LESSON 1 Universe and Solar System
They formed what is called the cosmic
The Universe
The universe is defined as all existing matter
and space considered as a whole. The observable
universe is believed to be at least 93 billion light years in
diameter and constantly expanding since the big bang
13.8 billion years ago.
Theory on the Origin of the Universe
Scientists tests ideas through experiments and
observation or through scientific method. They build
upon ideas that pass examinations. The ideas that are
not accepted, however, are usually deconstructed,
reformulated, and retested. They followed the evidence
where is leads, and they questioned everything.
Big Bang Model of the Universe (1929)
It describes the universe as originating in an
infinitely tiny, infinitely dense point or singularity
between to 13 to 14 billion years ago.
The essential statement of the theory is usually
attributed to the Belgian Roman Catholic Priest Georges
Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre in 1927.
The Big Bang Timeline
A. Inflationary Epoch (10^-35s – 10^-33s)
The universe expanded from the size of
an atom to 1 035 meters in width.
B. Formation of the Universe (6 seconds)
The universe continues to expand. It
became distinct:
o gravity,
o strong nuclear force that held the nuclei
together,
o weak nuclear force,
o and electromagnetic force.
By the first seconds, the universe is
made up of fundamental particles and energy:
o quarks,
o electrons,
o photons,
o and neutrinos.
C. Formation of Basic Elements (3 seconds)
Protons, and neutrons combine to form
hydrogen nucleic. Then hydrogen began to
combine in pairs to form helium nuclei. This
process is called nucleosynthesis.
D. Radiation era (10 000 years)
Most of energy in the universe was in
the form of radiation. These include different
wavelengths of light, X-rays, radio waves, and
UV rays.
wave background radiation.
E. Matter domination (300 000 years)
Matter began to dominate and the end
of radiation era at this stage, lithium atom
began to formed.
Electrons joined with hydrogen and
helium nuclei to make scaled neutral atoms.
F. Birth of the Stars and Galaxies (300 million
years)
The slightly irregular areas of gas clouds
collapsed and eventually gain enough mass to
ignite producing light. The huge gas cloud can
be the birthplace of dozens of stars. The group
of stars became the galaxies.
The Solar System
A model is a representation of an idea, an
object or even a process that is used to describe and
explain phenomena that cannot be experienced
directly. Scientists use models to predict a phenomena
or event, such as the origin of the Solar System.
Therefore, a model is a scientist’s description of an
event at that time, demonstrating how science
knowledge is tentative.
There are two popular models about the Solar
System: Claudius Ptolemy’s geocentric model, which
states that the earth is at the center of the Solar
System, and Nicholas Copernicus’ heliocentric model,
which states that the sun is at the center of the Solar
System.
In the eighteenth century, the understanding of
how the Solar System originated became more than just
descriptive models: it became scientific. The following
scientific theories present the explanation of the origin
of the Solar System. It is important to note that these
theories build up on the idea of angular momentum.
Angular momentum is the quantity of rotation of a
body, which is the product of its moment of inertia and
its angular velocity.
Nebular Hypothesis
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Pierre-Simon
Laplace (1749-1827) were the first to propose the
earliest theory of how the Solar System originated. The
Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis presumed that the
Solar System began as cloud of dispersed interstellar gas
called nebula. It is a cloud of dust and gas that can be
found on space. The mutual gravitational attraction
between particles caused them to start moving
colliding, and they were kept together by electrostatic
forces. The resulting nebular aggregates became larger
than others, grew more rapidly, and ultimately became
the planets.
 It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic
equilibrium (a nearly round shape).
 It has “cleared the neighborhood” around its
orbit.
Which of the following best describes the big bang?
Which of the following elementary particles makes up
protons and neutrons?
This term used to describe the sudden expansion for a
short period of time that occurred when the strong
nuclear force moves out of the singularity.
Which planet is tilted at 97.77 degrees?
In conversion of units, how many hours are there in 1
day?
Which of the following planets were the first to be
discovered through mathematical equation?
How many times of Jupiter's mass does it needs to
become a star?
How long was it a day in mercury?

