GEOGRAPHY NCERT

CLASS 11th

FUNDAMENTALS OF
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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 INDEX
TOPICS PAGES
1) Geography as a Discipline 03-05

2) The Origin and Evolution of 06-09

the Earth
3) Interior of the Earth 10-19
4) Distribution of Ocean and 20-28
Continents
5) Minerals and Rocks 29-32

6) Geomorphic Process 33-41

7) Landforms and their evolution 42-54

8) Composition and structure of 55-57
Atmosphere
9) Solar Radiation Heat balance 58-61
and Temperature
10)Atmospheric Circulation and 62-71
Weather systems
11)Water in the Atmosphere 72-75
12)World Climate and Climate 76-79
Change
13)Water 80-85
14)Movement of Ocean Water 86-91
15)Life on the Earth 92-96
16)Biodiversity and 97-99
conservation

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 Chapter 1
Geography as a Discipline
INTRODUCTION:
The term geography was first devised by Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.)
Geography is a discipline of the combination of spatial synthesis and temporal
synthesis.
According to geography, Earth is described as the abode of human beings.
Landforms provide the foundation on which anthropogenic activities are placed.
The plains are used for agriculture.
Plateaus provide a platform for minerals and forest.
Mountains make available space for meadows, forests, tourist spots, etc. They are
regarded as the sources of rivers.

Branches of
Geography

Physical Human
Biogeography
Geography Geography

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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY:
Geomorphology is a branch of Geography dealing with the study of landforms, the
formation of landforms, and associated courses.
Climatology includes the study of atmosphere structure, elements of weather,
climate, climatic types and climatic regions.
Hydrology deals with the study of water present on the surface of the earth
comprising oceans, rivers, lakes and other water bodies, its influence on various life
forms on earth and allied activities.
Soil Geography is to study the courses of soil formation, types of soil, fertility status
of soils, soil distribution and utilization.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY:
❖ Social/Cultural Geography covers the study of society and the spatial
dynamics of society and the cultural aspects caused by society.
❖ Population Geography encompasses the population growth, density,
distribution, migration, sex ratio and occupational structure, and so on.
❖ Settlement Geography deals with the features of urban and rural settlements.

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 ❖ Economic Geography is related to people’s economic activities comprising
agriculture, industry, services, trade, transport, infrastructure, etc.
❖ Historical Geography deals with the historical processes by which space gets
organised. The geographical features also go through temporal changes; these
are the issues of historical geography.
❖ Political Geography is the study of the spatially unbalanced results of political
courses and the various manners in which political processes are themselves
influenced by spatial structures.

BIOGEOGRAPHY:
The interface between human geography and physical geography has led to the
progress of Biogeography which contains:
Ecology and Ecosystem deal with the scientific study of the features of the habitat
of species.
Plant Geography which deals with the spatial structure and order of natural
vegetation in their environments.
Zoo Geography which is concerned with the spatial patterns as well as geographic
features of various fauna and their habitats.

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 Chapter 2
The Origin and Evolution of the Earth

Early Theories on Evolution Of Earth:

Nebular Hypothesis
Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, gave this theory.
In 1796, a mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace re-examined it.
According to this hypothesis, the planets were moulded out of a cloud of material
associated with a young Sun, which was rotating slowly.

Revised Nebular Hypothesis

Revised Nebular Hypothesis was propounded by Carl Weizascar in Germany and Otto
Schmidt in Russia.
They regarded that a solar nebula surrounded the sun and that the nebula comprised
of chiefly hydrogen, helium and something called dust.
The collision of particles and the friction caused a disk-shaped cloud to be formed and
then the planets were created via the accretion process.

Big Bang Theory:

Alternatively called the expanding universe hypothesis.
As per this theory, in the beginning, all matter or substance forming this universe
existed at one place as a tiny ball. This tiny ball had an extremely small volume, infinite
density and temperature.
At the Big Bang, this ball blasted fiercely and forcefully and started a substantial
process of expansion which continues to this day.
Now it is accepted that this event took place 13.7 billion years ago.
The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the development of the
universe:
(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of
a “tiny ball” (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature
and infinite density.

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(ii) At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It
is now generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years
before the present. The expansion continues even to the present day. As it grew, some
energy was converted into matter. There was particularly rapid expansion within
fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down.
Within first three minutes from the Big Bang event, the first atom began to form.
(iii) Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500K (Kelvin)
and gave rise to atomic matter. The universe became transparent.

The Star Formation

The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early universe. These initial
density differences gave rise to differences in gravitational forces and it caused the
matter to get drawn together. These formed the bases for development of galaxies. A
galaxy contains a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over vast distances that are
measured in thousands of light-years. The diameters of individual galaxies range from
80,000-150,000 light years. A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen
gas in the form of a very large cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing nebula
develops localised clumps of gas. These clumps continue to grow into even denser
gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars. The formation of stars is believed to
have taken place some 5-6 billion years ago.

Formation of Planets
The following are considered to be the stages in the development of planets:
a) The stars are localised lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force
within the lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge
rotating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas core.

b) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around
the core develops into small-rounded objects. These small-rounded objects
by the process of cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals.
Larger bodies start forming by collision, and gravitational attraction causes the
material to stick together. Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies.

c) In the final stage, these large number of small planetesimals accrete to form
fewer large bodies in the form of planets.

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The nebula from which our Solar system
is supposed to have been formed, started its collapse and core formation some time

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5-5.6 billion years ago and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Our
solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge quantity of dust-grains and gases.
Out of the eight planets, mercury, venus, earth and mars are called as the inner
planets as they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids the other four
planets are called the outer planets. Alternatively, the first four are called
Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and metals, and have
relatively high densities. The rest four are called Jovian or Gas Giant planets.
Jovian means Jupiter-like. Most of them are much larger than the terrestrial planets
and have thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen. All the planets were
formed in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion years ago.

The difference between terrestrial and jovian planets can be attributed to the
following conditions:
(i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it
was too warm for gases to condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed at
quite a distant location.
(ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust
from the terrestrial planets. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar
removal of gases from the Jovian planets.
(iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and their lower gravity could not hold the
escaping gases.

The Moon
The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth. It is believed that the formation of
moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of ‘giant impact’ or what is described
as “the big splat”. A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided into the
earth sometime shortly after the earth was formed. It blasted a large part of the earth
into space. This portion of blasted material then continued to orbit the earth and
eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.

EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH:

Planet earth initially was a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin atmosphere of
hydrogen and helium. This is far from the present picture of the earth. Hence, there
must have been some events– processes, which may have caused this change from
rocky, barren and hot earth to a beautiful planet with ample amount of water and
conducive atmosphere favouring the existence of life. In the following section, you will
find out how the period, between the 4,600 million years and the present, led to the
evolution of life on the surface of the planet. The earth has a layered structure. From

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the outermost end of the atmosphere to the centre of the earth, the material that exists
is not uniform. The atmospheric matter has the least density. From the surface to
deeper depths, the earth’s interior has different zones and each of these contains
materials with different characteristics.

Origin of Earth:

The following are regarded as the stages in the planets’ development:

I. The stars are localised gas lumps inside a nebula.
II. A core to the gas cloud as well as a spinning disc of dust and gas are created
because of the gravitational force within the lumps.
III. After this, the cloud of the gas condenses and the matter over the core is
changed into tiny rounded objects.
IV. These small round objects develop into what are called planetesimals by a
cohesion process.
V. The smaller objects start forming larger bodies by colliding with one another
and they stick together because of gravitational force.
VI. In the last stage, these large number of small planetesimals aggregate to
develop into a smaller number of large bodies called planets.

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 Chapter 3
Interior of the Earth
INTRODUCTION:
The interior of the earth can be divided into 3 different layers – crust, mantle, and
core. The crust is the outermost layer of the earth, and the core is the innermost
layer of the earth, located at a depth of 2900 Km. This article briefly throws light on
these 3 different interior layers of the earth.

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH:

a) The Crust
b) The Mantle
c) The Core

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Earth’s surface
Many different geological processes shape the Earth’s surface.
The forces that cause these processes come from both above and beneath the Earth’s
surface.
Processes that are caused by forces from within the Earth are endogenous
processes (Endo meaning “in”).
By contrast, exogenous processes (Exo meaning “out”) come from forces on or
above the Earth’s surface.
The major geological features of the earth’s surface like mountains, plateaus, lakes
are mostly a result of endogenous processes like folding, faulting that are driven by
forces from inside the earth.

Direct Sources of information about the Earth’s Interior

Deep earth mining and drilling reveal the nature of rocks deep down the surface.
But as mining and drilling are not practically possible beyond a certain depth, they
don’t reveal much information about the earth’s interior.
Mponeng gold mine (deepest mine in the world) and TauTona gold mine (second
deepest mine in the world) in South Africa are deepest mines reaching to a depth of
only 3.9 km.
And the deepest drilling is only about 12 km deep hole bored by the Soviet Union in
the 1970s over the Kola Peninsula.
Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.

Indirect Sources of information about the Earth’s Interior

a) Increase in pressure and temperature with depth

b) Seismic waves

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 c) Meteorites
d) Gravitation
e) Magnetic field

Earthquakes

An earthquake is shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the seismic

waves or earthquake waves that are generated due to a sudden movement (sudden
release of energy) in the earth’s crust (shallow-focus earthquakes) or
upper mantle (some shallow-focus and all intermediate and deep-focus earthquakes).
A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes.
The point within the earth’s crust where an earthquake originates is called as
the focus or hypocenter or seismic focus.
It generally lies within a depth of 6 kms in the earth crust.
The point vertically above the focus on the earth’s surface is called as the epicenter.
The intensity of earthquake will be highest in the epicenter and decreases as one
moves away. All natural earthquakes take place in the lithosphere (i.e, the region
which constitutes the earth’s crust and rigid upper part of the mantle).

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Seismic waves

They are the most important source available to understand the layered structure of
the earth.
The velocity of seismic waves changes as they travel through materials with
different elasticity and density.
The more elastic and denser the material is, the higher is the velocity.
They also undergo refection or refraction when they come across materials with
different densities.
Earth’s internal structure can be understood by analysing the patterns of reflection,
refraction and change in velocity of the seismic waves when they travel through it.

Body waves
They are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and moves in all
directions traveling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name – body waves.
They travel only through the interior of the earth.
Body waves are faster than surface waves and hence they are the first to be detected
on a seismograph.
There are two types of body waves as primary waves and secondary waves.

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Primary waves (p-waves):
Primary waves are the fastest body waves (twice the speed of s-waves) and are the
first to reach during an earthquake.
They are similar to sound waves, i.e, they are longitudinal waves, in which particle
movement is in the same direction of wave propagation.
They travel through solid, liquid and gaseous materials.
They create density differences in the earth material leading to stretching and
squeezing.

