NAME 281

MARINE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

Credit Hours – 4.00

Contact Hours – 4.00
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

14-Dec-22 2
Synchronous Generators

• Synchronous generators are principally used as alternating

current (AC) generators. The AC power will be generated at a
specified frequency.

• Synchronous generators usually operate together (or in

parallel), forming a large power system supplying electrical
energy to the loads or consumers.

• It is also called dynamo or alternator.

 Components

1. Field magnet

2. Armature

3. Slip rings

4. Brushes

5. Prime mover
 Field magnet

■ It is a powerful electromagnet or permanent magnet.

■ It produce strong
magnetic field in the
region between its pole.
 Armature
■ It consists of a rectangular coil having a large number
of turns of insulated copper wire wound on a soft iron
cylindrical core.
■ It can be rotated in the magnetic field of the field
magnet about an axis perpendicular to field.
Slip rings
■ Two ends of armature coil are connected to two coaxial
brass ring called slip rings.
■ A slip rings are rigidly fixed to same shaft which
is used to rotate the coil.
■ As the armature coil rotate the slip rings also rotates
about the same axis of rotation
Brushes
■ Two graphite or flexible metallic rods called
brushes are lightly pressed against slip rings.
■ Through brushes the current induced in the
armature coil is fed to the external circuit by the
means of line wires.
 Prime mover
■ The prime mover is the component that
is used to drive the AC generator.
■ The prime mover may be any type of
rotating machine,such as diesel engine,
a steam turbine, or a motor.
 Principle
■ The working of an A.C. synchronous generator is
based on the principle of "electromagnetic
induction".
■ When a coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field
with its axis perpendicular to the magnetic field,
the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and
an induced emf and hence a current is set up in it.
DIRECION OF E.M.F
Fleming's right-hand rule gives which direction the current flows.

The right hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually
perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the diagram.

• The thumb is pointed in the direction

of the motion of the conductor relative
to the magnetic field.
• The first finger is pointed in the
direction of the magnetic field.
• Then the second finger represents the
direction of the induced e.m.f or
generated current within the
conductor
MAGNITUDE OF THE E.M.F
POLARITY OF THE E.M.F
 Types (Basing on Rotor Construction)
■ Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:
■ (i) Salient pole and (ii) (Non-Salient pole ) Cylindrical type
■ Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators.
■ Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators,
especially in turbo alternators.

14-Dec-22 15
Principle of Operation
Principle of Operation

The revolving-field type alternator

has a stationary armature and a
rotating magnetic field.

The generated voltage can be

connected directly to the load
without having to pass across the
slip rings and brushes.
The voltage applied to generate
the rotating field is a small DC
voltage (called a “field excitation”
voltage)
Principle of Operation
Its characteristic feature is that the
armature rotates through a
stationary magnetic field, and the
generated AC is brought to the load
by means of slip rings and
brushes.
The revolving-armature alternator
is found only in alternators of small
power rating and is not generally
used. This is because a rotating
armature requires slip rings and
brushes to conduct the generated
current from the armature to the
load.
Advantages of Stationary Armature (Rotating Field) Type
Synchronous Generator

1. The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals on

the stator (or armature windings) to the load circuit, without
having to pass it through brush contacts.
2. It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high a.c
voltages.
3. The sliding contacts that is slip rings are transferred to the low
voltage, low powered d.c field circuit which can, therefore, be
easily insulated.
4. The armature windings can be easily braced to prevent any
deformation, which could be produced by the mechanical
stresses set up as a result of short circuit current and the high
centrifugal forces brought into play

14-Dec-22 19
 Damper Winding
■ What is a damper winding?
– The damper winding is mostly used in synchronous
machine- in stator of synchronous generator and rotor of
synchronous motor.
– Damper winding is placed in the slots at the surface of
pole shoes in salient pole machines and in in non-salient
pole machine it is placed in the same slots with
magnetizing windings.

14-Dec-22 20
 WHY SYNCHRONOUS??
■ In a synchronous generator the field is stationary ( in the stator
windings) and the out put is taken from armature windings through
slip rings.
■ A synchronous generator has to run at a fixed speed to match the
grid frequency. It doesn't have the liberty to run at any speed.
■ The fixed speed at which a synchronous generator runs is
called synchronous speed and is given by the formula:
■ Synchronous speed in rpm= (120 × frequency)/(number of poles).
Or f = NP/120
■ All synchronous generators are ac generators but all ac generators
are not synchronous generators
Rotation speed of synchronous generator

By the definition, synchronous generators produce

electricity whose frequency is synchronized with
the mechanical rotational speed.

