2.

Electrical Installation

2.1. Introduction

Electrical installation refers to the practice of electrical wiring and associated system used to convey
electric power to electrical loads/appliances in a consumer’s premises in a safe, reliable and efficient
(economic) manner. The installation would serve for over an acceptably longer period of time (perhaps
equaling or slightly less the life time of the building).

The consumer can be a residential, a public, a commercial or an industrial entity. Residential premises
may be of villa, G+1 or more buildings as well as apartment storeys. Public buildings include religion
establishments such as churches, mosques and synagogues; educational establishments such as schools,
colleges, universities as well as R&D centers with laboratory instruments and equipment; health care
establishments such as clinics, health centers, hospitals; transportation rest areas and platforms;
entertainment establishments such as theatre houses, cinema houses, museums and art galleries; sports
fields and gymnastic buildings; etc. Commercial buildings include hotels, restaurants and cafes; office
apartments, shopping centers and displays, department stores and supermarkets. Industrial
establishments include small to large scale manufacturing, production etc facilities.

Electrical loads in these consumers include lighting/illumination; appliances such as cookers and stoves,
refrigerators; electric motors, boilers, furnaces, etc

The power rating of consumers can range from few kilo-watts for residential buildings to tens to
1undreds of Mega-Watts for commercial and industrial buildings. Furthermore as one can imagine the
electrical requirements of the above establishments are different. However, a standardized methodology
can be used in the electrical installation process.

The scope of electrical installation is usually limited to the design and construction of facilities
(electrical piping, control and protection) which would be utilized as means of safe and reliable
provision electrical power to appliances.

The practice may involve a completely new installation, expansion to an existing system, as well as
maintenance and modification.

The electrical installation system comprises the wiring of cables, wires, control and isolating switchgear,
protective devices, receptacles, transformers, as well as electric appliances. It can also include sizing,
specifying and erecting standby electric power generation systems (from diesel generators, photo voltaic
[PV] panels, wind turbines, etc) as well as communication, signaling and automation systems.

Nowadays, data networks and telecommunication (telephone) systems emerged as one standalone
integrated discipline called ICT requiring relevant expertise.

Signaling may include bell call systems as well as alarm systems (fire alarm, intruder detection systems,
security systems etc).

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In industrial installation, machine control circuits and automation systems were implemented using only
relays and contactors. However, after the introduction of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in the
late 1960’s, industrial automation has already become a specialized discipline.

From the early days of electric generation for commercial purposes by General Electric in the USA in
the 1890s, the safety of electric systems has been guided by standards and regulations to minimize the
shock and fire hazards as well as damages caused by electricity.

Like fire electricity is a good servant but bad master and so before any one can install an electrical
system, it is essential for him/her to be familiar with the nature of electricity and the danger inherent in
its use.

The two main hazards to humans involved whenever electricity is employed are the danger of shock and
fire. Fire can risk lives as well as damage the installation itself, appliances connected to it and buildings.
Risks of hazards and damages may be reduced to a minimum by using correct (scientific) method of
installation as well as using suitable electrical materials, devices and appliances.
For this reason, most countries have national regulations and/or standards governing the rules to be
strictly observed in the design and realization of electrical installations for residential, commercial and
similar premises. Industries have their own standards.

The study and practice of an electrical installation requires an adequate understanding of all essential
governing rules, regulations and standards.

From an industry perspective standards and regulations provide a platform for consistent language in
regard to definitions, test methods, laboratory accreditation and for product design, manufacturing and
testing.

From a governmental perspective, regulation helps ensure public safety, provides consumer protection,
regulates energy consumption and monitors environmental issues. Customarily standards are voluntary
while regulations are mandatory.

Regulatory and advisory materials installation engineers should consult during design, construction or
inspection can be classified as:
National and international standards for installations
National and international standards for products
Codes of practice, regulations issued by professional associations/institutions
Legal regulations (decrees, factory acts, etc.)

Regulations

An electrical installation regulation may be described as a set of rules that need to be followed as
guidelines to ensure safety, reliability, stability, energy efficiency and the like during operation of the
system.

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Electrical installations may need to comply with more than one set of regulations, issued by National
Authorities or by recognized private bodies. It is essential to take into account these local constraints
before starting the design.

Standards

The Ethiopian Building Code Standards EBCS-10, prepared by the Ministry of Works and Urban
Development in 1995 is the first formally compiled standard next to the Electric Installation Regulation
compiled by the then Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority – EELPA (now Ethiopian Electric
Power Corporation - EEPCO) around 1969. EBCS-10 has not been approved formally but is practiced
by professionals in the field.

The generation, transmission and distribution systems outside the consumer premise are usually the
property of utility companies such as EEPCO while power systems in the consumer premises is under
the control and responsibility of the consumer. This course is limited to the design, construction and
inspection aspects of electrical installation systems within the consumer premises.

Fig. 2.1 Electrical Power System comprises of generation, transmission, distribution and consumption

The main objective of this electrical installation course is thus the safe, effective and economical
electrical installation circuit design and construction in the premises of the consumer.

2.2. The Electrical Installation Construction Industry

There are four main sequences of activities usually to be carried out by different qualified, certified
and/or licensed professionals and institutions in electrical system construction and operation for the
very reasons of ensuring safety, reliability and operational efficiency of the electrical system. These are:
• Design
• Construction
• Inspection, and
• Operation and maintenance

Any errors in at least one of the above stages will have bad consequences of risk to human life,
equipment and other physical facilities

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2.2.1 Design

Electrical system design refers to the engineering process of selecting the right size materials and
systems/devices on the one hand fulfilling the design specification (requirement) of the owner and on
the other hand the standards and government regulations in the country at an acceptably minimum cost.

Cost is sometimes tradeoff between the initial (capital) cost and the maintenance & operating cost. For
instance, the larger the cable size (cross-sectional area) the smaller the electric power loss across the
cable, resulting in smaller operating cost. However; the higher the x-sectional area of the cable, the
higher its cost is.

Generally, the design of electric installation has to be done by qualified and certified electrical engineers
with licenses from licensing government agency. The designers specify the type and quality of materials
to be used and workmanship required. These specifications must fulfill the requirements of the standard
in the country as well as the client.

The design of an installation system is represented in a proper electrical drawing, called wiring diagram,
usually done by draftsmen/women. Nowadays a number of software based design tools are available
such as AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, CADPIPE etc that can automate the design process.

