmosphere
- Protected from Solar Flare(Magnetic
Field)
- Last reversal of the poles was
780,000 years ago.
Magnetic Fields and Life
- Planets need protection from solar
wind
- Solar wind- stream of charged
particles from stars consisting of
electrons and protons
- Planet must have molten metal
interior
IF THE POLES SHIFT:
- Magnetic field is not complete
- Harmful radiation can penetrate
- Organisms that rely on direction
might get confused.
- material
Does Earth have a Magnetic Field?
- Yes!
- Earth has solid metal core with liquid
outer core, causing magnetic field
- Protects the Earth from solar wind
and solar flares.
Atmosphere and Life
- Atmosphere – layer of gases that
surround a material body of
sufficient mass
- Held by gravity
- Helps regulate temperature
- Protects planet from meteors and
radiation
- Composition favors life (oxygen and
carbon dioxide)
Does Earth have an Atmosphere?
- Yes!
- Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
o Nitrogen (78%)
o Oxygen (20.9%)
o Argon (.93%)
o Carbon Dioxide (.0390%)
- This composition could support life
- Atmosphere absorbs/reflects harmful
radiation
o Visible and Radio reach
surface
- Reflect of Radiation
o Presence of life(Albedo
Effect)
Composition of Planets
- Four elements vital for life
o Carbon
o Hydrogen
o Oxygen
o Nitrogen
Earth’s Composition?
- Element oxygen alone found in
Earth’s crust…
- However, other life elements are
found in atmosphere and water
- Make amino acids (building blocks
of protein)
- Comets(gave us H2O) and
outgassing from volcanoes brought
these elements
- Life can be seen on the crust,
atmosphere and water.
Tectonic Activity of Planet
- Supply surface with life-sustaining
- Supply atmosphere with temperature
moderators (CO2)
- Recycles important
chemicals/materials
- Earth is tectonically active!!
PHOSPHORUS
- Spontaneous combustion
- CO2 acts as a temperature
moderator.
*Lessen the emission.
Life-Supporting Orbits
- Stability is critical
- Eccentricity
o Greater (ellipse)e, greater
temperature fluctuation
o Living organisms can only
withstand certain fluctuations
o Is the deviation from a
circular path.
Is Earth’s Orbit Suitable?
- Yes! THE EARTH SYSTEM
- Earth’s Orbit
o Almost circular  “Earth is a complex system of
o E < .02 interacting physical, chemical and
biological processes running since
Life-Supporting Rotation the beginning of time.”
- Rotation around axis at tilt  as a set of interconnected
o Planet should have moderate components that are interacting to
seasons or biospheric form a unified whole.
dynamism will disappear
o Without tilt, planet would be Earth As A Closed System
colder (warm weather could
not move poleward)
o Should not be radically tilted
because seasons would be
extreme
- Speed of Rotation
o Should be relatively quick so
day-night cycle is not too
long
- Inertia is the tendency of an object to
resist change. Closed system: exchange of energy but
- Inertia & Gravity, but gravity is negligible exchange of mass with
greater. surroundings.
Earth’s Rotation? Earth System Science
- Earth’s tilt varies between 21.5 and  Earth is a dynamic body
24.5 degrees every 41,000 years
 with many separate, but
- Day is only 24 hours
 highly interacting parts or
- Moon plays crucial role
 spheres.
o Moderates Earth’s climate by
stabilizing axial tilt  Earth system science
 studies Earth as a system
Earth COULD have life!  composed of numerous
- Galactic Neighborhood  parts, or subsystems.
o Arm of Milky Way galaxy
- Star
o Spectral class G2 The Earth’s Four Spheres
o Low stellar variation
- Distance from Star
o Earth is located in Habitable
Zone
o Liquid Water
- Composition/Size
o Terrestrial planet, relative
high mass
o Magnetic Field
o Atmosphere
- Orbit
o Nearly circular
- Rotation
o Tilt allows seasons
o Short night/day
The Earth is a system consisting of four
major interacting components:
Geosphere:
comprises the solid Earth and includes both
Earth’s surface and the various layers of the
Earth's interior.
Atmosphere:
gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth
and constitutes the transition between and
the vacuum of space
Hydrosphere:
includes all water on Earth (including
surface water and groundwater)
Biosphere:
the life zone of the Earth and includes all
living organisms, and all organic matter that
has not yet decomposed.
Overlapping Cycles in the Earth System
The Atmosphere
The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air,
which we call the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere consists of four
unique layers (the troposphere, the
stratosphere, the mesosphere, and the
thermosphere).
1. TROPOSPHERE- weather and
clouds.
2. STRATOSPHERE- the most stable,
planes, and the ozone layer.
3. MESOSPHERE- where meteorites
burn, auroras are seen
4. THERMOSPHERE- hottest layer
5. IONOSPHERE- satellites
6. EXOSPHERE- outermost
• The atmosphere reaches over 560
kilometers (348 miles) up from the
surface of the Earth.
• The atmosphere is primarily
composed of nitrogen (about 78%)
and oxygen (about 21%). Other(1%)
components exist in small quantities.
• consists of a mixture of gases
composed primarily of nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor
THE TROPOSPHERE(0-10km)
- constitutes the climate system that
maintains the conditions suitable for
life on the planet’s surface.
THE STRATOSPHERE(10-50km)
- contains ozone that protects life on
the planet by filtering harmful
ultraviolet from the sun.
THE MESOSPHERE,
THERMOSPHERE AND EXOSPHERE
are zones of diffuse atmospheric
components in the far reaches of the
atmosphere.
Atmosphere: Interactions with
other Earth System components
Hydrosphere:
The gases of the atmosphere readily
exchange with those dissolved in water
bodies (e.g. oceans, lakes, etc.)
Biosphere:
The atmosphere supplies oxygen and carbon
dioxide that form the basis of life processes
(photosynthesis and respiration).
Geosphere:
Gases in the atmosphere react with water to
produce weak acids that aid in the
breakdown of rock.
System Interactions
- Hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep
across the ocean (hydrosphere) and
onto the land (geosphere), damaging
the dwellings of people (biosphere)
who live along the coast.