Secondary waves (s-waves):

They arrive at the surface with some time-lag after primary waves.
They are slower than primary waves and can pass only through solid materials.
This property of s-waves led seismologists to conclude that the earth’s outer core is in
a liquid state. (the entire zone beyond 105o from the epicenter does not receive S-
waves)
They are transverse waves in which directions of particle movement and wave
propagation are perpendicular to each other.

Types of Earthquakes
(i) The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes. These are generated
due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.

(ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic

earthquake. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.

(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground
mines collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.

(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear
devices. Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.

(v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as
reservoir induced earthquakes.

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Measuring Earthquakes
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the
shock. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to
the energy released during the quake. The magnitude is expressed in numbers, 0-10.
The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale
takes into account the visible damage caused by the event. The range of intensity
scale is from 1-12.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
(ii) Differential ground settlement
(iii) Land and mud slides
(iv) Soil liquefaction
(v) Ground lurching
(vi) Avalanches
(vii) Ground displacement
(viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
(ix) Fires
(x) Structural collapse
(xi) Falling objects
(xii) Tsunami

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

THE CRUST:
a. The crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.
b. It is fragile.

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 c. The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
d. Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust.
e. The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems.
f. The crust is made up of heavier rocks having a density of 3 g/cm3.
g. The kind of rock seen in the oceanic crust is basalt.
h. The mean density of material in the oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.
i. Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) are major constituent minerals. Hence it is often
termed as SIAL. Also, sometimes SIAL is used to refer to the Lithosphere.

THE MANTLE:
a. The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
b. It is in a solid-state.
c. It has a density higher than the crust portion.
d. The thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
e. The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
f. The asthenosphere is the upper portion of Mantle.
g. It is the chief source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions.
h. The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called the lithosphere.
i. The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and
hence it is also termed as SIMA

THE CORE:
The core is divided into two parts: a) The outer core (in liquid state).
b) The inner core (in solid state).
The core-mantle boundary is positioned at the depth of 2,900 km.
The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron.
Hence it is also called the “nife” layer.

Volcanoes
• A volcano is a vent or fissure in Earth’s crust through which lava, ash, rocks,
and gases erupt.
• An active volcano is a volcano that has erupted in the recent past.
• The mantle contains a weaker zone known as the asthenosphere.
• Magma is the material present in the asthenosphere.

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 • Material that flows to or reaches the ground comprises lava flows, volcanic
bombs, pyroclastic debris, dust, ash, and gases. The gases may be sulfur
compounds, nitrogen compounds, and trace amounts of argon, hydrogen, and
chlorine.

Types of Volcanoes:

Shield Volcanoes
The Shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth, which are not
steep.
These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt.
They become explosive if in some way water gets into the vent, otherwise, they are
characterized by low-explosivity.
The lava that is moving upwards does so in a fountain-form and emanates the cone
at the vent’s top and then develops into a cinder cone. Eg: Hawaiian shield
volcanoes.

Composite Volcanoes
Composite Volcanoes are characterized by outbreaks of cooler and more viscous
lavas than basalt.
They are constructed from numerous explosive eruptions.
Large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground along
with lava.
This material gathers near the vent openings resulting in the creation of layers.
Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount Rainier in
Washington are the major composite volcanoes in the world.
The major composite volcano chains are Pacific Rim which is known as the “Rim of
Fire”.

Caldera

• Calderas are known as the most explosive volcanoes of Earth.

• They are generally explosive.
• When they erupt, they incline to collapse on themselves rather than
constructing any structure.
• The collapsed depressions are known as calderas.

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Flood Basalt Provinces
These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances. Some parts of
the world are covered by thousands of sq. km of thick basalt lava flows. There can be
a series of flows with some flows attaining thickness of more than 50 m. Individual
flows may extend for hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from India, presently
covering most of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood basalt province. It
is believed that initially the trap formations covered a much larger area than the
present.

Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes

These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean ridges
more than 70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central
portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS:
The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous
rocks. The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also while the lava
is still in the crustal portion. Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava,
igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic
rocks (cooling in the crust). The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes
different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms.

Batholiths
A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops
in the form of large domes. They appear on the surface only after the denudational
processes remove the overlying materials. They cover large areas, and at times,
assume depth that may be several km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the
cooled portion of magma chambers.

Lacoliths
These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a
pipe-like conduit from below. It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite
volcano, only these are located at deeper depths. It can be regarded as the localised
source of lava that finds its way to the surface. The Karnataka plateau is spotted with
domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples of lacoliths
or batholiths.

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Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a
horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms.
In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at
the top of anticline in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a
definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers
(subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the phacoliths.
The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
depending on the thickness of the material. The thinner ones are called sheets.

Dykes
When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land,
it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled in the same position to
develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes. These are the most
commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area. These are
considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan
traps.

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 CHAPTER 4
Distribution of Oceans and Continents

INTRODUCTION:

Continents cover 29% of the surface of the earth and the remainder 71% is under
oceanic waters.

Alfred Wegener—a German meteorologist put forth a comprehensive argument in the

form of “the continental drift theory” in 1912. This was regarding the distribution of the
oceans and the continents.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY:

Continental drift theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912.
It was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596 before fully being developed by
Alfred Wegener.
The theory deals with the distribution of the oceans and the continents.
According to Wegener’s Continental Drift theory, all the continents were one single
continental mass (called a Super Continent) – Pangaea and a Mega Ocean
surrounded this supercontinent. The mega ocean is known by the name
Panthalassa.
Although Wegener’s initial theory did not cover mantle convection until Arthur Holmes
later proposed the theory.
The supercontinent was named Pangaea (Pangea) and the Mega-ocean was called
Panthalassa.
According to this theory, the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to split some two
hundred million years back.
Pangaea first split into 2 big continental masses known as Gondwanaland and
Laurasia forming the southern and northern modules respectively.
Later, Gondwanaland and Laurasia continued to break into several smaller
continents that exist today.

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 • Convective flow: The heated material rises to the surface, spreads and begins
to cool, and then sinks back into deeper depths. This cycle is repeated over and
over to generate what scientists call a convection cell or convective flow.
• PANGAEA: The super continent was named PANGAEA, which meant all earth.
• PANTHALASSA: The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA, meaning all
water.

EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORT CONTINENTIAL DRIFT THEORY:

1. The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)

• The coastlines of South America and Africa fronting each other have a
remarkable and unique match.
• In 1964, Bullard created a map using a computer program to find the right fit of
the Atlantic margin and it proved to be quiet.

2. Rocks of the Same Age across the Oceans

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 • The radiometric dating methods have helped in correlating the formation of
rocks present in different continents across the ocean.
• The ancient rocks belts on the coast of Brazil match with those found in Western
Africa.
• The old marine deposits found in the coasts of South America and Africa belong
to the Jurassic Age. This implies that the ocean never existed before that time.

3. Tillite

• It is the sedimentary rock made from glacier deposits.

• The Gondwana system of sediments from India is recognized as having its
counterparts in 6 different landmasses in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Counterparts of this series are found in Madagascar, Africa, Antarctica,
Falkland Island, and Australia not to mention India.
• At the base, the system has thick tillite signifying widespread and sustained
glaciation.
• Generally, the similarity of the Gondwana type sediments shows that these
landmasses had exceptionally similar origins.
• The glacial tillite gives clear evidence for palaeoclimates and the drifting of
continents

4. Placer Deposits
• The presence of abundant placer deposits of gold along the Ghana coast and
the complete lack of its source rocks in the area is a phenomenal fact.
• The gold-bearing veins are present in Brazil and it is evident that the gold
deposits of Ghana in Africa are obtained from the Brazil plateau from the time
when the two continents were beside each other.
• The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South
America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia was one
of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift.
• The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations and deposits
called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana,
which became a central element of the concept of continental drift.

5.Distribution of Fossils

• The interpretations that Lemurs occur in India, Africa, and Madagascar led to
the theory of a landmass named “Lemuria” connecting these 3 landmasses.
• Mesosaurus was a tiny reptile adapted to shallow brackish water.
• The skeletons of these creatures are found in the Traver formations of Brazil
and Southern Cape Province of South Africa.

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FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR DRIFTING:
Wegener proposed that the movement accountable for the drifting of the continents
was instigated by tidal force and pole-fleeing force.
The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth.
The shape of the earth
The second force that was proposed by Wegener, the tidal force.
Though, most of the scholars considered these forces to be insufficient.

Post-drift Studies

Convectional Current Theory

Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents operating in
the mantle portion. These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing
thermal differences in the mantle portion. Holmes argued that there exists a system of
such currents in the entire mantle portion. This was an attempt to provide an
explanation to the issue of force, on the basis of which contemporary scientists
discarded the continental drift theory.
Mapping of the Ocean Floor
Detailed research of the ocean configuration revealed that the ocean floor is not just
a vast plain but it is full of relief. Expeditions to map the oceanic floor in the post–World
War II period provided a detailed picture of the ocean relief and indicated the existence
of submerged mountain ranges as well as deep trenches, mostly located closer to the
continent margins. The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be most active in terms of
volcanic eruptions. The dating of the rocks from the oceanic crust revealed the fact
that they are much younger than the continental areas. Rocks on either side of the
crest of oceanic ridges and having equi-distant locations from the crest were found to
have remarkable similarities both in terms of their constituents and their age.

Ocean Floor Configuration

Continental Margins
These form the transition between continental shores and deep-sea basins. They
include continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise and deep-oceanic

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trenches. Of these, the deep-oceanic trenches are the areas which are of considerable
interest in so far as the distribution of oceans and continents is concerned.

Abyssal Plains
These are extensive plains that lie between the continental margins and mid-oceanic
ridges. The abyssal plains are the areas where the continental sediments that move
beyond the margins get deposited.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges
This forms an interconnected chain of mountain system within the ocean. It is the
longest mountain-chain on the surface of the earth though submerged under the
oceanic waters. It is characterised by a central rift system at the crest, a fractionated
plateau and flank zone all along its length. The rift system at the crest is the zone of
intense volcanic activity. In the previous chapter, you have been introduced to this type
of volcanoes as mid- oceanic volcanoes.

CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING

The mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic
regions revealed the following facts :

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(1) It was realised that all along the mid- oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are
common and they bring huge amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
(2) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show
remarkable similarities in terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity
and are the youngest. The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the
crest.
(3) The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of
rocks in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than 200 million years old. Some of the
continental rock formations are as old as 3,200 million years.
(4) The sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
expecting, if the ocean floors were as old as the continent, to have a complete
sequence of sediments for a period of much longer duration. However, nowhere was
the sediment column found to be older than 200 million years.
(5) The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have shallow depths.

These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic properties of the rocks on either sides
of the mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose his hypothesis, known as the
“sea floor spreading”. Hess argued that constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic
ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new lava wedges into it, pushing
the oceanic crust on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads. The younger age of
the oceanic crust as well as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does not cause
the shrinking of the other, made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic
crust. He further maintained that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic
eruptions at the crest, sinks down at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.