2.2.2. Electrical construction

Construction of the electrical installation refers to the actual laying out of conduits, cables, drawing
wires, interconnecting associated switchgears, protective devices and accessories in the consumer
building. Construction is done according to the design as well as standards and regulations of the
installation. The construction should also be done by a certified and licensed engineer/technician. The
construction engineer/technician not only constructs the electrical installation systems, but also has to be
sure that the design is according to the standards in the country. If he/she finds some discrepancy from
the standards he/she has to seek modification of the design or report this to the designer.

A shop drawing, also called construction drawing or schematic drawing, is used to construct the
installation. The shop drawing is done based on the electrical installation design drawing as well as
actual takeoff measurements on the building. Shop drawing indicates the actual positions, routes, etc of
conduits, junction boxes, ducts as well as the method of their connections. Shop drawings help avoid
collisions with other installation systems such as sanitary, data network, HVAC, etc on a building. To
avoid or minimize any possible collisions among electrical, ICT, HVAC, MATV etc installation systems
during their construction, shop drawings of each installation is prepared and all installation works need
to be coordinated by the respective professionals. This eliminates/minimizes any possible project
duration delays.

Proper construction tools and methodologies as well as testing and verification procedures are used.
Thus acceptable conduit laying/burying, cutting, elongating, bending procedures; cable tray/truncking

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laying; cable and wire drawing within conduits and trays; wire/cable cutting, striping, splicing,
soldering, joining, terminating are required skills from construction technicians.

2.2.3. Inspection

After the completion of the electrical construction, the installed systems have to be inspected by an
engineer certified and licensed for the job. The inspection refers to testing the whole physical electrical
system as to its compliance with the relevant standard and the approved design specification.

Inspection may involve verifying:

• the intended functionality of a circuit or sub circuit,
• grounding/earth leakage systems and lightening arrestors ,
• protection schemes of abnormal events (over load current, over voltage, under voltage, phase
reversal, phase failures, etc)
• short circuit current of socket outlets and branch circuits
• utilization of correct installation material sizes and specifications
• etc
The inspection engineer signs a certificate before the system is connected to electric power.

Various instruments and test equipment may be used during inspection. Examples include measuring
micrometers/calipers for wire/cable sizes, conduit wall thickness, conductor and insulator specimen
testing, name plate reading of devices and accessories, suppliers manufactures authorization, field
test/measurement of voltage, current, resistance etc.

2.2.4. Operation and maintenance

In commercial and industrial electrical systems, operation and maintenance of an electric system is done
by trained personnel according to instruction manuals prepared by engineers and manufacturers of
electrical equipment and systems.

2.3. Electrical installation materials and accessories

In order to assemble properly and intelligibly the great number of available electrical materials, devices,
fittings, and equipment to form a complete wiring system, we must understand the basic principles
regarding them.

In the common market only standardized materials are available manufactured by very well known and
emerging companies. Custom requirements may also be ordered to be produced according to required
specification.

2.3.1 Conductors, insulators, wires and cables

2.3.1.1 Conductors

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A conductor is a material which offers a low resistance to current. It is used to produce electric wires
and cables. The necessary requirements of a wire (and also cable) conductor are that it must conduct
electricity efficiently, mechanically strong and flexible, relatively cheap and safe.

Some typical materials used as conductors in electrical installation work include:

i) Copper – is the next best conductor after silver which is comparatively cheap and thus commonly
used as wire conductor or cable. The electrical resistivity of pure copper at 200 C is
1.786 x 10-8 ohm-m ( or 1.72 cm ). Copper is mechanically strong (with tensile
strength of > 200 Mpa), hard, extremely tough, durable and ductile. It is highly resistive
to corrosion, oxidation, and pitting.

ii) Aluminum – coming in to increasingly use for overhead transmission cables and some times as
bus bars although not good conductor as copper. But its light weight is an advantage.
Aluminum has a resistivity of 2.6 cm. It is frequently used in place of copper for bare
electric cables used for long distance power distribution. The only application of aluminum
cables for wiring in buildings is for a continuous bus-bar system of distribution, used
sometimes in blocks of flat or office buildings for rising mains and sub-mains of large
sectional area.

iii) Brass – often used for manufacturing of terminals, contact points and various parts of fittings.

Gold, platinum, silver, mercury (best but expensive), and tungsten can also be used for special
applications.

2.3.1.2 Insulators

Generally, insulating materials are used to isolate electrically conducting parts of a circuit as well as
humans. They should have the following properties: high electric resistance; capability to withstand high
rupturing voltages; high temperature/heat resistance without deterioration; non-inflammability; high
mechanical flexibility; non- hygroscopic; highly resistive to moisture, acids or alkalis.

No one insulating material possess all the above mentioned qualities, so the type of insulating material
used in a cable depends upon the service for which the cable is required.

Concerning wires and cables, insulators are used to confine electric current to a wire or cable conductor
in which they are intended to flow and to prevent leakage of electricity to the adjacent conducting wires
or materials which are not intended to become alive.

Insulating materials used in electrical installation and wiring must possess properties that depend up on
the service for which the cable is required.

Some typical insulating materials (in wires and cables) are:

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 i) Rubber – rubber may be natural or synthetic. It is a good insulator with a dielectric strength of
about 30KV/mm. It is impervious to water and flexible. Though it posses high insulating
qualities, it is not fire proof, absorbs moisture readily, softens when heated to a temperature of
600C to 700C, swells under the action of mineral oils and ages when exposed to light. Hence pure
rubber cannot be used as insulating material.
Rubber insulation like butyl rubber operates in the range 650C to 800C, and silicon rubber up to
1450C are also used.

ii) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – is a modern a manmade/synthetic thermoplastic material which is tough
and often used as an alternative to rubber in residential and commercial installations where
mechanical and thermal effects are minimum. It resists chemical action (chemically unreactive),
direct sun light and not so flammable. It does not deteriorate with age and does not need to be
renewed. But it does not have the same degree of mechanical protection as compared to rubber and
is more expensive. Their operating temperature range is 0 up to 65 0C. Maximum temperature
(short duration) can be up to 95 0C. Its chief drawback is that it softens at a temperature above
800C. PVC insulated cables are usually employed for low and medium voltage domestic and
industrial lights and power installation.
They are easy to handle. When PVC insulated cables are to pass through concretes, walls, etc for
constant installation they should pass through conduits for mechanical protection.

iii) Mineral insulation types : include VIR and IP

a) Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR): It is prepared by mixing Indian rubber with minerals such as
sulphur, zinc, red lead, etc. Copper conductors used in these cables are tinned to protect them from
corrosive action of rubber or copper. It absorbs water, which reduces its insulation properties and
becomes brittle with age. The use of VIR cables is limited to low voltage distribution and
internal wiring as paper-insulated cables have largely superseded them.

b) Impregnated paper(IP): it is quite cheap, has low capacitance, high dielectric strength
(30KV/mm), and high insulation resistivity (10Mohm-cm). (PI) with lead or bronze sheath (LC or
BC) steel wire armored cables are usually for high voltage cables. The impregnated paper has to be
protected from moisture. Such cables are long lasting, up to 40 years.