𝑁𝑃
𝑓=
120

Where
f is the electrical frequency, Hz;
N is mechanical speed of magnetic field (rotor
speed for synchronous machine), rpm;
P is the number of poles.
Losses of an Alternator
1. Iron loss/Core loss/Magnetic loss – This is due to the rotation of the
iron core of the armature in the magnetic flux of the field poles.
a. Hysteresis Loss (Wh) – This loss is due to the reversal of
magnetism of the armature core.
Wh= ƞBmaxfV watts
Bmax = Maximum flux density
f = Frequency = PN/120
ƞ = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
P = Number of poles
N = Armature speed in r.p.m
V = Volume of the armature core in m3

b. Eddy Current Loss (We) – Armature cure cuts magnetic flux

while rotating and e.m.f is induced in the body of the core
and this e.m.f produces current in the body of the core
2 f2t2V2 watts
We= K𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥
Bmax = Maximum flux density
f = Frequency = PN/120
t = Thickness of each lamination
P = Number of poles
N = Armature speed in r.p.m
K = Co-efficient of eddy current
Losses of an Alternator
2. Copper loss –.
a. Armature copper loss (variable loss) = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
b. Field copper loss (Constant loss)–
2
For shunt Generators = 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ
For series Generators = 2𝑅
𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑠𝑐
c. The loss due to brush contact resistance
3. Mechanical losses:
a. Friction loss in bearings and commutator
b. Air friction or winding loss of the armature

• Stray Losses = Magnetic loss + Mechanical loss

• Constant or standing loss, Wc
• Total loss
= Field Copper loss + stray loss
= Constant or standing loss, Wc + Variable loss
= Wc + Armature copper loss
= Wc + 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
= Wc + (I+Ish)2𝑅𝑎
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
GENERATOR
 PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

𝑉𝐹 = Rotor Voltage (DC)

𝐼𝐹 =Rotor Field current (DC)
𝑅𝐹 = Adjustable resistor controlling the field current and the rotor magnetic field.
𝐿𝐹 = Rotor Field Inductance
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅𝜔 =Internal generated voltage induced in the stator where K is a constant
representing the construction of the machine, ∅ is flux in it and 𝜔 is its rotation speed.
𝑋𝑆 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝐴 = The load current that produces the stator magnetic field.
𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝑗𝐼𝐴 𝑍𝑠 = Phase Voltage,
Here Synchronous Impedance, 𝑍𝑠 = 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 ----------------------------(Complex Form)
Z s= 𝑅𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑠2 -----------------------------(Polar form)
26
Polar form of 𝑍𝑠 = 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 , is given by Zs= r∠θ

Here,

𝑟= 𝑅𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑠2

𝑋
θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑅 𝑠
𝑎

θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 900

Zs= 𝑅𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑠2 ∠θ

 EXCITATION SYSTEM OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

• Definition: The system which is used for providing the necessary field
current to the rotor winding of the synchronous machine is called an
excitation system.

• Why excitation system is necessary: With large alternators in the power

system excitation plays a vital role in the management of voltage profile
and reactive power in the grid thus ensuring stability, reliability,
sensitivity and fast response, ability to meet abnormal condition,
monitoring the parameters, user friendliness.

Types of Excitation System

• The excitation system is mainly classified into three types. They are
• DC Excitation System
• AC Excitation System
• Rotor Excitation System
• Brushless Excitation System
• Static Excitation System
The Derivation of EMF Equation of a
synchronous generator

•P be the number of poles

•ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
•N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
•f be the frequency in Hertz
•Zph is the number of conductors connected in series
per phase
•Tph is the number of turns connected in series per
phase
•Kc is the coil span factor/pitch factor
•Kd is the distribution factor/breadth factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given
as Pϕ Weber.
Time taken to complete one revolution is given by 60/N sec
N is mechanical speed of magnetic field in rpm
Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced
per phase is given by the equation shown below.
Eph = Average value x form factor