25
 Tectonic Plates

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab

of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.

The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying
between 5-100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
The concept of Tectonic Plates was first introduced in 1967.
A tectonic plate may be a continental plate or an oceanic plate, depending on which
of the two occupies the larger portion of the plate.

The Pacific plate is largely an oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate is a
continental plate.

The Major and Minor Plates

The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and some minor plates.

▪ Young Fold Mountain ridges, oceanic trenches, and/or transform

faults surround the major plates. These include:

o The Antarctic (and the surrounding oceanic) plate

o The North American plate (with western Atlantic floor
separated from the South American plate along the
Caribbean islands)
o The South American plate (with western Atlantic floor
separated from the North American plate along the
Caribbean islands)
o The Pacific plate
o The India-Australia-New Zealand plate
o The Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
o Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate
o

▪ Some important minor plates include:

26
 o Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
o Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
o Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
o Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
o Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of
New Guinea)
o Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
o Juan De Fuca plate: South-East of North American Plate

These plates have been constantly moving over the globe throughout the history of
the earth. It is not the continent that moves as believed by Wegener. Continents are
part of a plate and what moves is the plate. Moreover, it may be noted that all the
plates, without exception, have moved in the geological past, and shall continue to
move in the future as well. Wegener had thought of all the continents to have initially
existed as a super continent in the form of Pangaea. However, later discoveries
reveal that the continental masses, resting on the plates, have been wandering all
through the geological period, and Pangaea was a result of converging of different
continental masses that were parts of one or the other plates.

There are three types of plate boundaries:

Divergent Boundaries
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. The sites where
the plates move away from each other are called spreading sites. The best-known
example of divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this, the American
Plate(s) is/are separated from the Eurasian and African Plates.

Convergent Boundaries
Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another. The location where
sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. There are three ways in which
convergence can occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and continental plate; (ii)
between two oceanic plates; and (iii) between two continental plates.

Transform Boundaries
Where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past

27
each other. Transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to
the mid- oceanic ridges. As the eruptions do not take all along the entire crest at the
same time, there is a differential movement of a portion of the plate away from the axis
of the earth. Also, the rotation of the earth has its effect on the separated blocks of the
plate portions.

Plate Movement
The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges
help scientists determine the rates of plate movement. These rates vary
considerably. The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the
East Pacific Rise near Easter Island, in the South Pacific about 3,400 km west of
Chile, has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr).

The Indian Plate:

▪ The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental
portions.
▪ In the east, it extends through Rakim Yoma Mountains of Myanmar
towards the island arc along the Java Trench.
▪ The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan.

o It further extends along the Makrana coast of Balochistan and

joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift southeastward
along the Chagos Archipelago.
▪ The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by an
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running in roughly West to East
direction and merging into the spreading site, a little south of New
Zealand.

28
 Chapter 5
Minerals and Rocks
INTRODUCTION:
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements like
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium, and the
rest is constituted by titanium, hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon,
nickel and other elements.
Thus, a mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance, having an
orderly atomic structure and a definite chemical composition and physical properties.
A mineral is composed of two or more elements. But, sometimes single element
minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, graphite etc. are found.

What are Rocks?

A Rock is an inorganic, solid and natural substance without any specific atomic
structure or chemical composition. It is simple to remember that rocks are made up of
two or more minerals. Examples of rocks involve limestone, granite, marble, slate and
sandstone. Each of these rocks consists of different minerals that can be mixed up
with the rock through different geologic processes.

29
IGNEOUS ROCKS:
It is formed out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth.
They are also known as primary rocks.
When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into a solid form it is called
igneous rock.
The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the crust of the earth or on the
surface of the earth.
Igneous rocks are classified based on texture.
If the molten material is
• Cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
• Sudden cooling at the surface results in small and smooth grains.
• Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in intermediate sizes of grains
making up igneous rocks.
Examples: Granite, Gabbro, Pegmatite, Basalt, Volcanic, Breccia, Tuff

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS:
Rocks of the earth’s surface area exposed to denudation agents and are broken up
into various sizes of fragments.
These fragments are carried by various exogenous agencies and deposited.
These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
In several sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits maintain their characteristics even
after lithification.
Sandstone, shale are some of the examples for Sedimentary Rocks.

Depending upon the

mode of formation,
sedimentary rocks are
categorized as:

Mechanically formed
Eg: Sandstone, Chemically formed Organically formed
conglomerate, Eg: Chert, limestone, Eg: Geyserite, chalk,
limestone, shale, halite, potash, etc. limestone, coal, etc.
loess, etc.

30
METAMORPHIC ROCKS:
These rocks form under the action of volume, pressure, and temperature (PVT)
changes.
Metamorphism happens when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic
processes or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the
crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are exposed to great amounts of pressure by
overlying rocks.
The materials of rocks chemically modify and recrystallize due to thermal
metamorphism.

There are two types of thermal metamorphism

Contact metamorphism

Regional metamorphism

Contact metamorphism
The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock materials
recrystallize under high temperatures.
Regional metamorphism
The rocks experience recrystallization due to deformation caused by tectonic
shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.

What are Minerals?

A mineral is defined as a natural, inorganic solid substance which has a crystalline
structure with a particular chemical composition. A mineral is said to possess different
chemical composition which defines it crystalline shape and form. Whereas, the rock

31
which is said to be comprised of several minerals, is generally classified based upon
the process of its formation.
Primarily, minerals are solid and exist naturally. Natural solids can be familiar like
granite, sand wood and salt. According to the definition, minerals are inorganic. This
reveals that minerals do not have living tissues.
It also describes that minerals consist of crystalline structure. This indicates the
component atoms of the substance consist of 3-dimensional repeating arrangement.
The above picture shows the arrangement of salt atoms. Salt is also known as sodium
chloride since it is made up of two kinds of atoms: sodium and chlorine. Both are
placed together in a 3-dimensional lattice which repeats over one another until a salt
crystal is obtained. Sand is also small chunks of quartz of crystal made up
of oxygen and silicon atoms.

32
 CHAPTER 6
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION:
The formation and deformation of landforms on the surface of the earth are a
continuous process which is due to the continuous influence of external and internal
forces. The internal and external forces causing stresses and chemical action on earth
materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth
are known as geomorphic processes.

33
Gradation – Phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of surface of earth
through erosion. Exogenic forces lead to either degradation or aggradation.
Degradation: results in wearing down of relief or elevation
Aggradation: results in filling up of basins or depressions

Geomorphic agents :
Any exogenic element of nature which is capable of acquiring and transporting earth
material is an agent. Examples, water, ice, wind.

Role of gravity and gradient:

• Gravity is essentially a directional force which activates all down-slope
movements of matter, and causes stresses on materials.
• Transportation and deposition of materials is possible due to gravity and
gradients, otherwise there would be no mobility and erosion.
• Indirect gravitational stresses lead to activation of wave and tide induced
currents and winds.
• Therefore, gravitational stresses are as important as the other geomorphic
processes.
• Definition: Gravity is the force that keeps us in contact with the surface and it is
the force which triggers the movement of all surface material on earth.

34
 • Also, all the movements either within the earth, or over surface of the earth,
occur due to gradients — from higher levels to lower levels, or from high
pressure to lower pressure areas, etc.

Endogenic Processes:

These are processes emanating from the interior of Earth and induce diastrophism
and volcanism in the lithosphere.
Endogenic forces – are mainly land building forces. They arise from radioactivity,
rotational friction, tidal friction and primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
Distribution – variations in geothermal gradients, heat flow from inside of earth, crustal
thickness and strength, cause the action of endogenic forces be non-uniform. Hence,
the tectonically controlled original crustal surface is uneven.

Diastrophism:
All processes that involve moving, elevating or building up components of the
earth’s crust are categorised as diastrophism.
These processes are studied under following heads:
(i) Orogenic processes
Mountain building through folding.
It affects long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust.
crust is deformed in form of folds.

(ii) Epeirogenic processes

• Continent building process.
• Involves simple deformation of crust.
• Under this, uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust occurs
(iii)Earthquakes involve relatively local and minor movements.
(iv)Plate tectonics involve horizontal movements of crustal plates.
All the above four processes exhibit following characteristics which induce
metamorphism of rocks:
• Faulting and fracturing of crust occurs.
• Pressure temperature and volume (PVT) changes occur.

35
Exogenic Process:
These processes are mainly land wearing processes. They derive their energy from
atmospheric sources including the Sun and gradients of tectonic factors.

Gravitational stresses: Forces acting along earth materials are sheer stresses ( force
applied per unit area). It breaks rocks and boulders. Shear stress results in angular
displacement or slippage.

Molecular stresses: they occur due to temperature changes, crystallization and

melting.

Climatic processes that control various processes are mainly- temperature and
precipitation.

Denudation: All exogenic geomorphic processes are covered here.

Weathering:
Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate. It is in-situ ( on
site) process. Climate is main factor, also topography and vegetation.
There are three types of weathering processes:
• Chemical
• Physical/ Mechanical
• Biological weathering processes.

Chemical weathering:
Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and heat.
1. Solution –
a) Soluble rock-forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, potassium are dissolved
in water from solid and disintegrate.
b) These leave rainy climates and accumulate in dry regions and areas.

• Calcium carbonate and calcium bicarbonate are present in limestone which

soluble in carbonic acid (carbon dioxide and water) .
• Sodium chloride is also susceptible to solubility.

36
2. Carbonation –
• Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and breaks down feldspar
and carbonate minerals.
• Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid
and these are removed in solution without residue resulting in cave formation.
3. Hydration –
• Chemical addition of water.
• Minerals take up water and expand.
• Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum which is more unstable
than calcium sulphate.
• It is reversible process.
4.Oxidation and reduction –
• Oxidation is combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or hydroxide.
• When ready access to atmospheric oxygen and water.
• Iron, manganese, sulphur, etc.
• Breakdown of minerals occurs due to the disturbance caused by addition of
oxygen.
• Red colour of iron, on oxidation turns brown or yellow, and on reduction turns
to greenish grey.
• When oxidized minerals are exposed to an environment where oxygen is
absent, reduction takes place.
•

Physical/ Mechanical Weathering:

It is caused by thermal expansion and pressure release. when repeated, cause
continued fatigue of the rock.
Applied forces:
• Gravitational forces: overburden pressure, load and shearing stress.
• Expansion forces: due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal
activity.
• water pressures are controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
1. Unloading and Expansion

• Exfoliation sheets resulting from expansion due to unloading and pressure

release may measure hundreds or even thousands of meters in horizontal
extent.
• Fractures develop roughly parallel to the ground surface.

37
 • Large, smooth rounded domes formed due to unloading called exfoliation
domes.