The planets
LESSON 2 Earth System
Currently, we have 8 official planets present in
our solar system. They are divided into two Earth
classifications: Terrestrial Planets and Jovian Planets. Earth is characterized by its blue waters, rocky
brown and green land masses with white grounds set
against the black background.
Terrestrial Planets
It is made up of erratic, complex and interactive
Terrestrial planets were also known as the rocky systems that make it constantly changing planet.
planets. These planets are the first four planets in our
solar system inside the asteroid belt. The following are
the terrestrial planets: Compositional Layer
1. Mercury 1. Crust
2. Venus o it is made up of large rocks divided into
3. Earth two forms; oceanic crust and
4. Mars continental crust. The former is
composed of the elements iron(Fe),
Oxygen (0), Magnesium (Mg) ,
Jovian Planets Aluminium(Al) while the latter granite,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Jovian Planets (also known as the Gaseous
o Crust is 50-70 km in depth.
Planets) were the planets outside the asteroid belt.
These planets were composed mainly of gasses and has 2. Mantle
metallic core. The following planets were the Jovian o is mostly solid rocks and minerals and
planets: marked by malleable semi-solid magma.
It represents about 85% of the total
1. Jupiter weight and mass of the planet.
2. Saturn o It is believe that the first 50 miles is
3. Uranus composed of a very hard rigid rock. The
4. Neptune next 150 miles is said to be superheated
solid rock.
3. Core
Trivia: o The earth's core is entirely made up of
metal alloy such as iron(Fe) and nickel
The 3 criteria of the IAU for a full-sized planet are (Ni). Other elements found in the
 It is in orbit around the Sun. Earth's core are siderophiles. These are
the elements that dissolve in iron and
 are classified as "precious metals". It is
divided into two: inner core and outer
core.
o Outer Core - it is the second largest and
second to the last layer of our planet. It
is about 2,200 km thick and composed
of entirely superheated liquid molten
lava of liquid iron and nickel. The NiFe
alloy of the outer core is extremely hot
and its temperature range is between
4,500? to 5,500? Celsius. The liquid
metal of the outer core has very low
viscosity, which makes it easily
deformed and malleable.
o Inner Core - The final layer of the Earth
is the inner core which is an exceedingly
hot, dense huge of mostly iron 2500 km
wide. The temperature of the inner core
ranges from 5,000?C to 6,000?C which
is enough to make metal melt. It has
strong pressure around it making the
metal stay solid. With this unusual set
of circumstances, some scientists tend
to assume that the inner core is not
totally solid but rather as plasma
behaving as solid.
o Seismic Waves - is caused by breaking
down of rocks or explosions.
Lithosphere (Geosphere)
 It is subsystem that composed of minerals and
rocks. It extends from crust to core.
 It is subject to motion forming continents and
different landforms.
 It produces soil due to uplifting of rocks I
beneath the earth.
Hydrosphere
The Earth's hydrosphere can be in a form of
liquid, vapor and ice such as glaciers, ice caps and ice
bergs. This frozen part is 2 called Cryosphere.
Mostly ninety seven (97%) percent of the
Earth's water is in the form of oceans (salty) and the
rest is freshwater (nonsalty). Three-quarters of this
fresh water is solid and exists in the ice sheets.
Ocean Zones
 Oceans may be divided into layers known as
zones. The zones may be horizontal or vertical.
 Horizontal zones divide the ocean from land to
the sea. It consist of coastal and pelagic zone.
o Coastal zone is the region in which sea
bottom is exposed during low tide and
is covered during hlgh tide. Some
animals have adapted to thls
environment like sea stars, sea urchins
and some species of coral.
o Pelagic zone is located seaward of the
coastal zone's low tide mark. This is
always covered with water. There are
two divisions: neritic zone and oceanic
zone. Neritic zone lies above the
continental shelf. It extends from the
low tide mark outwards from the
seashore ond extends to a depth of
200m. Sunlight penetrates the water.
Many sea animals are found in this zone
Vertical Zone
 Vertical Zone begin at sea level and end at the
deepest point in the ocean. There are five
zones. Each zone receives different amount of
sunlight.
o Epipelagic zone or the sunlight zone (0-
200m) is the zone that gets a lot of
sunlight resulting to an abundance of
aquatic plants. Common animals found
in this zone Include seals, sea turtles,
sea lions, ray, and sharks.
o Mesopelagic zone or the twilight zone
(200-1000m) is characterized by dim
light due to the limited amount of
sunlight it receives. Ono plants are
found in this region. Lilly fish, octopus,
and squid are found in this region.
o Bathypelagic zone or the midnight zone
(1000-4000m) does not receive any
sunlight. Animals that live here lack
eyes. Some animals can be found in this
are like viperfish, anglerfish, stripe eel,
and tripod fish.
o Abyssopelagic zone or the abyss (4000 -
6000 m) is described as deep sea. Most
animals living in this area are
invertebrate like blind shrimps, small
squids, and hagfish.
o Hadalpelagic zone or the trenches
(6000 - bottom) is the deepest part of
the ocean. This zone is mostly found in
deep water trenches and canyons.
Some animals exist here like sea
Cucumber and tube worms.
Atmosphere
This thin layer of gas envelops our planet is
necessary to sustain lite because it contains essential for
humans and animals to breathe, li enables plants to
make their own food, traps heat to keep us warm,
protects us from harmful radiation from the space and
drives ocean currents hot spread heat which regulates
our climate. The greenhouse gases help keep our
planet's temperature to a level conducive to life.
Layers of the Atmosphere
 Troposphere lowest layer is the troposphere. It
contains about 80% of the total mess of the
atmosphere. Most of the water vapor present in
the atmosphere is found in the troposphere. All
 weather- associated cloud types are found in
this layer.
LESSON 3 Minerals and Rocks
 Stratosphere extends up to 50km high. it is in
this region where we can find the ozone layer Minerals
which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet
radiation. Mineral has the following characteristic: is
 Mesosphere. This region is above the inorganic, represented by chemical formula, is solid
stratosphere and extends to 85 km. Meteors found in nature. A rock is an aggregate of one or more
usually burn up in this region as they approach minerals. For example, coal is sedimentary rock is
planet. The coldest region in the atmosphere is composed of carbon.
the upper mesosphere.
 Thermosphere extends up to 500 km above the
mesosphere. It is where aurora and satellites Physical Properties of Minerals
occur. temperature in this layer con rise to as
1. Luster
high as 1500 degrees Celsius.
2. Hardness
3. Color and Streak
4. Crystal Structure/ Habit
Biosphere 5. Cleavage
The biosphere contains all the Earth's living 6. Specific Gravity
things (plants and animals). It is sometimes referred to 7. Other Properties
as the "zone of life". From a geophysical standpoint,
biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all
living things and their relationship, including their Physical Properties of Minerals
interactions with the elements of the lithosphere,
Transparency
hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The term "biosphere
was coined by geologist Edward Suess 1875. A mineral is transparent if it allows the light to
pass through and you can see object through it.
Luster
Biomes
Luster indicate how light is reflected off a
The biosphere is divided into biomes. Biomes are
surface of a mineral. There are qualitative terms to
the world's major communities. They classified
describe this properties such as metallic, vitreous,
according predominant vegetation characterized by
pearly, dull, greasy and silky
adaptations of organisms to that particular climate
Hardness
 Aquatic includes freshwater (ponds. lakes,
rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean, estuaries, etc.). Refers to the mineral resistance to be
The aquatic regions house numerous species of scratched. This property is dependent the chemical
plants and animals. composition and the crystalize structure of mineral.
 Forests includes tropical temperate and boreal
and boreal forest as well as a toga. Each type of
forest has distinctive features dominated by
grasses rather than large shrubs or tree
 Desert is characterized by low rainfall (less than
50cm/year). Most desserts have specialized
vegetation as well as specialized animals that
can adapt to its condition.
 Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes, it has
low biomes diversity and simple vegetation
structure