The Biosphere
- The biosphere is the “life zone” of
the Earth, and includes all living
organisms (including humans), and
all organic matter that has not yet
decomposed.
• The biosphere is structured into a
hierarchy known as the food chain
(all life is dependant on the first tier
– mainly the primary producers that
are capable of photosynthesis).
• Energy and mass is transferred from
one level of the food chain to the
next.
10% Rule for Energy:
Biosphere: Interactions with other Earth
System components
Atmosphere:
Life processes involve a many chemical
reactions which either extract or emit gases
to and from the atmosphere (e.g.
photosynthesis consumes carbon dioxide
and releases oxygen, whereas respiration
does the opposite).
Hydrosphere:
Evaporation of water from leaf surfaces
(transpiration) transfers water to the
atmosphere.
Geosphere:
The biosphere is connected to the geosphere
through soils (mixtures of air, mineral
matter, organic matter, and water). Plant
activity (e.g. root growth and organic acid
production) are also for the mechanical and
chemical breakdown of the rocks.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water
found on our planet.
• Water found on the surface of our
planet includes the ocean as well as
water from lakes and rivers, streams,
and creeks.
• Water found under the surface of
our planet includes water trapped in
the soil and groundwater.
• Water found in our atmosphere
includes water vapor.
• Frozen water on our planet includes
ice caps and glaciers.
• Only about 3% of the water on Earth
is “fresh” water, and about 70% of
the fresh water is frozen in the form
of glacial ice.
Subcomponents of hydrosphere are
connected via the hydrologic cycle
Hydrosphere: Interactions with other
Earth System components
Atmosphere:
Water is transferred between the
hydrosphere and biosphere by evaporation
and precipitation. Energy is also exchanged
in this process.
Biosphere:
Water is necessary for the transport of
nutrients and waste products in organisms.
Geosphere:
Water is the primary agent for the chemical
and mechanical breakdown of rock
(weathering), to form loose rock fragments
and soil, and sculpts the surface of the Earth.
Geosphere
The geosphere is the solid Earth that
includes the continental and ocean crust as
well the various layers of Earth’s interior.
• 94% of the Earth is composed of the
elements oxygen, silicon, and
magnesium.
 • The geopsphere is not static
(unchanging), but its surface (crust)
is in a constant state of motion.
• Mineral resources are mined from
the geosphere.
Geosphere: Interactions with other Earth
System components
Atmosphere:
volcanism spews significant amounts of
gases into the atmosphere. For example,
volcanoes inject large amounts of sulphur
dioxide to the upper atmosphere, resulting in
global cooling.
Hydrosphere:
The formation of many minerals involve
incorporation or release of water. Also,
water speeds up chemical reactions that
produce or destroy minerals, and aids in the
melting of rock.
Biosphere:
Nutrients released from rocks during their
breakdown are dissolved in water (to be
used by aquatic plants).
System Interactions
1. Volcanoes (geosphere) erupt,
sending ash and gases into the air
(atmosphere) and sending lava and
ash down onto surrounding forests
(biosphere) and human habitations
(biosphere).
2. Earthquakes (geosphere) can damage
buildings which may kill people
(biosphere), as well as cause fires
which release gases into the air
(atmosphere). Earthquakes in the
ocean may cause a tsunami
(hydrosphere) which can eventually
hit land and kill both animals and
people (biosphere).
Where Do Humans Fit In ?
As components of the biosphere, humans are
temporary receptacles of the matter and
energy that flows through the Earth System
“You are what you eat, drink, and breathe”
Human health is, to some degree, a function
of how this flow of matter and energy flows
through, and interacts with, the human body
In many cases, problems of human health
are fundamentally linked to the natural
distribution of Earth materials.
The Bottom Line
- Considerations on how processes
within the Earth System interact are
extremely important in the
understanding of the real world.
- Understanding physical and chemical
processes in the Earth System is as
important as understanding
biological entities in terms of
understanding biological systems (all
are connected).
Minerals: Physical
Properties and Crystal
Forms
Physical properties of minerals
• Based on the principles, minerals are
composed of atoms, arranged in a
specific order, with a well defined
chemical composition.
• Minerals are inorganic(no carbon),
naturally occurring solid(cannot be
manmade) that has a definite
chemical composition and atomic
structure
The Physical Properties of Minerals
• Color
• Streak
• Luster
• Hardness
• External Crystal Form
• Cleavage
• Fracture
• Specific Gravity
• Other Properties
• Chemical Tests
 Polymorphism(difference in structure
Important Physical Properties I and ability to exist in different forms) and
polymorphs
1. Luster(How light reflects off) - • Substances having the same
This property describes the chemical composition but different
appearance of reflected light from crystal structures.
the mineral's surface. – e.g. diamond and graphite
• Both minerals are composed of pure
Ex. Pyrite & Quartz carbon, but diamond is the high
pressure polymorph of graphite.
• This gives rise to extremely different
• Luster – it is the quality and
physical properties.
intensity of reflected light exhibited
by the mineral
a. Metallic – generally opaque and
exhibit a resplendent shine similar to
a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy),
adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy),
greasy, etc.