2.Temperature changes and Expansion

• This is most effective and evident in dry climates and high elevations where
diurnal temperature changes are drastic.
• Surface layer expands more than the rock beneath and leads to formation of
stress within rock resulting in heaving and fracturing parallel to square.
• In granites, tors (smooth surfaced and small rounded) form due to such
exfoliation that occurs due to thermal expansion.

3.Freezing, thawing and frost wedging

• Due to growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during repeated cycles of
freezing and melting.
• High elevations in mid-latitudes.
• Glacial areas have frost wedging daily.

4.Salt weathering
• Salts expand due to thermal action, hydration, crystallization.
• Expansion depends on temperature and their thermal properties.
• calcium, sodium, magnesium , potassium, barium have tendency to expand.
• 30-50 degree Celsius surface temperature in deserts is favourable.
• Granular disintegration or foliation is observed in salt weathering.
• Salt crystallization is most effective in this category.
• Areas with alternate wetting and drying conditions favour salt crystal growth.
• Chalk breaks most readily, then Limestone, sandstone, shale, gnesiss, and
granite, etc.
•

Biological weathering:
• Due to growth and movement of organisms.
• Burrowing, wedging by earthworms, termites, rodents, etc.
• Expose new surfaces to chemical attack
• decaying plants and animals matter produce humic, carbonic acid.
• Plant roots exert pressure mechanically.

38
 SOIL FORMATION Soil
Formation
The soil is one of our essential natural resources. It is important for the growth of vegetation we
feed on. It holds plants firmly and provides nutrition. It is home to many microorganisms such as
earthworms, rats and several other subterranean species on earth.

It is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust, formed by the continuous weathering of mountains over
thousands of years. It is made up of four basic constituents; minerals, organic materials, air, and
water. The three main components responsible for its texture are; sand, silt, and clay. Depending
upon these three constituents the mineral texture of the soil varies. Leaves and organic
constituents decompose to form the upper organic layer, known as humus. The humus content in
soils plays a very important role in its fertility.

Soil-forming Factors Five basic factors control the formation of soils: (i) parent
material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate; (iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil forming
factors act in union and affect the action of one another.

PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION:

1)Parent Material
The mineral from which the soil is formed is termed as the parent material. Rocks are
the source of all soil minerals. The parent material is chemically or physically
weathered and transported which then deposits to form layers of soils. Usually, the
bedrock is the parent material but there have been cases wherein soil gets transported
due to factors like the wind and water.
Now the actual process of formation of soil is a cumulative combination of a number
of processes. Soil formation also known as Pedogenesis is first kicked off by
weathering and variations come according to the weather conditions.

Carriers or Weathering Agents

Glacier:
As glaciers move from one part to another, they push the soil further with them. The
drifted material gets deposited miles away from the place of its formation. When the
glaciers melt, huge mounds of soil are left behind, a part of which is carried by the
stream.
Water:
As rivers flow, the soil particles are transported along with the water. The smallest
particles travel the farthest. Heavier particles, such as sand and rock get settled
earlier. Soils deposited along the river banks are termed as alluvial soil, which is very
rich in mineral content. Rainfall also plays an important role. Rainfall washes off the
soils in exposed lands.

39
Wind:
Air plays the most important role as it transports a huge amount of soil from one place
to another. Loose soils are carried away by the wind from one place to another.

2)Relief
• The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep
slopes like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc.
• Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it hinders soil formation.
Example: Chambal ravines, higher reaches of Himalayas where there is
minimal or no forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
• The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have
deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
• The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are
sufficiently deep.

3)Climate
• Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in soil formation.
• They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, the
quantity of water seeping through the soil and the type of micro-organisms
present therein.
• Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of
climate. Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of
soils in two different types of climates.
• The crystalline granites produce laterite soil in relatively moist parts of the
monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas.
• Hot summer and low rainfall develops black soil as is found in some parts of
Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent rock.
• In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under arid
climate.
• In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There
is little vegetation and the soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are
invariably of light colour.
• In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, excess of
evaporation makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in nature
[Pedocal is a subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms
in semiarid and arid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil
organic matter].
• In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is
very slow and the soils are acidic in nature.
40
In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic.
Why?
Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches the
materials into deeper horizon.
During the dry summer season the evaporation exceeds precipitation and through
capillary action iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making the
soil red.
In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes deep down
in the horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that it
resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which literally means brick.

4.Natural Vegetation:
• Natural vegetation reflects the combined effects of relief and climate.
• The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by the growth
of vegetation.
• The decayed leaf material adds much needed humus to soil thereby increasing
its fertility.
• The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India. There is a
close relationship between the vegetation types and soil types in India.

41
 CHAPTER 7
Landforms and Their Evolution

INTRODUCTION:
After weathering, geomorphic agents operate the landforms to change.
Landform: small to medium reacts or parcels of the earth’s surface are called
landforms.
Several landforms together are called landscape Each landform has its own shape,
size and materials Geomorphological processes are slow but significant in long run
Every landform has a beginning, they change their shape and composition in course
time.
Due to changes in climate and vertical and horizontal movements landforms change
their shape. Each landform undergo three stages called youth, mature and old
stages Geomorphology is the science of landforms Various geomorphic agents
bring the changes to the landforms such as running water, moving ice, wind
glaciers, underground water, waves by erosion and deposition.
Each geomorphological agent produces its own assemblage of landforms.
Most of the geomorphological processes are imperceptible.
The study of the landforms reveals that the stage structure and process of landforms
They produce erosional and depositional features.

Factors influencing erosion:

• Rock structures such as fold, fault, joints, fractures, hardness, softness
permeability, and impermeability.
• Stability of sea level
• Tectonic stability of landmass
• Climate
What does Running Water do?

• Running water, which doesn’t need any further explanation, has two
components: one is overland flow on the general land surface as a sheet and
the other is linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys.
• The overland flow causes sheet erosion and depending upon the irregularities
of the land surface, the overland flow may concentrate into narrow to wide
paths.
• During the sheet erosion, minor or major quantities of materials from the
surface of the land are removed in the direction of flow and gradual small and
narrow rills will form.

42
 • These rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies, the gullies will
further deepen, widen and lengthen and unite to give rise to a network
of valleys. (Note: A valley can be formed in various ways like faulting, but here
we are dealing only with the formation by means of exogenic geomorphic
agent).
• Once a valley is formed, it later develops into a stream or river.

Courses of a river:
A river, which is the best example of the linear flow of running water through a valley,
can be divided into three, on the basis of its course – upper course, middle course and
lower course.
Upper Course / Stage of Youth (Erosion dominates):
• It starts from the source of the river in hilly or mountainous areas.
• The river flows down the steep slope and, as a result, its velocity and eroding
power are at their maximum.
• Streams are few, with poor integration.
• As the river flows down with high velocity, vertical erosion or downward cutting
will be high which results in the formation of V-Shaped Valleys.
• Waterfalls, rapids, and gorges exist where the local hard rock bodies are
exposed.

Middle Course/ Stage of Maturity (Transportation dominates):

• In this stage, vertical erosion slowly starts to replace with lateral erosion or
erosion from both sides of the channel.
• Thus, the river channel causes the gradual disappearance of its V-shaped
valley (not completely).

43
 • Streams are plenty at this stage with good integration.
• Wider flood plains start to visible in this course and the volume of water
increases with the confluence of many tributaries.
• The work of river predominantly becomes transportation of the eroded materials
from the upper course (little deposition too).
• Landforms like alluvial fans, piedmont alluvial plains, meanders etc. can be
seen at this stage.

Lower Course/ Stage of Old (Deposition dominates):

• The river starts to flow through a broad, level plain with heavy debris brought
down from upper and middle courses.
• Vertical erosion has almost stopped and lateral erosion still goes on.
• The work of the river is mainly deposition, building up its bed and forming an
extensive flood plain.
• Landforms like braided channels, floodplains, levees, meanders, oxbow lakes,
deltas etc. can be seen at this stage.

Running water: erosion, transportation, and deposition

Erosion occurs when overland flow moves soil particles downslope.
The rock materials carried by erosion is the load of the river.
This load acts as a grinding tool helping in cutting the bottom and sides of the river
bed, resulting in deepening and widening of the river channel.

44
Erosion Types:
The work of river erosion is accomplished in different ways, all of which may operate
together. They are corrasion, corrosion, hydraulic action etc.
• Corrasion or Abration: As the rock particles bounce, scrape and drag along
the bottom and sides of the river, they break off additional rock fragments. This
form of erosion is called corrasion or abration. They are two types: vertical
corrosion which acts downward and lateral corrosion which acts on both sides.
• Corrosion or Solution: This is the chemical or solvent action of water on
soluble or partly soluble rocks with which the river water comes in contact.
• Hydraulic Action: This is the mechanical loosening and sweeping away of
material by the sheer force or river water itself. No load or material is involved
in this process

Transportation types:
After erosion, the eroded materials get transported with the running water.
This transportation of eroded materials is carried in four ways:
• Traction: The heavier and larger rock fragments like gravels, pebbles etc are
forced by the flow of the river to roll along its bed. These fragments can be seen
rolling, slipping, bumping and being dragged. This process is called as traction
and the load transported in this way are called traction load.
• Saltation: Some of the fragments of the rocks move along the bed of a stream
by jumping or bouncing continuously. This process is called as saltation.
• Suspension: The holding up of small particles of sand, silt and mud by the
water as the stream flows is called suspension.
• Solution: Some parts of the rock fragments dissolved in the river water and
transported. This type of transportation is called solution transportation.
When the stream comes down from the hills to plain areas with the eroded and
transported materials, the absence of slope/gradient causes the river to lose it energy
to further carry those transported materials.
As a result, the load of the river starts to settle down which is termed as deposition.
Erosion, transportation, and deposition continue until the slopes are almost completely
flattened leaving finally a lowland of faint relief called peneplains with some low
resistant remnants called monadnocks.

45
 Erosional Landforms due to Running Water

1. Valleys, Gorges, Canyon

• Valleys are formed as a result of running water.
• The rills which are formed by the overland flow of water later develop into
gullies.
• These gullies gradually deepen and widen to form valleys.
• A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides.
• A canyon is characterized by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep
as a gorge.
• A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as bottom and is formed in
hard rocks while a canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom and is formed in
horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks.

46
2. Potholes, Plunge pools

• Potholes are more or less circular depressions over the rocky beds of hills
streams.
• Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected
in those depressions and get rotated by flowing water. Consequently, the
depressions grow in dimensions to form potholes.
• Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes commonly found at the foot
of a waterfall.
• They are formed because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.

3. Incised or Entrenched Meanders

• They are very deep wide meanders (loop-like channels) found cut in hard rocks.
• In the course of time, they deepen and widen to form gorges or canyons in hard
rock.
• The difference between a normal meander and an incised/entrenched meander
is that the latter found on hard rocks.