Summary
 Lithosphere focuses on land surfaces like the
continents.
 Cryosphere is under hydrosphere because it
was the frozen part of the earth. Natural ice on
Color And Streak
arctic areas came from water.
 lonosphere was the area where in the aurora Minerals come in different colors especially
borealis and the movement of radio waves that mineral gems. Mineral gems are rare and are used to
was used on the internet or cellular phones make jewelry
occurs. Biosphere was present on all the three
spheres.
 Streak of a mineral refers to the color of the
mineral in powdered form. You can do streak test plate
(back side of a porcelain plate)
Crystal Structure and Crystal Habit
Minerals may be classified based their crystal
structure. Crystal structure describes the orderly
geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal
structure of mineral.
Cleavage
It describes how a mineral breaks along
weakness plain.
Specific Gravity
It describes the minerals density in comparison
the density of a standard like water.
Other Properties
Carbonate minerals like calcite, dolomite,
azurite with hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Minerals containing irons like magnetite is
attracted by a magnet.
Gold, silver and copper minerals are good
conductor of electricity.
Rock Cycle.
Refer to the rock cycle. It shows the origin of
the igneous rock, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
and their interrelationship
Suppose you start with metamorphic rocks. The
magma cools and solidifies through the process of
crystallization which may occur either beneath the
surface of the Earth or at the surface through volcanic
eruption. The resulting rock is called igneous rocks,
The igneous rock undergo weathering. The
eroded materials are deposited as sediments. The
sediments undergo lithification (conversion into rock) to
become sedimentary rocks when compacted and
cemented.
If the sedimentary rocks are buried deep within
the Earth. They will be subjected to heat and pressure
changing them into metamorphic rocks.
If the metamorphic rocks aresubjected to higher
temperature, they will melt forming magmas. The
magma will solidify into igneous rocks, starting the
cycle.
Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks form by form by crystallization
and solidification of molten rock. They made up 80% of
the mass of the Earth's crust. It is mostly classified
based on their texture and mineral composition.
Types of Igneous Rocks
 Volcanic rocks formed from magma erupted
from a volcano. It is the most common rock
types on Earth's surface, particularly in the
ocean. Basalt, rhyolite, andesite, and komatiite
are examples of volcanic rocks.
 Plutonic rocks are crystallized slowly cooling
magma below the surface of the Earth. Gabbro,
granite, diorite and peridotite plutonic rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
70% percent of the rocks in the earth's surface
are sedimentary in origin. Sedimentary rocks are
formed from consolidation materials (sediments) from
pre-existing rocks, from precipitation or from life
processes.
Like volcanic rocks, some sedimentary rocks are
"lithified” right at the surface, for instance by direct
precipitation from seawater.
Detrital sedimentary rocks are from weathered
rocks such as igneous rocks.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by
inorganic and organic processes, i.e. precipitation from
solution or derived from life processes. Inorganic
processes such as evaporation and chemical activity,
produce chemical sediments. Organic processes form
biochemical sediments from shells and skeletons of
dead marine organisms.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are derived from any pre-
existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical and/or
structural changes, in response marked changes in
temperature, pressure or the introduction of chemically
active fluids, without melting the rocks.
Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
 Foliated textures are brought about by
pressure. Pressure causes mineral grains to
realignand certain minerals torecrystallized.
Examples of this are mica and chlorite.
 Non-foliated textures are metamorphic rocks
without layering, banding alignment. Marble,
hornfels and quartzite are rocks with non-
foliated texture.