The main advantage of paper insulated cable is that a cable of given size can be worked out at a
higher current density than a VIR cable. Impregnated paper insulated cable on its own would be
too fragile to be used unprotected, and a lead sheath is applied over the insulation. Paper insulated
cables are used for conveying large power in transmission and distribution and particularly for
distribution at low voltage in congested areas.

c) Mineral insulations are used for high temperatures. The mineral commonly used is magnesium
oxide sheathed with metal. A termination should seal the magnesium-oxide against moisture
which if allowed reduce the insulation. Mineral insulated cables are used in fire alarm circuits,
boiler houses, etc. Terminating material like fiber glass can operate up to 1500 C.

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 The sheath material is commonly copper. This cable is generally strong and long lasting. On the
other hand it is expensive and require skilled craftsman with appropriate tools for installation.

iV) Cross-linked polyethylene, commonly abbreviated PEX or XLPE, is a form of polyethylene with
cross-links (bonds that link one polymer chain to another). It is used for insulation of high tension
electrical cables. Recently, it has also become a viable alternative to PVC, chlorinated PVC (CPVC)
or copper pipe for use as residential water pipes.

PEX- or XLPE-insulated cables have a rated maximum conductor temperature of 90°C and an
emergency rating up to 140°C, depending on the standard used. They have a conductor short-circuit
rating of 250°C. XLPE has excellent dielectric properties, making it useful for medium voltage (10
to 50 kV AC) and high voltage cables (up to 380 kV AC voltage), and several hundred kV DC.

Insulating materials used for other purpose include

mica,
bakelite,
porcelain and
ceramic.

2.3.1.3 Wire

A wire conductor can be bare or insulated as well as stranded (for flexibility) or solid. Commercial
cables with conductor wires of cross sectional area above 25mm2 are generally stranded. Its insulation
should be such that it prevents leakage of current in unwanted direction and to minimize risk of fire and
shock.

a) wires (solid and stranded conductors)

2.3.1.4 Cable

A cable is a length of two or more insulated/sheathed conductors (solid or stranded and twisted together)
each provided with its own insulation. Electric current and hence energy flows through the cable. A
cable comprises of three main components: the conductor and/or core, the insulation or dielectric, and
the amour and/or sheath protective cover. The following figures depict some types of cables:

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a) This cable may be specified to have: Max. operating temp: 700C; short circuit temperature: 160 0C
(max for 5sec); rated voltage: 300/500V; test voltage: 2 kV (AC); bending radius: 12 D

b) This cable may be specified to have: Max. operating temp: 700C; short circuit temperature: 160 0C
(max for 5 sec); rated voltage : 0.6/1 kV; test voltage: 3.5 kV (AC); bending radius: 12 D

Multi-stranded cables have the following advantages over single solid conductors and hence preferred.
o more flexible
o have more surface area
o skin effect is better.

The number of strands in stranded cable must be 3,7,19,37,61,91 and so on. After the 2nd strand on-
ward follows an arithmetic progression: A (n+1)= An +6(n+1). The first number is chosen so that the
centre of each conductor is the corner of an equilateral triangle.

The insulation of the cable is used to prevent electric shock to human beings and animals; leakage
current to ground (for under ground cable), other adjacent circuit, or body as well as should be heat

9
resistant. The insulation determines the voltage level between the intra- and inter cable wires as well as
the operating temperature of the cable.

Insulation and sheathing - the insulation immediately surrounding a cable conductor is designed to
withstand the cables working voltage in order to prevent danger. The additional sheathing and /or
armouring is added to prevent the insulated conductors from mechanical damage. Some environments
are more hazardous than others and cables must be chosen carefully to suit those environments.

Cable Sheath (Jacket) is uniform and continuous circular covering of metallic or non-metallic material,
generally extruded. Its purpose is to prevent the cable and its insulation from the effect of external
electric circuit, heat, moisture, etc.

Cable Armour is a cover consisting of a metal tape wire generally used to protect the cable insulation
from external mechanical effects. May be of steel tape, steel wire armour or aluminium sheath. The
insulation type determines temperature of operation and operating voltage.

Mechanical protection is usually provided to power cables laid direct in the ground by providing two
layers of steel tape in such away that the upper layer covers the lower joint in the lower layer.

The wires used for internal wiring of buildings may be divided in to different groups according to the
type of conductor, the number of cores, the voltage grading, and the type of insulation and sheath used.

According to the type of conductor – copper or aluminum and solid or stranded.

According to the number of cores, cables may be divided in to classes known as

[Note: Core - is any portion of a cable over which some other cable component, such as a shield,
jacket, sheath or armor, is applied. ]
single core
twin core, and
twin core with ECC (Earth Continuity Conductor).

According to voltage grading (i.e. the voltage that the insulation can withstand) cables may be divided in
to (low-voltage or medium-voltage) classes:
250/440 volt cable and
650/1100 volt cable

According to type of insulation cables can be classified in to:

(Note: A cable usually derives its name from the type of insulation used to confine the wires. For
example PVC cable, multicore cable, tough-rubber sheath cable, steel armored cable, etc. )

Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) cables:

o are available in 250/440volt as well as 650/1100 volt grades and are used for general conduit
wiring.

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 Lead sheathed cables:
o available in 250/440 volt grade.
o are used for internal wiring where climatic condition has moisture.
o are vulcanized rubber insulated conductors covered with a continuous sheath of lead .The
sheath provides very good protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient
protection against mechanical injury and can be used with out casing or conduit system.
o are available as single core, flat twin core, flat three core and flat twin core with ECC.

PVC cables:
o are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades
o used in concealed type of wiring system.
o since PVC cables are harder than rubber, they do not require cotton taping and braiding over
it for mechanical and moisture protection.
Weather proof cables:
o are used for out-door wiring and for power supply
o are not affected by heat or sun or rain.
o are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber-insulated conductors being suitably
o taped (only in case of vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and then
o compounded with weather resisting material.
o are available in 250/440 and 650/1100 volt grades.

Tough rubber sheathed(TRS) or

Cab tire sheathed(CRT) cable
Flexible cables.