Therefore,

If the coil span factor Kc and the distribution factor Kd

, are taken into consideration than the Actual EMF
induced per phase is given as

Equation (1) shown above is the EMF equation of the

Synchronous Generator.
 MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS
Terminologies
• Pole pitch
• Pitch factor
• Breadth factor
• Form factor
• Load angle
Pole Pitch
The pole pitch is defined as peripheral distance
between center of two adjacent poles in AC machine.
This distance is measured in term of armature slots or
armature conductor come between two adjacent pole
centers.
 PITCH FACTOR
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑐 =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑃 = 2 2 = 2 2
2𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠00 2𝐸
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝛼
⇒ 𝐾𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
 BREADTH FACTOR
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑑 =
𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑑 =
𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑓
(sin 𝑚 𝛽/2)
𝐾𝑑 =
( 𝑚 sin 𝛽/2)
1800
β = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
𝑛
𝑚 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

WINDING FACTOR
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑤 = 𝐾𝑃 × 𝐾𝑑
Form Factor
for any waveform the form factor is defined as:
𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
for a sine wave this gives
0.707
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
0.637

Load Angle

For a synchronous generator, the magnetic field rotates at

synchronous speed and the rotating magnetic field is created in
the stator. These two fields are not fully aligned. The stator field
lags the rotating field. This lagging expressed in angle is called
load angle.
A three phase 16 pole synchronous generator has a star
connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The
flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the speed is
375 r.p.m. Find the frequency in rpm and the phase and line
e.m.f. Assume full pitched coil.
Solution:
𝑃𝑁 375
𝑓= = 16 × = 50 𝐻𝑧
120 120
𝐾𝑐 = 1 (𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙)
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 144
𝑛 = 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = = =9
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 16
144
𝑚 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = =3
16 × 3
1800 1800
β = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 = = = 200
𝑛 9
20 0
(sin 𝑚 𝛽/2) (sin 3 × 2 )
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑑 = = = 0.96
( 𝑚 sin 𝛽/2) 200
( 3 sin 2 )
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 10
𝑍𝑃ℎ = = 144 × = 480
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3
𝑍𝑃ℎ 480
𝑇𝑃ℎ = = = 240
2 2
𝐸𝑃ℎ = 4.44 × 𝐾𝑐 × 𝐾𝑑 × 𝜑 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑃ℎ
= 4.44 × 1 × 0.96 × 0.03 × 50 × 240
𝐸𝑃ℎ = 4.44 × 1 × 0.96 × 0.03 × 50 × 240=1534.46V
𝐸𝐿 = 3 × 𝐸𝑃ℎ = 3 × 1534.46 = 2657.76
Find the no load phase and line voltage of a star connected 3
phase, 6 pole synchronous generator which runs at 1200 rpm,
having flux per pole of 0.10 Wb sinusoidally distributed. Its stator
has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns
and the coil is chorded by 1 slot.
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 54
𝑛 = 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 = = =9
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 6
54
𝑚 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = =3
6×3
1800 1800
β = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 = = = 200
𝑛 9
0
𝛼 20
𝐾𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0.98
2 2
200
(sin 𝑚 𝛽/2) (sin 3 × 2 )
𝐾𝑑 = = = 0.96
( 𝑚 sin 𝛽/2) 200
( 3 sin 2 )
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 8
𝑍𝑃ℎ = = 54 × = 144
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 3
𝑍𝑃ℎ 144
𝑇𝑃ℎ = = = 72
2 2
 𝑃𝑁 1200
𝑓= =6× = 60 𝐻𝑧
120 120

𝐸𝑃ℎ = 4.44 × 𝐾𝑐 × 𝐾𝑑 × 𝜑 × 𝑓 × 𝑇𝑃ℎ

= 4.44 × 0.98 × 0.96 × 0.10 × 60 × 72
𝐸𝑃ℎ =1804.52V
𝐸𝐿 = 3 × 𝐸𝑃ℎ = 3 × 1804.52V =3125.53V
 Voltage Regulation
Definition. The voltage regulation of an alternator/synchronous
generator is defined as “the rise in voltage, when full-load is
removed (field excitation and speed remaining same) divided
by the rated terminal voltage.

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
% Regulation = × 100
𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝐸 −𝑉
% Regulation = 0 × 100
𝑉

For unity and lagging power factors, there is always a voltage

drop with the increase of load, so the voltage regulation is
positive but For leading power factor, there is always a voltage
rise with the increase of load so the voltage regulation is
negative.
14-Dec-22 42
Determination of Voltage regulation

There are mainly two methods:

1. Direct load test method
2. Indirect load test method
a. Synchronous Impedance method/EMF method.
b. Ampere turn method/MMF method.
c. Zero power factor method/Potier method

For the application of the methods mentioned above

Followings are to be carried out.
1. Obtain the value of 𝑅𝑎 using DC resistance test.
2. Obtain the Open Circuit Characteristics curve using
OCC test or no load test
3. Obtain the Short Circuit Characteristics curve using
SCC test
14-Dec-22 44
The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of
armature reaction by an imaginary reactance.