Summary
 Rocks are the accumulation of minerals.
 There are three types of rock: sedimentary,
metamorphic, and igneous.
 Mining the process of acquiring minerals on the
earth.
LESSON 4 Energy Resources
Energy
Energy is all around us. Energy in our planet
flows in its subsystems the atmosphere hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere. It moves in and out of these
systems, and during any energy transfer between them,
some is lost in the surroundings, as heat, light, sound,
vibration, or movement.
Uses of Energy
Energy is not only used for electricity generation
to power computers, mobile phones, home appliances,
and other stuff people use everyday. It is also necessary
for transportation as motor fuels, among others.
Energy Sources
Some energy sources are easily replenished but
most of the resources man mainly use are replaced very
slowly or not within man's lifetime. Energy sources are
classified either as renewable or non-renewable
Renewable Energy
 Biomass includes plant materials (e.g.
rice/coconut husks,fuel wood, and agro wastes
or animal waste utilized produce biofuels such
as ethanol and biodiesel
 Photovoltaic cell panels are commonly used to
collect and convert solar energy radiation from
the sun – into electricity. However, on the
planet's surface, the intensity of this
inexhaustible energy source is relatively low due
to distance between and the sun.
 Wind energy is harnessed by windmills or
turbines wherein the kinetic energy of the wind
is converted into mechanical electrical energy.
 Hydroelectric energy is one of the top three
sources for electricity generation along with
fossil fuel and nuclear fuels. Dams are
commonly used in the country for electricity
generation. Dams may also be used for
purposes like irrigation, water supply, flood
control, recreation, navigation, and fish farming.
 Geothermal energy harnessed natural heat
from deep within the Earth. This internal heat is
also responsible in melting rocks to form
magma. It is important for geothermal
reservoirs to have a permeable rock or fault
that will allow fluid to rise close to the surface,
adequate water recharge, and impermeable cap
rock to prevent heat escape
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
 Fossil fuel is the world's main energy source.
This includes coal, oil, and natural gas.
 Coal is an end product of the burial of plant
material. Commonly wetlands such as swamps
and bogs provide the conditions to form coal.
This is the most abundant fossil fuel. However,
coal originates mainly from dead tree and plant
matter.
o Types of Coal
1. Lignite is a soft, brownish-black
coal that forms the lowest level
of the coal family. In some
lignite, you can still see the
texture of the original wood.
2. Sub-bituminous is sometimes
called as black lignite is a
category of coal which appears
grey-black brown or dark
3. Bituminous is sometimes called
"soft coal". Compared with the
sub-bituminous coal, there is
more energy in bituminous
coal.
4. Anthracites the hardest coal
and gives off a great amount of
heat when it burns.
 Oil and Natural Gas are hydrocarbons in liquid
and gaseous form - oil and natural have been
technically termed petroleum or crude oil
(liquid form). Oil and natural gas are formed
from dead marine organism that subside to
earth. While moving downwards, the dead
remains experiences an increasing heat and
pressure turning them to oil and natural gas
that later on, move upwards due to pressure.
Where moving upward, most of the fuels were
trapped by a rock fold turning the area into oil
and gas reservoir.
Summary
 Energy exist in different forms.
 There are two types of energy resources.
Renewable and Non-renewable.
 Renewable energy resources can be generated
on a short period of time.
 Non-renewable resources require a long period
of time to be generated or harvested.
LESSON 5 Water Resources
Water
The expanse of the water on the surface of the
Earth with both liquid and frozen water covers 71% of
the surface. 97% of Earth's water is occupied mostly by
all oceans and salt water, and the majority, is locked up
in glaciers and ice caps, mainly in Greenland and
Antarctica. Only 3% is fresh water,