Colours of insulated conductors

Most wiring regulations require that all conductors have to be identified by some means to indicate their
function. Every single core cable and every core of a twin or multi core cable, or bare conductor, for use
as fixed wiring shall be identifiable at its termination and preferably throughout its length (see table
below).

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Color identification of cores of flexible cables and cords according to EBCS – 10 is as follows: Note:
See for EBCS-10 1995 page 72

2.3.2 Conduits, truncking and ducting

2.3.2.1 Conduits

The commonest method of installing cables is to draw them in to a conduit. Conduits are non-metallic or
metallic pipes through which installation wires and cables are drawn for mechanical as well as electrical
protection. Mostly, non-metallic conduits such as the PVC (soft or rigid) type are used for domestic and
other low and extra low voltage installations. Metallic conduit (rigid or flexible) is commonly used in
medium sized industrial installations with better mechanical protection in the industry environment than
PVC conduits.

Conduit is made in both light gauge and heavy gauge of which heavy gauge is much more frequently
used.

In general, conduits can be classified as PVC conduit, light gauge steel-plain (unscrewed) conduit,
heavy gauge steel-screwed conduit and flexible conduit

i. PVC conduit
PVC conduit is finding wide applications in internal wiring because it is light in weight, shock
proof, anti-termite, fire resistant, acid and alkaline resistant.
It can be used for surface, recessed (concealed) type of wiring.
Are available in 3 meter lengths

ii. Light gauge steel conduit

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 This type of conduit is used with special grip fittings.
It is available with an external diameter of 12mm, 16mm, 19m, 25mm, 31mm, 38mm, and 50mm.
In general, light gauge is the cheapest and quickest of conduit installations but should be used
where the location is dry and there is little likelihood of mechanical damage.

iii. Heavy gauge screwed steel conduit

Though it is very expensive, this type of conduit provides a permanent installation with a
maximum of protection for cables.
The joints into fittings are by means of screw threads which provide mechanical strength and good
electrical conduit:
Are available in approximately 3 meter lengths and are threaded at the two ends.

iv. Flexible steel conduit

This usually consists of light galvanized steel strip spirally wound, and to some extent, interlocked,
so as to form a tube.
It is made in size from 19mm to 50mm internal diameter and in two grades: viz., non water tight
and water tight
Available in lengths up to 250 meters. So no coupling is required and hence no threading.
Since the conduits are flexible and are easily bent, no elbow is required.
One of the most common uses of flexible conduit is for protecting the final connections to motors.
It has the additional advantage of reducing the transmission of vibration. However, the flexible
conduit is costlier than the rigid conduit.

Table : Conduit sizes and capacities (PVC )

Conducto Max. Size of conduit diameter ( ) in mm

r x- of cable 11 13.5 16 21 23 29 36 48
sectional [wire + Maximum no. of cables in conduits
area insulation
mm2 ] (mm)
1.0 2.9 4 6 9 15 17 26 44 --
1.5 3.2 3 5 7 12 14 22 33 --
2.5 3.9 2 4 5 9 10 15 23 40
4.0 5.0 -- 2 3 5 6 10 14 25
6.0 5.7 -- -- 2 4 5 7 11 20
10.0 7.4 -- -- -- 2 3 5 7 12
16.0 8.6 -- -- -- -- 2 3 6 9
25 10.8 -- -- -- -- -- 2 3 6
35 12.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- 3 5
50 14.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3
70 16.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3
95 19.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2

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Conduit accessories and fittings

Conduit couplers: Are used to join two lengths of conduits. They are threaded on both ends for this
purpose.

Bends, elbows and tees: These are generally called conduit fittings. Bends are usually used for change
in direction of conduit. This should never be sharp so that drawing of wires and cables in them will not
be difficult as well as breakage of the conduit at the bend does not occur. The minimum allowable radius
of curvature is 2.5 times the outside diameter of the conduit.

Solid elbows and tees should be used only at the end of the conduit run (e.g. close behind a light fitting
or accessory.).

Conduit boxes: These are boxes used in surface as well as recessed/concealed conduit wiring. They are
of different designs which serve the following purposes:

i. Junction boxes: are used for housing junction of wires and cables.

ii. Outlet boxes: are positioned at which conduits terminate and are used for providing connections
to light, socket, fan, and other points.

iii. Inspection boxes: are used for pulling of cables in to the conduits.

2.2.2.3 Trucking/raceways

Trunking is a fabricated metallic or plastic casing of cables, normally of rectangular cross-section, of

which one side is removable or hinged to allow cables to be laid therein. It is used in conditions where a
considerable number of cables are required in an installation, or where cables are too large for drawing
into conduits.

2.3.2.2 Under floor ducts

In large buildings, it is often an advantage to install a network of ducts in the solid concrete floors during
the construction of the building. The ducts may be subsequently used to accommodate the wiring of the
electrical system. The two most common types of ducting are the concrete ducting and the steel ducting.

Manholes in basement floors and wall guided blocked ducts are also used to run cables in multi-storey
buildings.

2.4. Installation accessories and fittings -Receptacles and controls

2.4.1. Switches

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 • Generally a switch is a device which is used to make and brake contacts in an electric circuit thereby
controlling the flow of power to a load.

• The switch conducting parts and screwed connecting terminals are made of good electrical
conductors while the contact points are usually of brass or bronze.

• The mechanical actuation is such that making and breaking are made fast enough to reduce arcing at
the contact points. The whole metals and contact mechanisms are housed in a mica, bakelite or other
insulator material of huge resistance, mechanical strength, heat resistance and of good finish,

Light switches
Are used to control lighting circuits. Most are rated at 5/6A, but ratings at 15A are also available
that may be used to control multiple light points connected together.
Are available for both surface and recessed mountings.
Switches are available in three basic types: single pole (SPST), two-way (SPDT) and four-way
(intermediate) each for control of a practical circuit arrangement.

Switch type British name Description Symbol IEC symbol

Single pole One way A simple ON-
single throw OFF switch
switch
(SPST)
Single pole Two way A simple
double throw changeover
switch switch
(SPDT)
Double pole Double pole Equivalent to
single throw two SPST
switch controlled by a
(DPST) single
mechanism
Double pole DPDT Equivalent to
double throw two SPDT
switch controlled by a
(DPDT) single
mechanism
Intermediate Four way
switch

• The terms pole and throw are used to describe switch contacts. A pole is a set of contacts that
belong to a single circuit. A throw is one of two or more positions that the switch can adapt.
Switches with larger number of poles and throws can be described by “S” and/or “D” with a
letter and or number. E.g three pole single throw (TPST)

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 To allow control of a number of different lighting circuits from one position, switches are
contained within the same unit: two-gang, six-gang, etc.
Single chord ceiling switch is suitable for installation in the bathroom, where by one pull of the
chord puts the switch ON and the following pull puts the switch off.