For an alternator,

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 -----------------------------------(1)

Step - 1
DC resistance test

EL

• Consider the alternator is star-connected with the field winding open-circuited.

• Measure the DC resistance between each pair of terminals.
• The average of three sets of resistance values Ra is taken.
 Step - 2
Open-Circuit Test

EL

• The load terminals are kept open

• the field current is set to zero.
• The alternator is run at rated synchronous speed
• the field current is gradually increased in steps and the open-circuit terminal
voltage EL is measured in each step.
A graph is plotted between the open-circuit phase voltage Eph = EL/ 3 and the field current (𝐼𝑓). The obtained
characteristic curve is known as open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C) of the alternator

Eph
Short-Circuit Test Step - 3

Ra Ia

Ra Ia
Ra
Ia

• The load terminals are kept short

• The field current is set to zero.
• The alternator is run at rated synchronous speed. Then, the field current is
gradually increased in steps and the armature current is measured at each step.

The field current (𝐼𝑓) and the average of the three ammeter readings is taken at each
step. A graph is plotted between the armature current (𝐼a) and the field current (𝐼𝑓).
 Step - 4
The O.C.C. and the S.C.C. are drawn on the same curve sheet

determine the value of short-circuit current (𝐼𝑆𝐶) at the field current that gives the
rated voltage per phase of the alternator.
The synchronous impedance (𝑍𝑠) will then be equal to the ratio of the open-circuit
voltage to the short-circuit current at the field current which gives the rated voltage
per phase

open circuit voltage perphase

𝑍𝑠 = short circuit armature current-------------- (2)

AB (Volt)
𝑂𝑟 𝑍𝑠 = AC (Volt)------------------------------------ (3)

We also know
Z s= 𝑅𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑠2 ---------------------------------------(4)

Or X s= 𝑍𝑠2 − 𝑅𝑎2 ------------------------------------(5)

𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 -----------------------------------(1)

X s= 𝑍𝑠2 − 𝑅𝑎2 ---------------------------------------------(5)

(𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿 )
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿

(𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿 )

⇒ 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿

(𝐸𝐴 −0 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿 )
⇒ 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿

(𝐸𝐴 −𝑉𝐹𝐿 )
⇒ 𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method

The main advantages of this method is the value of synchronous

impedance Zs for any load condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of
the alternator at any load condition and load power factor can be
determined.
Actual load need not be connected to the alternator and hence method can
be used for very high capacity alternators.

The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large
values of synchronous reactance. This leads to high values of percentage
regulation than the actual results. Hence this method is called pessimistic
method.
 Factors Affecting Voltage Regulation
(𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿 )
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
1. For lagging (inductive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage decreases
significantly. A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power
factor (Inductive load) has a fairly large positive voltage regulation.
2. For leading (capacitive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage rises. A
synchronous generator operating at a leading power factor (capacitive
load) often has a negative voltage regulation.
3. For unity power factor (purely resistive) loads, the phase (and terminal)
voltage decreases slightly. A synchronous generator operating at a unity
power factor has a small positive voltage regulation.
4. The relationship between load current and the terminal voltage is called
load characteristics of an alternator.

14-Dec-22 51
VECTOR DIAGRAM UNDER DIFFERENT LOADS
Synchronous Impedance, Zs
The synchronous impedance is defined as the vector sum of
the armature resistance and synchronous reactance. It is
denoted as Z s
Here, Z s= 𝑅𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑠2

Here,
Ra is the armature resistance. It causes a voltage drop per
phase of IRa which is in phase with the armature current.

Xs is the synchronous reactance of an alternator or

synchronous generator. It is a combination of armature leakage
reactance (XL) and armature reaction reactance Xa.