CARBONATE GROUP OF MINERALS

- Calcite
- Dolomite
- Malachite
Diamond vs. Graphite Crystal Structures

2. Hardness(is qualitative) - This is

the resistance of the mineral to
abrasion or scratching. This property
doesn't vary greatly from sample to
sample of the same mineral, and thus
is highly diagnostic. It also is a
direct reflection of the bonding type Hardness: 10 Hardness: 1-2
From: http://www.molecules.org/elements.html#diamond

and internal atomic arrangement.

- A value is obtained by comparing the
mineral to a standard scale devised
by Moh, which is comprised of 10
minerals ranging in hardness from
talc (softest) to diamond (hardest).

Fingernail Hardness (2.5) Scratches Gypsum (2)

PROS OF THE MOHS HARDNESS

SCALE
 • Color - Although an obvious
feature, it is often unreliable to use to
determine the type of mineral.
– Color arises due to electronic
transitions, often of trace
constituents, in the visible
range of the EM spectrum.
For example, quartz is found
in a variety of colors.
*A mineral can be many different colors.
Below is Mica.
• Streak - The color of a mineral in
its powdered form; obtained by
rubbing the mineral against an
unglazed porcelain plate.
– Streak is usually less variable
than color.
– Useful for distinguishing
between minerals with
metallic luster.
– Black or white streak plates.
Gold
- When gold is run across a streak
plate it makes a yellowish-gold
color.
- That makes sense.
Pyrite or “Fool’s Gold”
- When pyrite is run across a streak
plate, it has a black or dark green
streak.
- Pyrite is not worth much money,
while gold is worth a lot. They look
alike, so miners call it fool’s gold.
Hematite
- Hematite’s color is grey, but its
streak is red.
- Hema means blood.
- The mineral was named hematite
because it looked like it was bleeding
when it was taken across a streak
plate.
Density and Specific Gravity
• Density - Defined as the mass
divided by the volume and normally
designated by the Greek letter, rho =
mass/volume; SI units: kg/m3 or kg
m-3, but geologists often use g/cm3 as
the unit of choice.
• Specific Gravity - Ratio of the mass
of a substance to the mass of an
equal volume of water. Note that
rwater = 1 g cm-3. S.G. is unitless.
• Examples - quartz (SiO2) has a S.G.
of 2.65 while galena (PbS) has a S.G.
of 7.5 and gold (Au) has a S.G. of
19.3.
Color and Density
• Two broad categories are
ferromagnesian and
nonferromagnesian silicates, which
simply means iron and magnesian
bearing or not. The presence or
absence of Fe and Mg strongly
affects the external appearance
(color) and density of the minerals.
• Ferromagnesian silicates - dark
color, density range from 3.2 - 3.6
g/cc
– Olivine - high T, low silica
rocks; comprises over 50%
of upper mantle
– Pyroxenes - high T, low
silica rocks
– Amphiboles - esp.
hornblende; moderate T,
higher silica rocks
– Mica - esp. biotite;
moderate T, higher silica
rocks
– Garnet - common
metamorphic mineral
• Nonferromagnesian silicates -
light color, density close to 2.7 g/cc
– Mica - exp. muscovite;
moderate T, higher silica
rocks
– Feldspars - plagioclase and
orthoclase; most common
mineral in crust; form over a
wide range of temperatures
and melt compositions
– Quartz - low T, high silica
rocks; extremely stable at
surface, hence it tends to be a
major component in
sedimentary rocks.
 – Clay - esp. kaolinite;
different types found in
different soils
– such that it will spontaneous orient
• Crystal form or habit - The
external morphology of crystals
generally reflect the internal
arrangement of their constituent
atoms.
• The external shape of a crystal or
groups of crystals is displayed /
observed as these crystals grow in
open spaces. The form reflects the
supposedly internal structure (of
atoms and ions) of the crystal
(mineral). It is the natural shape of
the mineral before the development
of any cleavage or fracture.
Examples include prismatic, tabular,
bladed, platy, and equant. A mineral
that do not have a crystal structure is
described as amorphous.
cleavage planes caused by mineral
twinning.
• Magnetism - Property of a substance
itself within a magnetic field.
Magnetite (Fe3O4) has this property
and it can be used to distinguish it
from other non-magnetite iron
oxides, such as hematite (Fe2O3).
• Double Refraction - Seen in calcite
crystals. Light is split or refracted
into two components giving rise to
two distinct images.
• Acid test – minerals containing
carbonates produce a fizz in the
presence of HCL

• Cleavage - Orientation and number

of planes of weakness within a
mineral. Directly reflects the
orientation of weak bonds within the
crystal structure. This feature is also
highly diagnostic.

• Fracture - This describes how a

mineral breaks if it is not along well
defined planes. In minerals with low
symmetry and highly interconnected
atomic networks, irregular fracture is
common.

Weak Bonding Yields Planer Cleavage

Special and Other Properties

• Striations - Commonly found on
plagioclase feldspar. Straight,
parallel lines on one or more of the

Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks – Classification
Three Types of Rocks
• There are 3 types of rocks found on
Earth:
– Igneous
– Sedimentary
– Metamorphic
• Knowing the differences between
these 3 types of rocks allows us to
learn about Earth’s past.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous Rocks – Formation
• Igneous Rocks are formed by
melting, cooling, and
crystallization of other rocks.
• Igneous rocks form as a result of
volcanic activity, hot spots, and
melting that occurs in the mantle.
• Felsic: light colored rocks that are
rich in elements such as aluminum,
potassium, silicon, and sodium
• Mafic: dark colored rocks that are
rich in calcium, iron, and
magnesium, poor in silicon
• Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool,
giving mineral crystals more time to
grow
• Fine-grained: cools quickly with
little to no crystals
• Dark igneous rocks are formed from
basaltic or mafic magma. (Mafic
because it contains a lot of
magnesium and iron).
• The magma that forms these rocks is
usually very hot (around 1000°C)
and viscous (about the same
viscosity as ketchup.)
• Light colored igneous rocks are
formed from silicic (high silica
content) or felsic magmas.
• The magma that form these rocks is
usually more cool, (lower than
850°C), and more viscous (about the
viscosity of peanut butter.)
Igneous Rocks
Coarse-Grained: Cooled Fine-Grained: Cooled
slowly, underground quickly, at surface
Felsic:
Light-
colored
Granite Rhyolite
Mafic:
Dark-
Colored
Gabbro Basalt
• Intrusive Igneous Rocks: magma
pushes into surrounding rock below
the Earth’s surface, cools slowly
with larger crystal formation
• Extrusive Rocks: forms when
magma erupts onto the Earth’s
 surface (lava), cools quickly with
very small or no crystals formed.
• Igneous rocks are classified using
their texture in the following ways:
– Glassy
– Aphanitic (no visible
crystals)
– Phaneritic (visible crystals)
– Porphyritic (Some visible and
some not visible crystals)
Igneous Rocks – Texture
• Crystal size is used to classify
igneous rocks.
• Crystals form as the rock cools, and
the crystal size can tell us a lot about
its cooling history:
– The larger the crystals, the
slower it cooled.
• Glassy igneous rocks have no crystal
structure, and probably formed by
very rapid cooling (such as on the
surface of a lava, or when a lava
enters the water.)
• Aphanitic rocks have no visible
crystals, and probably formed by fast
cooling above ground.
• Phaneritic rocks have visible
crystals, and probably formed by
slow cooling below ground.
• Porphyritic rocks have both visible
and nonvisible crystals, and probably
formed by two different cooling
events.
Igneous Rocks – Examples
• The most common types of igneous
rocks include:
– Rhyolite
– Andesite
– Basalt
– Granite
– Diorite
– Gabbro
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Sedimentary Rocks – Formation
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by
weathering, erosion, deposition,
compaction, and cementation of
other rocks.
• Sedimentary rocks form in areas
where water, wind, or gravity
deposit sediments.
• Sedimentary rocks are likely to form
in areas such as:
• Deltas
• Beaches
• Rivers
• Glaciers
• Sand dunes
• Shallow seas
• Deep oceans
Sedimentary rocks – Classification
• Sedimentary rocks are classified into
two groups:
– Clastic rocks
– Chemically formed rocks
Sedimentary Rock
 Sedimentary Rocks are formed at or
near the Earth’s surface
 No heat and pressure involved
 Strata – layers of rock
 Stratification – the process in
which sedimentary rocks are
arranged in layers