Switches for water-heaters are of the double pole type and rated to carry 20A. They are also
available at 32A and 45A rating, the latter being used to control cooker circuits.
Dimmer switches are used to allow control of the level of lighting from luminaries.
Time delay switches are used in long corridors to automatically switch off a light point after a
predetermined time (estimated for a person to walk past a depressed switch and the light point)
Splash-proof switches are found in situations where water is present, such as in shower/bath rooms
Push button switches are used for buzzer control.

High power switches used in the industry and commercial buildings

Industries are characterized by the existence of heavy duty machines involving electric motors that can
produce large in rush current (and hence voltage dips) during starting.

Industrial switches
o May be a hand (manual) operated, electromagnetically actuated or processes actuated (such as
pressure, gravity, temperature, etc)
o Generally involve large voltage and carry large current and may be single phase or three phase.
o Manually operated switches include disconnect switches (power isolating switch), star delta
converter switch, selector switch, push buttons (normally on or normally closed)
o Electromagnetically actuated switches consist of embedded relays and include contactors,
starters, FWD-STOP-REV control switches and are indirectly controlled usually with push
buttons.
o Processes actuated switches are used as integral automation part of an industrial machine/system.
Actuating processes include pressure, gravity, temperature, flow, etc. Accordingly we have limit
switches, pressure switches, temperature switches (thermostat), float switch, flow switch, reed
switch solenoid valves etc.

2.4.2 Lamp Holders

Lamp holders are designed for quick insertion, removal and replacement of lamps and yet they must
hold the lamp in firm and good electrical contact to prevent overheating.
May be fitted in a luminary.
There are three main types and sizes of (incandescent type) lamp holders:
o Bayonet-cap (BC),
o The medium Edison screw (E.S) and
o The Goliath screw (G.E.S).

For ordinary incandescent (tungsten filament lamps) up to 200W the lamp caps and lamp holders are
BC caps, up to 300W the caps are ES, and above 300W they are G.E.S.

16
 In any case where the lamp is to be installed, the appropriate size and type of holder must be fitted.
Lamp holders may be either the insulated type of bakelite or the brass type with porcelain interior.

2.4.3. Socket outlets and plugs

Socket outlets are portions of the wiring system in which mobile electrical appliances would get access
to electric power and have female terminals. On the other hand plugs are male terminals connected to
portable electrical appliances by a flexible cable to enable them connected to the fixed socket outlets.

A socket outlet may comprise of two/three contact tubing terminals for single phase ungrounded/
grounded or 3/4/5 tubes for three phase with the phases only/phases + neutral/phases + neutral +
earth(ground). The ground or earth part of a single phase socket outlet may be pin type rather than
tubing as in Schuko type socket outlets. Similarly a plug may have two/three contact pins for single
phase or 3/4/5 contact pins for three phase to fit in to each other.

In some standards such as DIN (Dutch Industry Norm) the socket outlet tubes and plug pins size and
dimensions are deliberately varied for different grade of operating voltages to protect appliances from
accidental damage.

Terminal tubings of socket outlets and pins of plugs may have standardized dimension, spacing and
contact surface areas to be able to carry electric current without heating. Mechanically they should grip
with sufficient force fit contacts. The materials used are brass or bronze (alloys) with good electrical
properties.

Both socket out lets and plugs are rated by the capacity of current they can carry. Thus, 10A, 16A, 25A,
etc are available.

2.4.4 Protective devices - fault (over current and/or short circuit) protecting devices

It is impossible for an electric current to flow through a wire without heating the wire however small the
temperature may be. There are many ways of protecting both the installation and electric appliance from
the risk of damage, overheating and fire which may occur under fault conditions – overload or short
circuit. Fire occurs when over current flows in a wire or a load and this current produces heat on the
wire and on the insulation enough to burn it.

Two common protective devices use fuse protection and automatic circuit breaking protection. Both a
fuse and a CB are connected in series with the live wire in ac circuits to be protected. In 3-phase 4 wire
systems, since only three lines are live, fuses and circuit breakers are inserted in all the three lines except
the neutral.

2.4.4.1 Fuses

A fuse consists of a fusing element with contacts, a fuse carrier, and base. The fuse element is merely a
short length of metal ribbon of wire made of an alloy with a low melting point (such as copper or tin-

17
lead) and of size that will carry any given current indefinitely, but which will melt very quickly when a
larger current above a predetermined value flows through it.

When this wire inside the fuse melts, the fuse is said to ‘blow’. The time for blowing out of a fuse
depends on the magnitude of excess current. i.e. the larger the fault current the more rapidly the fuse
blows. Fault currents may range from simply a large undesired current to the short circuit current which
is maximum.

Three terms are used in connection with fuses include:

Rated current (nominal current In ) of a fuse : this is the maximum current that a fuse will carry
indefinitely without undue heating/ deterioration of the fuse element.

Fusing current: this is the minimum current that will melt and blow the fuse. This current is usually
associated with time. That is any current above the nominal current theoretically blows the fuse in a time
period inversely proportional to the current magnitude.

Fusing Factor: this is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating and indicates the fusing
performance of the fuse.

Fusing factor = Fusing current/ Rated current

Breaking capacity of fuses/and circuit breakers

Breaking capacity refers to the maximum fault current the fuse/CB can disconnect from the fault without
any damage to associated circuit elements by heat and arcing during the breaking. Breaking capacity of
fuses Ib is given in amperes or kilo-Amperes.

If the maximum short circuit current is above the breaking capacity Ib of the fuse, the fuse may fail to
timely clear (disconnect) the fault resulting in damages to other circuit elements like cable. That is, when
a large electric current is interrupted, an arc may form and if the breaking capacity of a fuse or circuit
breaker is exceeded then it may not be able to extinguish this arc meaning that the current will continue,
possibly resulting in a fire or explosion.

Breaking capacities of fuses are indicated on the fuses and can be found on data sheets of the fuses or
data books.

There are three main types of fuses in common use: the re-wireable, the cartridge and high breaking
capacity (HBC) fuses; the latter is a development of the cartridge type.

a) Rewireable fuse: is semi-enclosed and the simple and the cheapest type. It consists of a porcelain
bridge and base. The bridge has two sets of contacts, which fit in to other contacts in the base. The fuse
element usually tinned copper wire is connected between the terminals of the bridge. An asbestos tube

18
or pad is usually fitted to reduce the effects of arcing when the fuse element melts. Only the fusible link
is destroyed when this fuse blows and so the fusible link must be replaced after blowing.
This fuse doesn’t does not discriminate normal motor starting current surge. Furthermore, as the fuse is
relatively easily made the elements deteriorate with service time and fuse holders and carrier can be
easily damaged during arcing in the event of heavy current.