47
River Terraces:

• They are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plains.

• They are basically the result of vertical erosion by the stream.
• When the terraces are of the same elevation on either side of the river, they are
called as paired terraces.
• When the terraces are seen only on one side with none on the other or one at
quite a different elevation on the other side, they are called as unpaired terraces.

Depositional Landforms due to Running Water

1. Alluvial Fans
• They are found in the middle course of a river at the foot of slope/ mountains.
• When the stream moves from the higher level break into foot slope plain of low
gradient, it loses its energy needed to transport much of its load.
• Thus, they get dumped and spread as a broad low to the high cone-shaped
deposits called an alluvial fan.
• The deposits are not roughly very well sorted.

48
Deltas

• Deltas are like an alluvial fan but develop at a different location.

• They are found in the mouth of the river, which is the final location of depositional
activity of a river.
• Unlike alluvial fans, the deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with clear
stratification.
• The coarser material settle out first and the finer materials like silt and clay are
carried out into the sea.

Flood Plains, Natural Levees

• Deposition develops a flood plain just as erosion makes valleys.
• A riverbed made of river deposits is the active flood plain and the flood plain
above the bank of the river is the inactive flood plain.
• Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear
and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of a river.
• The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood water away
from the river.

Meanders and oxbow lakes

• Meanders are loop-like channel patterns develop over the flood and delta
plains.

49
• They are actually not a landform but only a type of channel pattern formed as
a result of deposition.
• They are formed basically because of three reasons: (i) propensity of water
flowing over very gentle gradient to work laterally on the banks; (ii)
unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the bank with many
irregularities; (iii) Coriolis force acting on fluid water deflecting it like deflecting
the wind.
• The concave bank of a meander is known as cut-off bank and the convex bank
is known as a slip-off
• As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at
the inflection point and are left as oxbow lakes.
• For large rivers, the sediments deposited in a linear fashion at the depositional
side of a meander are called as Point Bars or Meander Bars.

50
Braided Channels

• When selective deposition of coarser materials causes the formation of a central

bar, it diverts the flow of river towards the banks, which increases lateral erosion.
• Similarly, when more and more such central bars are formed, braided channels
are formed.
• Riverine Islands are the result of braided channels.

What does Groundwater do?

• The part of rain or snow-melt water which accumulates in the rocks after
seeping through the surface is called underground water or simply
groundwater.
• The rocks through which water can pass easily are called as permeable rocks
while the rocks which do not allow water to pass are called as impermeable
rocks.
• After vertically going down to some depth, the water under the ground flows
horizontally through the bedding planes, joints or through the materials
themselves.
• Although the amount of groundwater varies from place to place, its role in
shaping the surface features of the earth is quite important.
• The works of groundwater are mainly seen in rocks like limestone, gypsum or
dolomite which are rich in calcium carbonate.

51
 • Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum region showing typical landforms produced
by the action of groundwater through the process of solution and deposition is
called as Karst Topography (Karst region in the Balkans)
• The zones or horizons of permeable and porous rocks which are fully filled with
water are called as the Zones of Saturation.
• The marks which show the upper surface of these saturated zones of the
groundwater are called as the Water Tables.
• And these rocks, which are filled with underground water, are called
as aquifers.
• The water table is generally higher in the areas of high precipitation and also in
areas bordering rivers and lakes.
• They also vary according to seasons. On the basis of variability, water tables
are of two types: (i) Permanent water table, in which the water will never fall
below a certain level and wells dug up to this depth provide water in all seasons;
(ii) Temporary water tables, which are seasonal water tables.
• Springs: They are the surface outflow of groundwater through an opening in a
rock under hydraulic pressure.
• When such springs emit hot water, they are called as Hot Springs. They
generally occur in areas of active or recent volcanism.
• When a spring emits hot water and steam in the form of fountains or jets at
regular intervals, they are called as geysers.
• In a geyser, the period between two emissions is sometimes regular
(Yellowstone National Park of USA is the best example).

Erosional Landforms due to Groundwater:

Sinkholes and caves are erosional landforms formed due to the action of ground
water.

Sinkholes
• Small to medium sized rounded to sub-rounded shallow depressions called
swallow holes forms on the surface of rocks like limestone by the action of the
solution.
• A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped
towards the bottom.
• When as sinkhole is formed solely through the process of solution, it is called
as solution sink.
• Some sinkhole starts its formation through the solution process but later
collapse due to the presence of some caves or hollow beneath it and becomes
a bigger sinkhole. These types are called as collapse sinks.
• The term Doline is sometimes used to refer collapse sinks.
• Solution sinks are more common than collapse sinks.

52
 • When several sink holes join together to form valley of sinks, they are called
as valley sinks or Uvalas.
• Lapies are the irregular grooves and ridges formed when most of the surfaces
of limestone are eaten by solution process.

Caves
• In the areas where there are alternative beds of rocks (non-soluble) with
limestone or dolomite in between or in areas where limestone are dense,
massive and occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent.
• Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged
• Caves having an opening at both the ends are called tunnels.

Formation of Collapse sinkhole

SINKHOLE

53
 Depositional Landforms of Groundwater
Stalactites and stalagmites
• They are formed when the calcium carbonates dissolved in groundwater get
deposited once the water evaporates.
• These structures are commonly found in limestone caves.
• Stalactites are calcium carbonate deposits hanging as icicles while Stalagmites
are calcium carbonate deposits which rise up from the floor.
• When a stalactite and stalagmite happened to join together, it gives rise
to pillars or columns of different diameters.

Stalactites and stalagmites

54
 CHAPTER 8
Composition and Structure of Atmosphere
INTRODUCTION:
The composition of Atmosphere is said to be a mixture of different gases. It envelops
around the Earth. 99% of total mas of atmosphere is confined to highest of 32 km
from the Earth’s surface.

• Atmosphere is consists of various gases, water vapour and dust particles.

• The presence of oxygen becomes negligible at the height of 120 km from the
surface of earth with regards to the composition of atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide and water vapour occur only upto 90 km.
• Carbon dioxide is meteorically very important as it is transparent to incoming
solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation. It is also responsible
for greenhouse effect.

Ozone gas: 10-50 km above earth surface and acts as filter, absorbing ultraviolet
rays from the sun. Ozone prevents the rays from reaching the surface of earth.

Dust particles: are in higher concentration in subtropical and temperate regions due to
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.

• Water vapour is variable gas, decreases with altitude.

• It also decreases from equator towards the poles.

55
 • Acts like blanket allowing the earth to neither to become too cold nor too hot.
Also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.
• Dust particles act as a hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of
atmosphere condenses to produce clouds.

Structure of Atmosphere:
There are five layers in the structure of atmosphere depending upon temperature.

I. Troposphere:

• It is the lowermost layer.

• 13 km height average with 8 km at poles and 18 km at equator (lesser at poles
and greater at equator).
• The thickness is 18 km at equator because heat is transported to great heights
by strong convectional currents.

56
 • This layer has adult particles and water vapour.
• Climate and weather changes occur here.
• Temperature decreases at rate of 1 degrees celcius for every 165 m of height.
• Zone separating troposphere from stratosphere is called tropopause.
• Temperature at tropopause is minus eighty degrees celcius over equator and
minus forty five degrees celcius over the poles. This remains constant through
the year.

II. Stratosphere

• It is found above the troposphere.

• extends upto 50 km of height.
• Has ozone layer – absorbs ultraviolet radiation and shields life on earth from
harmful energy.

III. Mesosphere:
• Above stratosphere
• reaches till 80 km height.
• Temperature decreases with altitude here, by 80 km it reaches minus
hundred degrees celcius .
• The upper limit is called mesopause.

IV. Ionosphere or Thermosphere:

• 80 to 400 km above mesopause.
• Ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
• Radio waves which are transmitted from the earth are reflected back by this
layer.
• Temperature here increases with height.

V. Exosphere:
• It is the outermost layer.
• Not much is known about this layer.

57
 Chapter 9
Solar Radiation, Heat Balance and Temperature
Earth receives most of its energy in form of short wavelengths.
Insolation is – incoming solar radiation.
Earth is a geoid, resembling a sphere.
Earth is farthest from the Sun – 4th July (Aphelion position)
Earth is nearest to the sun on – 3rd January (Perihelion position)
Factors responsible for variation in insolation during a day, season and a year:
• Rotation of Earth
• Angle of inclination of Sun’s rays.
• Length of day
• Transparency of atmosphere
• Configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
Earth’s axis has a 66.5 degrees angle with plane of orbit round the sun leads to
variation in insolation at different latitudes.
Area covered by slant rays is more than vertical rays. Energy gets distributed and net
energy received per unit area decrease. The slant rays of Solar radiation are
absorbed, scattered & diffused more in deep atmosphere

The Solar radiation spectrum is beautifully explained by the

following diagram:

• Atmosphere is transparent to short wave solar radiation.

58
• In troposphere – The water vapour, ozone and gases absorb near infrared
radiation.
• Small- suspended particles in troposphere scatter visible spectrum. It adds
colour to the sky. Red colour of rising and setting sun is due to this. The blue
colour of the sky are due to scattering of light within the atmosphere.
• Maximum insolation is received over the sub tropical deserts, where the
cloudliness is the least.
• The Equator receives less than tropics, because it is at 90 degrees to the angle
of insolation.
• The same latitude, insolation is more over continents than on oceans.
• Earth heated by Solar radiation then transmits the heat to atmosphere in Long
wave form.
• Conduction – It heats the lower layers of atmosphere. When two bodies of
unequal temperature come in contact with each other, there is flow of energy
from warmer to cooler body. The air in contact with land gets heated slowly and
the upper layer in contact also gets heated.
• Convection– It occurs only in troposphere. The air in contact with earth rises
vertically on heating in form of current and further transmits the heat. Vertical
heating of atmosphere is convection.
• Advection – The horizontal heat transfer through movement of air. In middle
latitudes, most of diurnal variations in daily weather is by advection. Loo is also
due to advection.
• Terrestrial radiation– The insolation received by the Earth is in form of short
wave radiation. The Earth radiates energy to atmosphere in form of long wave
radiation. The gases like Carbon-dioxide and other greenhouse gases absorb
this long wave radiation is trap the heat.
• The Atmosphere in turn radiates this heat in the space.
• Heat budget of the Earth – Earth maintains its temperature. The amount of
heat received in form of insolation equals the amount lost by Earth through
terrestrial radiation.