a. Clastic – made of fragments of rock
cemented together
- Breccia is a term most often used for
clastic sedimentary rocks that are
composed of large angular fragments
(over two millimeters in diameter).
- The spaces between the large angular
fragments can be filled with a matrix
of smaller particles or a mineral
cement that binds the rock together.
b. Chemical sedimentary – minerals
crystallize out of solution to become
rock.
- Limestone is a sedimentary rock
composed primarily of calcium
 carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the
mineral calcite. It most commonly
forms in clear, warm, shallow marine
waters.
- It is usually an organic sedimentary
rock that forms from the
accumulation of shell, coral, algal
and fecal debris.
c. Organic sedimentary – remains of
plants and animals
- Coal is an organic sedimentary rock
that forms from the accumulation
and preservation of plant materials,
usually in a swamp environment.
- Coal is a combustible rock and along
with oil and natural gas it is one of
the three most important fossil fuels.
• Sedimentary rocks are Clastic if they
are made of pieces of other rocks that
have been weathered and eroded.
• Clastic rocks are grouped based on
the size of grain that they are made
from.
• Very small particles make up
mudrock.
• Medium sized particles make up
sandstone.
• Large particles make up
conglomerates.
• Sedimentary rocks that form from
chemical processes are called
biochemical rocks (formed from
living things) or Chemical
precipitates (formed from lakes or
shallow seas.)
Sedimentary rocks – Examples
• Some of the most common types of
sedimentary rocks include:
– Conglomerate
– Sandstone
– Shale
– Limestone
– Gypsum
– Oolites
– Chert (including black flint
and red jasper)
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks – Formation
• Metamorphic rocks are formed by
heat and pressure changing one
type of rock into another type of
rock.
• Metamorphic rocks form near lava
intrusions, at plate subduction
zones, and in deep mountain roots.
• Lava intrusions can provide heat that
causes metamorphic rocks to form.
These small areas of metamorphic
rock form from contact
metamorphosis.
• Rocks that metamorphose because of
increasing heat and pressure found at
plate subduction zones and in deep
mountain roots form large areas of
metamorphic rock through regional
metamorphosis.
Metamorphic rocks – Classification
• Metamorphic rocks are classified
into 2 major groups:
– Foliated
– Nonfoliated
• Foliated rocks form when
differential pressure causes minerals
to form in layers.
• These rocks will have stripes or
planes that they will break easily
along.
• Contain aligned grains of flat
minerals
Metamorphic Rock
- Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock
that has a banded appearance and is
made up of granular mineral grains.
- It typically contains abundant quartz
or feldspar minerals.
- Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
formed in areas where the pressure
from all sides was equal, so there is
no “linear” quality to the rocks.
- mineral grains are not arranged in
plains or bands
- Marble is a non-foliated
metamorphic rock that is produced
from the metamorphism of
limestone.
 - It is composed primarily of calcium
carbonate.

Metamorphic rocks - Formations

• Structures and formations seen in
metamorphic rocks include:
– Folding
– Stretching
– Alternating dark and light
layers (gneissic foliation)

Metamorphic rocks - Examples

• Some common types of metamorphic
rock include:
– Slate
– Schist
– Gneiss
– Amphibolite
– Marble
– Quartzite
– Metaconglomerate