This type of fuse is still widely used despite several disadvantages including:
o The fact that it is rewirable enables the wrong size of fuse element to be easily replaced by
inexperienced persons with wire of incorrect gauge or type.
o Undue deterioration of the fuse element due to oxidation.
o Lack of discrimination which means that normal starting surges (e.g. when motors, etc are
switched on) are “seen” by the fuse as an over load and will there fore break the circuit.
o Damage, particularly in conditions of severe short circuit. The fusing factor of a rewirable fuse is
about 2.

It has color coded for easy identification for a particular circuit.

b) Cartridge fuse - these are improvements of the rewireable fuses. The rating of the replaceable fuse
element is determined by the manufacturers. i.e. many fuse carriers are designed so that it is
impossible to insert a fuse element of incorrect rating. They are used when the current rating is
over 30A. The fusing factor is about 1.5.
Cartridge fuses have advantage of accuracy, minimum or none arcing, and have long lasting
fuse elements compared to the rewirable type.

c) High rapture/braking capacity (HRC or HBC) fuses –the rewireable and cartridge fuses are widely
used for protecting domestic installations and small industrial loads. HRC fuses are generally
sophisticated versions of the cartridge fuse and are widely used in industrial installations
especially in electric motor circuits. It is fast-acting and can discriminate between starting current
surge and overload current. It has a lug connection end for effective connection.

o The HBC fuse has its fusing characteristics carefully controlled by the manufacturer.
o As its name implies, can safely interrupt very large fault currents.
o They are widely used to protect large industrial loads and main feeder cables.
o The cartridge barrel is of high-grade ceramic which is able to withstand the shock conditions
when a heavy fault current is interrupted.
o Except for very low ratings, the fuse element is made from pure silver.
o The filler is powdered silica, carefully dried before use.

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 o An indicator is provided to show when the fuse has blown.
o The fusing factor of HBC fuse is for small loads up to 1.25, thus a 10 A HBC fuse will blow at
12.5A.
o HBC fuses are discriminating which means that they are able to distinguish between a starting
current taken by a motor which lasts for a matter of seconds and a high fault or overload
current (which lasts longer).
o Motors are normally protected against overloads by the starter trip; the fuses are required only to
give protections against short circuit currents and overloads outside the capacity of thermal
trip.
o The HBC fuse is more expensive than the rewirable or cartridge type.

From the above table it is seen that the sensitivity to abnormal operation increases downward, high
rupturing capacity fuses being the most sensitive and rewirable fuses being the least sensitive.

Prospective short circuit current (PSCC) [Wikipedia.com]

The prospective short circuit current (PSCC) is the highest electric current which can exist in a
particular electrical system under short circuit conditions. It is determined by the voltage and
impedance of the supply system. It is of the order of a few thousand amperes for a standard domestic
mains electrical installation, but may be as low as a few milliamperes in a SELV (Safety Extra Low
Voltage) system or as high as hundreds of thousands of amps in large industrial power systems.

Importance of PSCC

It is of particular interest when designing an electrical installation because fuses and circuit breakers
must be capable of safely breaking the current in the event of a short circuit. In domestic power
installations in all countries the short circuit current available on the electrical outlets needs to be taken
into account when designing electrical power wiring. The short circuit current should not be too high or
too low. The short circuit current should be of the order of around 200 A or higher for normal 10 A or
16 A outlet to guarantee that the normal wire protecting fuse or breaker will quickly disconnect the
supply in case of short circuit. Quick disconnecting is needed, because in live-ground short circuit the
grounding pin potential on the power outlet may rise compared to the local earth (concrete floor, water
pipe etc.) during short circuit to a dangerous voltage, which needs to be shut down quickly for safety. If
the short circuit current is lower than this figure, special precautions need to be taken to make sure that
the system is safe; those usually include using a residual current device (sometimes called a ground
fault interrupter) for extra protection.

The short circuit current available on the electrical outlets is often measured with a suitable instrument
when examining electrical installations to make sure that the short circuit current is within reasonable

20
limits. A high short circuit current on the outlet also shows that the resistance from the electrical panel
to the outlet is low, so there won't be unacceptably high voltage losses on the wires under normal load.

Fig: Prospective short circuit current and cable protection by fuse

Refer to the short circuit current curve during short circuit. The current increases from the rated current
to cut-off point at which the fuse blows, time t1. At this time the current continues to flow but falling in
the arc up to time t2. The R.M.S. value of the short circuit current is known as the prospective short
circuit current.

The energy passing to the circuit during t1 is known as pre-arcing let-through energy and is given by If
2
t1. Similarly, the total energy passing to the circuit until the fault is cleared at time t2 is known as total
let-through energy and is given by If 2t2.

Amount of fault heat energy cable can withstand up to of 5 sec duration is given by k2s2. Where s is the
cross sectional area of the cable conductor and k is function of conductor material.

Therefore, the total let-through must not exceed the fault heat energy the cable can withstand. i.e;

Note that the prospective short circuit current must not be greater than the breaking capacity of the fuse
Ib.
2.4.4.2 Circuit breakers

The circuit breaker is an electromechanical device for making (ON) and breaking (OFF) a circuit under
both normal and fault conditions (overload and short circuit). It is generally closed and opened
manually, but is automatically opened under fault conditions by an embedded over current relay on a
predetermined over-current with out injury to itself when properly applied within its rating. So a circuit
breaker is a combination device composed of a manual switch and an over current device. A circuit
breaker can be considered a switch that opens itself in case of overload.

21
Circuit breakers may be of thermal, electromagnetic or thermal-magnetic. A thermal circuit breaker
essentially consists of a carefully calibrated bimetallic strip. As current flows through the strip, heat is
developed and the strip bends. If enough current flows through the strip, it bends enough to release a
strip that opens contacts and hence interrupting circuits actuated by the contacts.
An electromagnetic circuit breaker is the most widely used and has a magnetic arrangement that opens
the breaker instantly in case of overload or short circuit. The over current relay inside the circuit breaker
is operated by the magnetic effect of the line current flowing in the circuit. This current flows through a
current coil consisting of a few turns of copper wire which is connected to the contacts of the circuit
breaker. When the current is sufficiently strong to open or detach the contact the circuit will be
disconnected from the supply and hence protecting it from damage.

Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a
fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism.

Some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within
the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from
the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to
trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.

Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the
contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers
are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit
breakers have replaceable contacts.

Arc interruption

When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished
in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit.
Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms.
Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:

• Lengthening of the arc

• Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
• Division into partial arcs
• Zero point quenching (Contacts open at the zero current time crossing of the AC waveform,
effectively breaking no load current at the time of opening. The zero crossing occurs at twice the
line frequency i.e. 100 times per second for 50Hz and 120 times per second for 60Hz AC)
• Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits

Low voltage miniature circuit breakers (MCB) use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will
have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout coils deflect
the arc into the arc chute.

In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through
the arc.
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Gas (usually sulfur hexafluorideSF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field,
and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc.

Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact
material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<2–3 mm). Vacuum circuit
breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts.

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly
swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is extinguished
between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon age and construction
of the device.

The followings are important parameters of circuit breakers:

• Carry full load current equal or less than its nominal current continuously
• Withstand normal and possible abnormal system voltage
• Make or break circuit it is protecting on:
i. no-load
ii. normal operating currents
iii. short circuit currents

A circuit breaker has the following advantages over any type of fuse
In the event of fault (overload or short circuit) all the poles are simultaneously disconnected from
the supply
Overload and time lags are capable of adjustment within limits
It generally activates faster in fault conditions than a fuse
The supply can be quickly and easily restored when the fault has been cleared either manually or
automatically.

The advantage of fuse over circuit breaker is that the circuit breaker has the possibility of going bad and
not working (allowing a short to move through the device), but fuses blow (cause a break) no matter
what is shorted. Fuses are also cheaper compared to circuit breakers.

Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal/rated current that are expected to carry, and the
maximum short-circuit current that they can safely interrupt.

23
 Fig. The current associated with protection
Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short-circuit current higher than the breaker'
s
interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to extinguish an arc and safely
interrupt a fault. In a worst-case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to
explode when reset.

Standard current ratings of CBs

IEC 60898-1 and European Standard EN 60898-1 define the rated current In of a circuit breaker for
low voltage distribution applications as the current that the breaker is designed to carry continuously (at
an ambient air temperature of 30 °C). The commonly-available preferred values for the rated current are
6 A, 10 A, 13 A, 16 A, 20 A, 25 A, 32 A, 40 A, 50 A, 63 A, 80 A and 100 A. The circuit breaker is
labeled with the rated current in amperes, but without the unit symbol "A". Instead, the ampere figure is
preceded by a letter "B", "C" or "D" that indicates the instantaneous tripping current, that is the
minimum value of current that causes the circuit-breaker to trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in
less than 100 ms), expressed in terms of In:

Type Instantaneous tripping current, It

B above 3 In up to and including 5 In (3 In < It 3 In )
C above 5 In up to and including 10 In (5 In < It 10 In )
D above 10 In up to and including 20 In (10 In < It 20 In )
above 8 In up to and including 12 In (8 In < It 12 In )
K
For the protection of loads that cause frequent short duration (approximately 400 ms to 2 s)
current peaks in normal operation.
Z above 2 In up to and including 3 In [(2 In < It 3 In )] for periods in the order of tens of seconds.

24
Type Instantaneous tripping current, It

For the protection of loads such as semiconductor devices or measuring circuits using current
transformers.

Circuit breakers are also rated in amperes, which is usually written on the circuit breaker.

Switches can carry as well as make and break the nominal current in a circuit. However, they usually
can not carry short circuit current. But circuit breakers must do all.

Like fuses, breakers are tested in open air to carry 110% of their rated loads indefinitely without
tripping.

Most breakers will carry:

• 150% of their rated load for perhaps a minute,
• 200% for about 20 sec. and
• 300% for about 5 sec,
long enough to carry the heavy current required to start most motors.

Standard ratings: both fuse and circuit breakers are available in standard amperage ratings of 6, 10, 16,
20, 25, 35, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 224, 250, 300, and large sizes.

Circuit breakers may be single phase or three phase. Their voltage ratings may be 220V, 380V, 600V
etc.

Types of circuit breakers

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household
appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially
depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.

Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as voltage
class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

i. Low voltage circuit breakers

Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)

o are the most used in final circuits of residential and commercial installations to protect them
from over current and short-circuits.
o Rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or
thermal-magnetic operation.

25
 o Their design is such that the breaking mechanism is supported and enclosed in a molded
insulation material. There is no provision for maintenance. It has capability of making or
breaking under different operating conditions.
Molded Case air-Circuit Breakers (MCCB)
o rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be
adjustable in larger ratings.
o are used in medium voltages and 10-1200A current rating while oil-circuit breakers and special
gas circuit breakers use oil and special gasses to quench the arc during the disconnection of
contact.

Example: The 10 ampere DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most
common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution boards
throughout Europe. The design includes the following components:

1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of
the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if
the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after
assembly.
7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider/extinguisher

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ii) Medium-voltage circuit breakers

o Are rated between 1 and 72 kV and may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups
for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation.
o Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now
themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV).
o Are operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. The
characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271.
o Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protective
relays, instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic over current sensors.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

• Vacuum circuit breaker—With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current
by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for
voltages up to about 35,000 V,[4] which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of
power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul
than do air circuit breakers.

• Air circuit breaker- Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable
including configurable trip thresholds and delays.

Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an
integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant,
where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.

May also be built with modern communication-capability (SCADA, TCP/IP or Profibus

communication protocols) which open up a whole new world of possibilities in terms of start-
up, parameterization, diagnostics, maintenance and operation. This allows many different ways
of reducing costs and improving productivity in industrial plants, buildings and infrastructure
projects by : fast and reliable configuration; timely information and response can prevent plant
downtimes; and effective diagnostics management

• SF6 circuit breakers - extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas.

Medium-voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or
wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are
often built with draw-out construction, allowing the breaker to be removed without disturbing the power
circuit connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its
enclosure.

iii) High-voltage circuit breakers

• Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers
(72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the IEC).

27
• High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current sensing protective relays
operated through current transformers.
• May be microprocessor controlled and/or with modern communication-capability
• In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and busses from
various types of overload or ground/earth fault.
• High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc: bulk oil,
minimum oil; air blast; vacuum; SF6

2.4.4.3. Specialized circuit breakers

Automatic circuit breakers may also serve to protect loads and circuits from the effect of over voltage,
over current, under voltage, under current, phase failure, phase reversal

Over voltage circuit breaker: Over voltages can produce high currents indirectly in loads and thus
burning/damaging appliances. Over voltages may not be sensed with over current circuit breakers. An
over voltage circuit breaker senses the occurrence of an over voltage greater than a predetermined
magnitude with a PT or CT and then disconnects the load from the supply. May have timing function
that is used to determine the duration of the event so that the breaker disconnects the load only if the
event is persistent.