59
Albedo of Earth – The reflected amount of radiation or insolation from clouds,
snow, and ice-covered areas of earth is known as albedo.
• There is surplus of net radiation balance between 40 degrees North and South.
While there is deficit in poles.
• Heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance.
Temperature is measurement in degrees of how hot or cold a thing or place is.
Factors controlling Temperature are:
Latitude – Insolation received varies according to latitude.
Altitude – Temperature decreases with increasing height. The rate of decrease of
temperature with height is normal lapse rate. It is 6.5 degree Celsius for per 1000
meters.
Distance from the Sea – The sea gets heated slowly, land heats fast. While sea loses
heat slowly, land loses fast. Variation of temperature over sea is less than on land.
Sea and land breeze influence on places near sea.
Air-mass and ocean currents – Passage of air masses and currents affects the
temperature of places where they pass.
Local aspects– They also influence the local temperature.
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperatures on map, are generally
parallel to latitude.

60
Highest range of temperature is more than 60 degrees Celsius over North-Eastern
port of Eurasian continent, due to continentality.

Temperature Inversion :
• Normal lapse rate – Temperature decreases with increased elevation. It is 6.5
degrees Celsius per 1000m.
• When normal lapse rate is inverted, it is called inversion of temperature.
• Short duration but common in polar regions
• Long winter night with clear skies and still air is the ideal situation.
• Heat of day is radiated off during night. So by early morning, earth is cooler
than the air above.
• Surface inversion promotes stability in lower layers of atmosphere. Smoke and
dust particles collect beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally filling
lower strata of atmosphere.
• Dense fog in morning of winter season will last for few hours till the Sun comes
up.
• Temperature Inversion in hills and mountains occur due to air Drainage. Cold
air at hills and mountains, produced during night, flows under influence of
gravity.
• It is heavy and dense, cold air acts like water and moves down slope to pile up
deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above.
• Air drainage protects plants from frost damages.

61
 Chapter 10
Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems
Air in horizontal motion is Wind, And Atmospheric Pressure determines the rise and
sink of air. The pressure and winds in atmosphere determine formation of air masses
and occurrence of storms.

Atmospheric pressure – Weight of air column contained in a unit area from mean
sea level to the top of atmosphere is known as Atmospheric pressure. It is measured
in force per unit area. It is expressed in ‘milibar’/mb unit. For practical purposes, the
atmospheric pressure is expressed in kilo-pascals.
Due to gravity, air at surface is denser and has higher air pressure. It is measured by
the mercury barometer or aneroid barometer.In lower atmosphere, pressure
decreases rapidly with height. At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2
milibar.

Wind – When air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
Vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than the horizontal pressure gradient.
But we don’t feel strong upward winds because vertical gradient is balanced by
gravitational force. Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at
constant levels.

World distribution of Atmospheric Pressure:

The following pressure belts oscillate with the apparent movement of sun. In northern
hemisphere in winter, they move southwards and in summers northwards.
Equatorial low – It occurs near the equator the sea level pressure is low.
Subtropical high – Along the 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South, there are high
pressure areas.
Sub-polar Lows – Along 60 degrees North and 60 degrees South, low pressure belts.
Polar Highs – It occurs near poles, the pressure is high.

Factors affecting velocity and direction of Wind in Atmosphere:

Air motion due to differences in atmospheric pressure is known as Wind. From high
pressure to low pressure. At sphere, wind gets friction due to pressure gradient force
– Coriolis force and gravity.

62
I. Pressure Gradient Force :

• Difference in atmosphere pressure produces a force.

• The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is known as pressure
gradient.
• It is strong where isobars are close to each other and vice-verse.

II. Frictional Force :

• Affects speed of wind.
• The greatest at surface and influences till 1 to 2 km.
• Over the sea, it is minimal.
III. Coriolis Force :
• Force exerted by rotation of Earth is known as Coriolis force.
• French physicist had described it in 1844.
• It deflects the wind to right direction in Northern hemisphere and to left direction
in Southern hemisphere.
• More deflection when wind velocity is high.
• Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. Hence, it is
maximum at poles and minimum(absent) at equator.
• It acts perpendicular to pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to isobars.
• As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the
low-pressure area the wind blows around it.
• At equator, the Coriolis force is zero and wind blows perpendicular to isobars.
The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That’s why tropical
cyclones are not formed near the equator.
IV. Pressure and Wind in Atmosphere :
• When pressure and winds in atmosphere have different velocity and direction,
net wind generating force come to work.
• The winds above 2 to 3 km from surface are free from frictional effect of surface
and controlled by pressure gradient and Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight and no frictional force acts then – Coriolis force
balances pressure gradient force and resultant wind blows parallel to isobars,
known as Geo-strophic winds.
• Wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation, while wind
circulation around a high is known as anti-cyclonic circulation.
• Rising of air is essential for cloud formation & precipitation, it is caused not only
by Convergence but also by some eddies, uplift along fronts, orographic uplift,
convection currents. For cloud formation and precipitation.

63
General Circulation of Atmosphere:
The Pattern of planetary pressure and winds in atmosphere, depends upon the
following:

• The latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating

• Emergence of pressure belts
• migration of belts following apparent path of Sun.
• Distribution of continents and oceans.
• Rotation of Earth.
This Pattern of movement of planetary winds is called General circulation of
atmosphere. It sets in motion the ocean water circulation which influences the Earth’s
climate. The following diagram explains the patterns of atmosphere circulation very
clearly.

I. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) at equator. Zone of low atmospheric

pressure and ascending air. Rising air currents are due to global wind convergence
64
and convection from thermal heating (which causes low pressure). The converged
air rises along with convective cell and reaches upto 14 km. Then it moves towards
poles. This accumulates air around 30 degrees North and South.

II. Subtropical highs – The part of accumulated air sinks to ground to form subtropical
high. The air sinks because it gets cooled down when it reaches 30 degrees North and
South.
III. Easterlies (come from east) – Near land surface, air flows towards the equator,
this is known as easterlies. These Easterlies converge from North and South at
equator at ITCZ. This forms the Hadley cell in tropics.
IV. Westerlies – Middle lattitudes the circulation of sinking cold air from poles and
rising warm air blows from subtropical high are called westerlies. This cell is
called Ferrel Cell.
V. Polar Cell – At poles latitudes the cold dense air subsidies near poles and blows
towards middle lattitudes as polar easterlies.
The Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell set pattern for general circulation of
atmosphere.
Heat transfer from lower latitude to higher latitude maintains it.

Effect of General atmospheric circulation on Oceans:

65
Pacific ocean is most important in general atmospheric circulation terms. Warm water
of central pacific slowly drifts towards South American Coast and replaces the cool
Peruvian current.

• Appearance of warm current off the coast of Peru – El nino.

• Closely associated with pressure changes in Central Pacific and Australia.

This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as Southern Oscillation. The
combined effect of both these is known as ENSO. When ENSO is strong, that year
large scale variations are seen in weather around the world.

WINDS
Wind is the natural movement of air or other gases relative to a planet's surface.
Permanent winds or Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds
• The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies.
Secondary or Periodic Winds
• Seasonal winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. For
example monsoons in India.
• Periodic winds: Land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze.

66
Local winds
• These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
• Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora.

Primary Winds or Prevailing Winds or Permanent Winds

or Planetary Winds

The winds that blow constantly throughout the year are called Permanent Winds.
They also blow constantly in a particular direction. There are types of permanent
winds:
• Trade Winds – These are permanent winds flowing from east-to-west. It flows
in the Earth’s equatorial region (between 30°N and 30°S latitudes).
• Easterlies – It is a prevailing wind blowing from the east. The trade winds in
tropical regions and the prevailing winds in the polar regions are easterlies.
• Westerlies – These are prevailing winds that flow from the west towards the
east. It flows in the Earth’s middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude.
Also called as anti-trades, these winds originate from the high-pressure areas
in the horse latitudes and trend towards the poles and steer extratropical
cyclones in this general manner.

67
Secondary Winds or Periodic Winds

The winds that change their direction with onsets of different seasons. These are
hence called as Seasonal Winds.

1.Monsoon Winds:
• Monsoons were traditionally explained as land and sea breezes on a large
scale. Thus, they were considered a convectional circulation on a giant scale.
• The monsoons are characterized by seasonal reversal of wind direction.
• During summer, the trade winds of southern hemisphere are pulled northwards
by an apparent northward movement of the sun and by an intense low pressure
core in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent.
• While crossing the equator, these winds get deflected to their right under the
effect of Coriolis force.
• These winds now approach the Asian landmass as south-west monsoons.
Since they travel a long distance over a vast expanse of water, by the time they
reach the south-western coast of India, they are over-saturated with moisture
and cause heavy rainfall in India and neighbouring countries.
• During winter, these conditions are reversed and a high pressure core is
created to the north of the Indian subcontinent. Divergent winds are produced
by this anticyclonic movement which travels southwards towards the equator.
This movement is enhanced by the apparent southward movement of the sun.
These are north-east or winter monsoons which are responsible for some
precipitation along the east coast of India.

2.Land Breeze or Sea Breeze:

The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently. During the day the land heats
up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure
over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the
wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of
condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.

3.Valley Breeze:
• In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley.
This wind is known as the valley breeze. During the night the slopes get cooled
and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air,
of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called katabatic
wind.

68
 • Another type of warm wind (katabatic wind) occurs on the leeward side of the
mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain
ranges condense and precipitate. When it descends down the leeward side of
the slope the dry air gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry air may
melt the snow in a short time.

Tertiary Winds or Local Winds

• Local differences of temperature and pressure produce local winds.

• Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the
troposphere.

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 CYCLONE
A cyclone is any low-pressure area with winds spiralling inwards. Cyclones rotate
anti-clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and rotate clockwise in Southern
Hemisphere.

Types of Cyclone
There are various types of cyclones depending on the type of prevailing low-pressure
system.
• Tropical cyclone
• Extratropical cyclone
Process of Cyclone formation and intensification is called Cyclogenesis.

How is a Cyclone formed?

When it comes to the formation or strengthening of a cyclone, Cyclogenesis plays a
crucial role. It is an umbrella term to identify several different processes that result in
a cyclone. Tropical cyclones are formed over warm ocean water near the equator.
Warm moist air near the surface of the ocean rises upwards. This creates a low-
pressure area near the surface. This results in the movement of cooler air from
surrounding areas into the low-pressure area. Now even this cool air becomes warm
and moist and rises up. The above cycle keeps continuing. The warm moist air which
rises up, cools the water in the air, resulting in the formation of clouds. This whole
system of clouds and winds spins and grows. This entire cycle continues resulting in
a cyclone. When the winds reach a speed of 63 mph, it is called a tropical storm, when
the winds reach a speed of 119 kmph it is called a tropical cyclone or hurricane.

Conditions Favourable for Tropical Cyclone Formation

• Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C,

• Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex,
• Small variations in the vertical wind speed,
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation,
• Upper divergence above the sea level system,

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71
 Chapter 11
Water in the Atmosphere

Since Atmosphere contains water in form of vapour, it causes various changes in the
environment. The presence of water in the atmosphere causes various weather
phenomena. This water is present in all three forms in the atmosphere – solid, liquid
and gas.
Absolute Humidity – actual amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere. It is
measured in grams per cubic metre.