That is, Xs=XL + Xa

 What is Power Factor
the ratio of the actual electrical power dissipated by an AC circuit to the product of the
r.m.s. values of current and voltage

Electrical power consumed in an AC circuit can be represented by the three sides of a

right angled triangle, known commonly as a power triangle

Impedance Triangle

The power factor is calculated as the ratio of the real power to the apparent power
and this ratio equals cos(Φ).
 Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

A phasor diagram of a
synchronous generator
with a unity power factor
(resistive load)

A phasor diagram of a
synchronous generator
with a Lagging power
factor (inductive load)

A phasor diagram of a
synchronous generator
with a Leading power
factor (capacitive load).
14-Dec-22 56
 Effect of Load in A Synchronous Generator
𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉∅ + 𝑗𝐼𝐴 𝑋𝑆
A increase in the load is an increase in the real or reactive power drawn from the
generator.
For the case of simplicity we will consider only 𝑋𝑆 keeping 𝑅𝐴 = 0.
For Inductive load
• Flux ∅, 𝑅𝐴 and 𝐸𝐴 are constant.
• Change in load will change the
magnitude of the armature
current 𝐼𝐴 .
• If Load is increased, 𝐼𝐴 is
increased.
• j𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 will increased and 𝑉∅ will be
decreased.

For lagging (inductive) loads, the

phase (and terminal) voltage
decreases significantly.
14-Dec-22 For lagging PF 57
 Effect of Load in A Synchronous Generator
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉∅ + 𝑗𝐼𝐴 𝑋𝑆

For Capacitive load

If Load is increased, 𝐼𝐴
is increased.
j𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 will increased and
𝑉∅ will be increased. 𝑗𝑋𝑠𝐼𝐴′
𝑗𝑋𝑠𝐼𝐴

For Leading PF

14-Dec-22 58
 Effect of Load in A Synchronous Generator
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉∅ + 𝑗𝐼𝐴 𝑋𝑆

If Load is increased, 𝐼𝐴
is increased.
j𝑋𝑆 𝐼𝐴 will increased and
𝑉∅ will be decreased
slightly

For unity PF

14-Dec-22 59
 How can the terminal voltage, 𝑉∅ be adjusted
𝑉∅ = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴 ⇒ 𝐸𝐴 =𝑉∅ +𝐼𝐴 𝑗𝑋𝑆 + 𝑅𝐴
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾∅𝜔
1. Decreasing the field resistance (𝑅𝑓 ↓) increases the field current (𝐼𝑓 ↑) in the generator.
2. An increase in the field current (𝐼𝑓 ↑) increases the flux (∅↑) in the machine.
3. An increased flux (∅↑) leads to the increase in the internal generated voltage(𝐸𝐴 ↑) .
4. An increase in the internal generated voltage (𝐸𝐴 ↑) increases the terminal voltage of the
generator (𝑉∅ ↑).
(𝑅𝑓 ↓) →(𝐼𝑓 ↑) →(∅↑) →(𝐸𝐴 ↑) → (𝑉∅ ↑).

14-Dec-22 60
LOAD SHARING AND PARALLEL OPERATION
OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Parallel operation of synchronous generators
Generator 2 (oncoming
generator) will be connected in
parallel when the switch S1 is
closed.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Generators:

1. The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
2. The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
3. The phase angles of two a phases must be equal.
4. The frequency of the oncoming generator must be slightly
higher than the frequency of the running system.

14-Dec-22 62
Advantages of parallel operation

• Failure of one unit does not affect the integrity of the power
supply, generators may be taken out of service for
preventative maintenance
• Many units can combine to provide a power demand, rather
than requiring fewer very large generators
• Generators can be located and operated to best meet the
generating conditions, instead of having to be located and
operated to meet the requirements of a local load.
• Generators operating at full load are more efficient than those
operating at low loads. It is more efficient to meet a changing
load by adding or removing smaller generators than having a
single large generator operating inefficiently.
 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PARALLELING ALTERNATORS

• Make the terminal voltages equal. This can be done by adjusting the terminal voltage
of incoming machine by changing the field current

• Make the Phase sequence same by a Synchroscope or three lamp method.

• verify the incoming and running system frequency. It should be nearly the same. This
can be done by inspecting the frequency of dimming and brightening of lamps.

• When the frequencies are nearly equal, the two voltages (incoming alternator and
running system) will alter the phase gradually. These changes can be observed and
the switch, S1 can be made closed when the phase angles are equal
 CHECKING THE PHASE SEQUENCE OF THE MACHINES

• Three light bulbs are connected to the terminals of the switch, S1. Bulbs become
bright if the phase difference is large.
• Bulbs become dim if the phase difference is small.
• The bulbs will show dim and bright all together if phase sequence is the same.
• The bulbs will get bright in progression if the phase sequence is opposite.
• This phase sequence can be made equal by swapping the connections on any
two phases on one of the generators.