Under voltage circuit breaker: Under voltage is not desired particularly for electric motors which
disables them from developing enough torque for starting as a result of which their windings overheat
and burn due to inability of developing a counter emf. The breaker senses the occurrence of an under
voltage less than a predetermined magnitude and then disconnects the load from the supply. May have
timing function that is used to determine the duration of the event so that the breaker disconnects the
load only if the event is persistent.

2.4.4.4. Other protective devices

Phase reversal and phase failure relays

• Sense phase reversals or phase failures in poly phase circuits and disconnect the loads.
• If two phase of the supply of a three phase induction motor are interchanged, the motor will
reverse its direction of rotation.
• In the operation of elevators, conveyers and in many industrial applications phase reversal may
result in serious damage to equipment and injury to people using the equipment.
• One type of phase reversal relay uses coils connected to two lines of the three phase supply line
• The currents in these coils together set up a rotating magnetic field that tends to turn a copper
disc clock wise.

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2.4.5. Distribution boards

o A distribution board is a facility for receiving and distributing single phase or three phase electric
power to as well as controlling and protecting final branch circuits.
o Accordingly, it is an assemblage of parts, including one or more fuses or circuit breakers arranged
for the distribution of electrical power to final circuits or to other sub- distribution boards.
o It consists of a case inside which a frame holding a number of fuse and/or circuit breaker are
mounted.
o Behind a frame or along side or above it, is a bus-bar to which the incoming mains lines are
connected with screw fastening.
o From the bus-bars connection are tapped off and provided to one side of each fuse way or circuit
breaker.
o Each final sub-circuit is then connected to the out going terminal of the fuse ways.
o The standard distribution boards usually have 4, 6, 8, 12, 18 or 24 fuse ways both single phase
and three phases are available. It is not necessary to utilize all the available fuse ways on a board,
and in fact it is very desirable to leave several spare ways on each board for future extension
o A distribution board may be a recessed type or a surface mounted type.

2.4.6 Transformer

A step down transformer (15kV/0.38kV) is required when the power requirement of a consumer is so
large that it affects and is affected by the neighborhood consumer load and power distribution system.
The transformer is thus used to both isolate the consumer from its neighbors as well as deliver it a more
reliable power. ECBS standard requires that a transformer be used for consumers with loads greater
than 50 kVA ? .
2.4.7. Power factor correction devices and FACT

2.4.8. AC power quality maintenance devices

These are devices used as an interface between the electrical wiring installation (particularly socket
power outlets) and sensitive electrical appliances.

29
They include the following:

Automatic stabilizer – used to regulate an incoming voltage between certain maximum and
minimum values safe for the loads connected to the stabilizer output. They are rated in watts or
kW and /or VA/kVA. Examples include 250VA, 500VA, 750VA, 1500VA etc. They are
commonly used for light duty appliances in offices and in house holds.

UPS – is a power backup system mainly used during the mains power interruption. It stores
electrical energy in storage batteries and has an inverter and filter which converts the dc battery
voltage in to a desired level pure ac waveform. Are rated in ampere hours and can deliver power
from 5 minute to hours depending on their size. Usually used in association to ICT facilities such
as PCs, etc.

Surge arrestors – short duration large rises of voltage are dangerous to most electrical appliances
and these events are protected with surge arrestors.

Harmonics filters – distorted wave forms far away from the pure sinusoidal waveform produces
harmonics which can overheat motors, etc. They may be protected by harmonic filters.

2.4.9 Emergency lighting systems

These are capacitor or storage battery backup systems with inverter and filter that are used to supply ac
power to selected lighting points/lamps in a building in power interruption emergencies so that people
can move/escape unobstructed. Usually located around a power house or MDB or SDB

2.5. Classifications of installations

Installations may be classified according to power type, voltage level, position, or mounting type.

Power supplies may be of DC type or AC type. AC power is commonly supplied from the power
utilities such as EEPCO. Alternative sources may include diesel generator, wind turbine or PV systems.

The most common type of ac supplies are of single phase and the three phases. The single phase may be
a two wire system (live and neutral) or a three wire system (live, neutral and earth). The three phases
may be a four wire system (three lives and one neutral) or a five wire system (three lives, one neutral
and one earth).

DC power supply may be obtained from ac converted to dc with a converter, from a dc generator, or
from a PV panel.

30
In dc supplies, two wire system and three wire systems are available. In the two wire system a positive
and a negative wires are involved while in the three wire system there is an additional common wire in
between the positive and negative polarities.

2.5.1. Supply voltage level classification

Voltage levels in consumer’s installations are classified as follows:

i. Extra low voltage - <= 65V between conductors and <= 40V between any conductor and earth
(usually used with PV systems [12, 24 or 48VDC] as well as with telephone systems)
Used for buzzers, toys etc
ii. Low voltage – the range between 65V and 250V between conductors or between conductors and
neutral (these are voltage levels supplied by the utility, in Eth 220V for 1ph is common)
iii. Medium voltage - the range between 250V and 650V between conductors or between conductors
and neutral (these are voltage levels supplied by the utility, in Eth 380V for 3ph is common)
iv. High voltage - the range between 650V and higher between conductors or between conductors
and neutral

2.5.2 Exterior and interior installations

Exterior installations are those which are implemented in the outdoor of a premise in the open air or on
mountings. They may be done with bare conductors (in the open air) or insulated overhead transmission
lines or with cables buried under ground and ducts.

In interior installations, the electrical materials and accessories are mounted on or within building
structures. The two types of interior installations known in practice are surface installation and recessed
installation.

Surface (mounted) installation: in this type of installation the wires or cables and accessories such as
switches, junction boxes, socket outlets, conduits and distribution boards are all externally
fixed/mounted to walls and ceilings. Surface installation is advantageous from maintenance point of
view. Factories, garages, workshops, and some times laboratories are best designed with surface
installation.

Recessed (mounted) installation(also called flush mounted) – here the installation is recessed,
meaning the wires, cables, conduits, etc are buried in the ceilings, walls, and even in the floor. In
general, residential areas, offices, hotels, and the like are installed with recessed installation mainly for
good appearance/aesthetics.

It should be clear that accessories suitable for recessed installation are different from that of surface
installations.

31