Moisture in atmosphere comes from –

• water bodies, through evaporation.
• Plants, through transpiration.
Ability of air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
Relative humidity – percentage of moisture present in atmosphere as compared to
its full capacity at a given temperature. It is greater over the oceans and least over the
continents.
Saturated air – That air which contains moisture to its full capacity at a given
temperature.
Dew point – Temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known
as its dew point.
Latent heat of Vaporisation – Temperature at which water starts evaporating.
Condensation – It is transformation of water vapour into water. It is caused by loss of
heat.
Sublimation – If water vapour directly condenses into solid form.

Dew in the atmosphere:

• When moisture is deposited in form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of

solid objects, it is called dew.
• Ideal conditions: Clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, cold and long
nights.
• Dew point > above freezing point.
• Saturation of air with moisture should happen above Freezing point.

72
Frost in Atmosphere:

• When condensation takes place below freezing point, frost is formed.

• Dew point is at or below freezing point.
• Air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.

Fog and Mist:

• Fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
• Mist contains more moisture than fog.

Clouds:
Clouds are a mass of water droplets or crystals of ice of minute size located at
considerable elevations. These clouds take up various shapes and sizes. This allows
for the study of different types of clouds to understand the behaviour of water in
atmosphere.

• Cirrus – at high altitudes

• Cumulus – cottoning
• Stratus – layered clouds
• Nimbus – thick vapour.
73
Precipitation: release of moisture after condensation.
Sleet: Frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow water.
Hailstorms: Released as raindrops, pass through colder layers so freeze before
reaching the surface.

Types of Rainfall:
According to its basis of origin, rainfall is primarily classified into 3 major types:
Convectional rainfall: cumulous clouds in equatorial regions and continent interiors
especially in Northern hemisphere.
Orographic or relief rain: Windward slopes receives greater rainfall because air is
forced to ascend mountain and expands, temperature decreases hence results in
condensation.
Cyclonic rain: The rains occurring due to extra tropical cyclones.

74
Precipitation regimes:
The water in Atmosphere is eventually falls on Earth in form of precipitation, The
pattern of precipitation regimes is helpful in understanding the distribution of rainfall.
• Equatorial belt, windward slopes along western coast in cool temperate zone
and coastal areas of monsoon land receives heavy rainfall of over 200
cm/annum.
• Moderate 100-200 cm/ annum rainfall in interior of continental areas.
• 50-100 cm/annum rainfall in central part pf tropical land and eastern and interior
parts of temperate lands receive rainfall 50-100cm/annum.
• 50 cm/annum rainfall in rain shadow areas of interior of continents and high
latitudes.
There is even distribution of rainfall occurs in equatorial belt and western parts of cool
temperate regions.
Rainfall is more over oceans than land.
Heavier rain on eastern coast and decreases towards west – between latitudes 35
degrees and 40 degrees north and south of equator.

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 CHAPTER 12
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
What is climate?
• Climate is the average weather in a place over many years.
• The weather can change in just a few hours whereas climate takes millions of
years to change.
• Planet earth has witnessed many variations in climate since the beginning .

Koeppen’s Climate Classification:

• Koeppen’s Classification of climate is the most commonly used classification of
climate.
• This climate classification scheme was developed by Wladimir Peter Koeppen in
1884.
• He recognized a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and
climate.
• The categories are based on the data of annual and monthly averages of
temperature and precipitation.
• He selected specific values of temperature and precipitation and related them to
the distribution of vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
• The Koeppen climate classification system recognizes five major climatic types and
each type is designated by a capital letter- A, B, C, D, E, and H.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w, and s.
• f -no dry season
• m – Monsoon climate
• w- Winter dry season
• s – Summer dry season
• The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature

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Climatic Types According to Koeppen:

CLIMATE CHANGE
What are the pieces of evidence of Climate Change?
• Sea level rise
• Global temperature rise
• Warming oceans
• Shrinking ice sheets
• Declining Arctic sea ice
• Glacial retreat
• Extreme natural events

What are the causes of Climate Change?

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There are several causes of climate change. The most significant anthropogenic effect
on the climate is the increasing trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
• The causes can be grouped into two:
• Astronomical causes
• Sunspot activities
• Millankovitch oscillations
• Terrestrial causes
• Volcanism
• Concentration of greenhouse.

• The astronomical causes are the variations in solar output related to sunspot
activities.
• Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the sun which rise and fall in a recurring
manner.
• When the number of sunspots increases, cooler and wetter weather and greater
storminess occur.
• These modify the amount of insolation received from the sun, which in turn, might
have a bearing on the climate.
• Milankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles in the variations in the earth’s orbital
characteristics around the sun, the wobbling of the earth and the changes in the earth’s
axial tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation received from the sun, which in turn,
might have a bearing on the climate.

Volcanism
• Volcanism is regarded as another cause for climate change.
• Volcanic eruptions throw up loads of aerosols into the atmosphere.
• These aerosols persist in the atmosphere for a substantial period of time decreasing
the radiation of sun reaching the surface of Earth.

Concentration of greenhouse gases

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• The primary Greenhouse gases of concern are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), and Ozone (O3).
• Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react
with Greenhouse gases and affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
• The largest concentration of Greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide

Greenhouse effect
• The greenhouse effect is a normal process that warms the surface of the Earth. •
Solar radiation reaches the atmosphere of Earth and some of this is reflected back
into space.
• The rest of the energy of the sun is absorbed by the terrestrial and the oceans,
heating the Earth.
• Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
• Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the
Earth warm enough to sustain life.
• Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture, and land clearing are
increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
• This is trapping extra heat, and causing the temperature of the earth to rise and
ultimately result in Global Warming.

Global Warming
• Global warming is the gradual heating of the surface of the Earth, ocean, and
atmosphere.
• Global warming begins with the greenhouse effect, which is caused by the interaction
between incoming radiation from the sun and the atmosphere of Earth.
• The atmosphere is acting as a greenhouse due to the presence of greenhouse
gases.

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 CHAPTER 13
WATER (OCEANS)
All the water on Earth including the oceans, seas, lakes, lagoons, rivers, ice and
glaciers, water in atmosphere is called hydrosphere. There is more water in the
Southern hemisphere as compared to Northern hemisphere.
Hydrological Cycle – Circulation of water within the Earth’s hydrosphere in
different forms is known as Hydrological cycle.
The water resource in Oceans is maximum at 71% of the planetary water.

Availability of Water on surface of Earth:

Oceans > Icecaps > Glaciers & underground water > Lakes > Soil moisture >
Atmosphere > Streams & rivers > Biosphere.
Water resource in Oceans:
Pacific Ocean > Atlantic ocean > Indian ocean > Arctic Ocean.

Processes of water cycle and its components :

• Water storage in oceans – Evaporation, evapo-transpiration, Sublimation
• Water in the atmosphere – Condensation, precipitation
• Water storage in ice caps and snow – Snowmelt runoff to streams.
• Surface runoff – stream flow freshwater storage infiltration
• Groundwater storage – Groundwater discharge springs

Relief of Ocean floor:

Since the oceans are confined to great depressions of earth’s outer layer. The major
portions of ocean floor is found between 3-6 km below the sea level. These ocean
floors are rugged with the world’s deepest trenches, largest mountain ranges and the
largest plains. All these features are formed by the tectonic, volcanic, and depositional
processes.

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 DIVISION OF OCEAN FLOOR

1.Continental Shelf:
a) Extended margins of each continent occupy shallow seas and gulf. It breaks at
steep slope known as shelf break.
b) It very narrow at coast of Chile, west coast of Sumatra.
c) Largest Shelf is at Siberian Shelf in Arctic Ocean at 1500 km in width.
d) Massive deposits over time by the continental shelves become source of fossil
fuels.
2.Continental Slope:
a) It connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
b) The gradient of the slope region changes between 2-5 degrees.
c) This slope boundary indicates the end of the continents, so canyons and
trenches are observed.

3.Deep Sea Plains:

a) Gently sloping areas of basin covered by clay and silt.

b) These are the smoothest and flattest regions of the Earth.
c) These are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.

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4.Oceanic Deep or Trenches:

a) These are the deepest parts of the oceans.

b) Oceanic trenches occur at bases of continental slopes , along island areas.
c) They are associated with active volcanic and Earthquake activity, this makes
them significant for Plate movement studies.

5.Mid- Oceanic Ridges:

a) They consist of 2 mountain chains that are separated by a large depression.
b) These ranges can have peaks reaching above the ocean floor as well.
c) For instance, Iceland is a part of the Mid- Atlantic Ridge.
6.Seamount:
a) These are volcanic in origin.
b) Mountain with pointed summits, do not reach the surface of the ocean.
c) Emperor Seamount is an extension of Hawaiian islands in the Pacific Ocean.

7.Submarine Canyons:
a) Deep valleys cutting across Continental Shelf, often extending from mouth of
large rivers.
b) The Hudson Canyon is an example.

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8.Guyots:

• These are flat topped seamount.

• Show signs of subsidence to become submerged.

9.Atoll
a) Atolls are low islands in tropical oceans having coral reefs surrounding a
central depression.
b) They may be part of a lagoon.
c) They are located in tropical oceans.

Factors affecting temperature distribution of Ocean water:

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A vital property of the water resource in oceans is its temperature. The variation in
temperature cause various form of activity in the oceans. Let us first look into the
factors that affect this temperature distribution.
Latitude: Temperature decreases from equator to poles because of insolation
decreases.
Unequal distribution of land and water: Oceans in Northern hemisphere receive
more heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in Southern
hemisphere.
Prevailing Wind: Wind from land to oceans warm the surface water away from the
coast. This results in longitudinal variations in temperature. Whereas , the onshore
winds pile up warm water close to the coast, raising the temperature.
Ocean Currents: Warm currents raise temperature while cold currents decrease the
temperature in cold and warm areas respectively. Foe instance- The Gulf Stream
(warm current) raises the temperature near Eastern coast of North America and West
coast of Europe.
The enclosed seas at low latitudes see a higher temperature than open seas, whereas
the enclosed seas in high latitudes experience lower temperature than open seas.
Distribution of Temperature:
The temperature-depth profile for water in ocean shows how temperature decreases
with depth. It shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and
the deeper layers.
Thermocline– The boundary line shown by the boundary region between surface
waters of ocean from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature.
90% of total volume of water is found below the thermocline in deep ocean. 100-400
m below the sea surface.

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The temperature structure of ocean is divided into three layers:

First layer: The top layer of warm oceanic water is 500 m thick with 20-30 degrees of
temperature. Within tropical region, this layer is present throughout the year, but in
middle latitudes it is found only in summer season.
Second layer: The thermocline layer shows rapid decrease in temperature with
increasing depth. It is 500-1000m thick.
Third layer: It is very cold and extends up to deep ocean floor.
In Arctic and Antarctic circles, only one layer of cold water from surface to the ocean
floor.
The average temperature of ocean surface water is 27 degrees Celsius.
The highest temperature is recorded slightly above the equator because of unequal
distribution of land and water in the northern and southern hemisphere.
Maximum temperatures of the ocean is always at the surface because it directly
receives heat from the Sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the
oceans by the process of convection.