Groundwater
Groundwater is the below Earth's surface. It
occupies cracks and spaces into bedrock and between
sediment particles. Geologic spaces that can hold and
transmit large quantities of water are called quifers.

Types of aquifers
 Unconfined aquifers geologic units in which the
is exposed atmospheric pressure.
 Confined aquifers are under pressure and
separated from the ground surface and
atmospheric pressure by confining layer, or
aquitard.

Surface Water
Surface waters water in the river, lake or
freshwater wetland. It is replenished naturally by
precipitation and loss through discharge to the oceans,
evaporation, transpiration and seepage.

Human Activities that Affect the Water Quality

 Pollution. Water pollution is any conta-
mination of water with chemicals or other
foreign substances that are detrimental to
human, plant, or animal health. These
pollutants include fertilizers and pesticides from
agricultural runoff; sewage and food processing
waste; lead, mercury, and other heavy metals;
chemical wastes from industrial discharges; and
chemical contamination from hazar- dous waste
sites.
 Landscape Changes. Streamflow is deter-
mined by climate, water use within the
catchment as well as the pathways and rate of
water movement to streams. These factors vary
significantly across a catchment.
 Over-abstraction. When water is taken from
aquifers, groundwater levels fall. If the amount
of water taken is greater than the amount of
water falling as rain, it is called over-
abstraction.

Summary
 There's only a little amount of drinkable water.
 Water cycle helps to generate freshwater.
Fresh water can be easily contaminated
because of most of the freshwater can be found
underground.