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 CHAPTER 14
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
What is Ocean Current?
It is a horizontal movement of seawater that is produced by gravity, wind, and water
density. Ocean currents play an important role in the determination of climates of
coastal regions.
Ocean Water and Ocean Currents:
The movement of ocean water is continuous. This movement of ocean water is broadly
categorized into three types:
• Waves
• Tides
• Currents
The streams of water that flow constantly on the ocean surface in definite
directions are called ocean currents.
Ocean currents are one of the factors that affect the temperature of ocean water.
• Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas
• Cold ocean currents decrease the temperature in warmer areas.

Factors affecting Ocean Currents:

Horizontal pressure-gradient forces, Coriolis forces, and frictional forces are important
forces that cause and affect ocean currents.
Rise and fall of the tide:
Tides give rise to tidal currents. Near the shore, tidal currents are the strongest. The
change in tidal currents is periodical in nature and can be predicted for the near future.
The speed of tidal currents at some places can be around 8 knots or more.
Wind:
The ocean currents at or near the ocean surface are driven by wind forces.
Thermohaline Circulation:
‘Thermo’ stands for temperature and ‘Haline’ stands for salinity. The variations in temperature
and salinity at different parts of the oceans create density differences which in turn affect the
ocean currents.

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What is a Frictional Force?
The movement of water through the oceans is slowed by friction, with surrounding fluid
moving at a different velocity. A faster-moving layer of water and a slower-moving layer
of water would impact each other. This causes momentum transfer between both
layers producing frictional forces.
What are geostrophic currents?
When the pressure gradient force on the ocean current is balanced by the Coriolis
forces, it results in the geostrophic currents.
The direction of geostrophic flow is parallel to an isobar.
The high pressure is to the right of the flow in the Northern Hemisphere, and the high
pressure to the left is found in the Southern Hemisphere.

North and South Equatorial Currents

North Equatorial Current

• North Equatorial Current flows from east to west in the Pacific and the Atlantic
Ocean.
• North Equatorial Current flows between the latitudes of 10 degrees and 20
degrees north.
• It is not connected to the equator.

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 • Equatorial circulation separates this current between the Pacific and Atlantic
oceans
South Equatorial Current
• It flows in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.
• The direction of the south equatorial current is east to west.
• The latitudes in which the current flows are between the equator and 20
degrees south.
• It flows across the equator to 5 degrees north latitudes in the Pacific and Atlantic
Oceans.

Antarctic Circumpolar Current

The ocean current that flows clockwise around the Antarctic is called the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current. It is also called West Wind Drift. It is a feature of ocean circulation
of the Southern Ocean.
It does not have a well-defined axis
It consists of a series of individual currents which are separated by frontal zones.

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Global Conveyor Belt:
A system of ocean currents that helps in the transportation of water around the world
is called a global conveyor belt. As per National Geographic, “Along this conveyor belt,
heat and nutrients are moved around the world in a leisurely 1000-year cycle.”

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 Distribution of Ocean Currents
Currents in the Pacific Ocean
a) North Equatorial Current (Warm)
b) South Equatorial Current (Warm)
c) Counter Equatorial Current (Warm)
d) Kuroshio System (Warm)
e) Oyashio Current (Cold)
f) California Current (Cold)
g) Peruvian or Humboldt Current (Cold)
h) East Australia Current (Warm)
i) North Pacific Drift (Warm)

Currents in the Atlantic Ocean

a) North Equatorial Current (warm)

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 b) South Equatorial Current (warm)
c) Equatorial Counter Current
d) Gulf Stream (warm)
e) Florida Current (Warm)
f) Canaries Current (Cold)
g) Labrador Current (Cold)
h) Brazilian Current (Warm)
i) Falkland Current (Cold)
j) South Atlantic Drift (Cold)
k) Benguela Current (Cold)

Currents in the Indian Ocean

a) The North East Monsoon Drift
b) The South West Monsoon Drift
c) North Equatorial Current (Warm)
d) South Equatorial Current (Warm)
e) Somali Current (Cold)
f) Mozambique Current (Warm)
g) Madagascar Current (Warm)
h) Agulhas Current (Warm)
i) West Australian Current (Cold)

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 CHAPTER 15
LIFE ON THE EARTH
Biosphere -All living components of the Earth. All plants animals and
microbes and their surroundings are known as biosphere.
Environment has two components- Abiotic (physical and inorganic) and Biotic(organic).

The structure of Biosphere has three components: Abiotic, Biotic and energy
components.
I. Abiotic Components: It consists of all non-living elements which are essential for
the survival of all living organisms. It has lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere. Mineral nutrients, gases and water are three basic requirements of
organic life.
II. Biotic Components: It includes Plants, animals and human beings to make biotic
components of environment. there are three sub-system:
• Plants: They are very important part of biotic components. They are primary
producers of food through process of photosynthesis. They are called
autotrophs.
• Animals: They are main consumers of plant produce, hence known as
Heterotrophs. They use organic matter produced by plants and transform the
food into energy (used in growth and development).
• Micro-organism: They act as decomposers of dead plants and animals.
III. Energy: It is vital component of biosphere which is essential for reproduction and
generation of all biological life on Earth.

Structure and composition of Biosphere:

Ecological System: Interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors
within a particular habitat resulting in particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
energy flows and material cycles on land, water & air.
Ecology: Derived from Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning house and ‘logy’ means science.
Ernst Haeckel used the term in 1869 for the first time. The study of interactions
between life forms and physical environment is known as science of ecology. So, it is
the study of abiotic and biotic interactions.
Habitat: It is the totality of physical and chemical factors that constitute the general
environment.

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Ecosystem: System of biotic and abiotic components inter-related and interact with
each. Therefore, an ecosystem involves interactions among different components and
flow of energy among these components.

Flow of Energy in the Ecosystem:

It involves transfer of energy from one trophic level to another. Trophic level is the
stage at which food energy passes from one group to another. It occurs through the
food chain.

Food Chain:
Food chain is basically the sequence of transfer of energy from the organisms in one
trophic level to another trophic level. It is a fact that the Sun is the major source of
energy. The number of organisms at a trophic level depends upon the availability of
food at its lower level.
There are two types of organism in food chains: Autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs have three broad categories of herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.

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There are two types of Food chains- grazing and detritus food chain.

1. Grazing Food Chain– It has plants at the first level and last level is occupied
by carnivores. Here loss of energy at each level occurs through respiration,
excretion or decomposition.
2. Detritus Food Chain– It is based on autotrophs energy capture initiated by
grazing animals. Decomposition of organic waste that is derived from grazing
food chain.

Biogeochemical cycle:
The cyclic movement of chemical elements of biosphere between organism and the
environment is known as Biogeochemical cycle. It involves movement and circulation
of soluble inorganic substances (known as nutrients) that are derived from soil, and
atmospheric forms of inorganic substances through organic form of various biotic
components.
There are two types of Biogeochemical cycles in the description of biosphere:
Gaseous cycle– main reservoir of nutrient is atmosphere and the ocean.
Sedimentary cycle– Main reservoir of nutrient is soil and sedimentary and other rocks
of the crust.

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The Water / Hydrological Cycle:
It helps in exchange of water between air, land, sea and living plants and animals.
Solar energy drives the hydrological cycle. It causes massive evaporation, from
oceans and other water bodies leading to cloud formation and precipitation. On
surface, it acts as freshwater in form of snow, groundwater.

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The Carbon Cycle:
The atmosphere acts as a minor reservoir of carbon while the hydrosphere is major
reservoir. It contains approximately 50 times more carbon than atmosphere in the form
of bicarbonate mineral deposit on the ocean floor. The cycle operates by exchanging
carbon between hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

The Nitrogen Cycle:

In the structure and composition of biosphere, the Nitrogen cycle plays a very
important role. Since Nitrogen is essential for life processes, its continuous supply is
maintained by nitrogen cycle in the biosphere. The protein produced by animals and
plants during their metabolic processes leads to formation of organic compounds of
nitrogen. A major amount of nitrogenous organic residue in soil has its origins in dead
and decayed plants and excreta of animals. These organic residues in the soil are
then taken up by soil micro-organisms which break down the soil nitrates into nitrogen
by the process of denitrification while others transform nitrogen in form of soluble
nitrogen compounds.

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 CHAPTER 16
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
“Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources
including terrestrial, marine and desert ecosystems, and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part.”
What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is the most complex
and important feature of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.
The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. It is important in natural as well as artificial
ecosystems. It deals with nature’s variety, the biosphere. It refers to variabilities among
plants, animals and microorganism species.
Biodiversity includes the number of different organisms and their relative frequencies
in an ecosystem. It also reflects the organization of organisms at different levels.
Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with
nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing and several other resources. It also extracts
monetary benefits through tourism. Therefore, it is very important to have a good
knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable livelihood.

Types of
Biodiversity

Genetic Species Ecological

Biodiversity Biodiversity Biodiversity

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Species diversity:
Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular
area. It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging
from plants to different microorganisms.
No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For example, humans show
a lot of diversity among themselves.
Genetic diversity:
It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every
individual of a particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution.
That is why every human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different
varieties in the same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
Ecological diversity:
An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction
with each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal
species living together and connected by food chains and food webs.
It is the diversity observed among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in
different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological
diversity.

Importance Of Biodiversity
Biodiversity and its maintenance are very important for sustaining life on earth. A few
of the reasons explaining the importance of biodiversity are:

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Ecological Stability:
Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and store energy and
also produce and decompose organic matter. The ecosystem supports the services
without which humans cannot survive. A diverse ecosystem is more productive and
can withstand environmental stress.
Economic Importance:
Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic products
and pharmaceuticals.
Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich source of food.
Wild plants such as Cinchona and Foxglove plant are used for medicinal purposes.
Wood, fibres, perfumes, lubricants, rubber, resins, poison and cork are all derived from
different plant species.
The national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source of
beauty and joy for many people.
Ethical Importance
All the species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their voluntary
extinction. Biodiversity preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it
is very important to conserve biodiversity.

Biodiversity in India
India is one of the most diverse nations in the world. It ranks ninth in terms of plant
species richness. Two of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots are found in India. It is
the origin of important crop species such as pigeon pea, eggplant, cucumber, cotton
and sesame. India is also a centre of various domesticated species such as millets,
cereals, legumes, vegetables, medicinal and aromatic crops, etc.
India is equally diverse in its faunal wealth. There are about 91000 animal species
found here.
However, diversity is depleting at a drastic rate and various programmes
on biodiversity conservation are being launched to conserve nature.

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