Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 15 Lamps Luminaires and Controls)

C H A P T E R 15
Lamps, Luminaires,
and Controls
CHOOSING LIGHT SOURCES FOR BUILD- always paired with a luminaire. Luminaires are
INGS—WHETHER DAYLIGHT OR ELECTRIC almost always controlled. Thus, a chapter that
LIGHT (or, more likely, a combination of both)— addresses lamps, luminaires, and controls is a
involves both visual, energetic, and thermal heat good starting point for a discussion of electric
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
gain considerations. In 2017, about 10% of the lighting.
total electricity consumed in residential and This chapter begins with a brief historical
commercial buildings was for electric lighting. overview of evolving lamp technologies before
Energy consumption from electric sources has describing the characteristics of various electric
decreased as a percentage of total energy use light sources, including the limits and capabilities
over the last decade due to the development and of each source. Luminaire components, charac-
promotion of more energy-efficient light sources teristics, selection considerations, and ratings are
Copyright © 2019. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
like LED. The emergence of new laws and regula- then presented. The chapter concludes with a
tory standards at the federal and individual state discussion of lighting controls.
level have been instrumental in this transition.
While daylight is often the most energy-efficient,
abundant, and desirable form of lighting, it’s not
always possible to integrate sufficient daylight to ELECTRIC LAMPS
meet indoor illumination requirements.
In designing appropriate lighting systems
for buildings, understanding the characteris- 15.1 EVOLUTION OF ELECTRIC LAMPS
tics of light sources will allow a designer to use
them appropriately to provide visual and thermal Since their emergence over 150 years ago, electric
comfort while maintaining a minimal energy foot- light sources have been under constant devel-
print. For resource efficiency, a designer should opment, from the first arc and incandescent
first optimize daylighting, and then design the elec- lamps of the mid-1800s to Philips award-winning
tric lighting system to supplement and enhance screw-in LED replacement that offers 85% energy
illumination, visual comfort, and architectural savings over its 60W incandescent equivalent.
effect where desired. A lamp is the basic source Improvements in electrical distribution have been
in an electric lighting system. Lamps are almost a driving force in the development of many active
699
Grondzik, Walter T., and Alison G. Kwok. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/snulibrary-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5896255.
Created from snulibrary-ebooks on 2023-09-04 10:20:40.
700 CHAPTER 15 LAMPS, LUMINAIRES, AND CONTROLS
environmental systems described in this book, of 2005 (originally adopted in 1992) and the
but electric light sources—in tandem with air Energy Independence and Security Act passed in
conditioning—have had a profound impact on 2007 threatened to decommission the manufac-
modern and contemporary architecture. turing of many incandescent sources and promote
The late nineteenth century saw a plethora the development of energy-efficient alternatives.
of new electric lamp technologies, but the cost of The “L Prize” was announced by the U.S. Depart-
operating these technologies and their associated ment of Energy in 2008 and was intended to drive
electrical supply plants kept them out of reach competition to produce high-efficiency solid-state
for all but the wealthiest consumers. It wasn’t lamps. In 2011, Phillips won the first “L prize,”
until growing commercial competition in the early demonstrating that LED lamps could meet ambi-
twentieth century resulted in the advancement of tious targets for efficiency, color rendering, and
alternating current “AC” electricity, allowing for lamp longevity. While LED lamps have existed
long-distance electrical transmission and the birth since the 1960s, this leap from novelty application
of our contemporary electrical grid. This growth to mainstream residential and commercial market
in electrical supply allowed the lighting market viability provided the necessary market boost.
to expand into commercial, main-stream resi- Since 2008, LED lamps have fallen in price more
dential, and industrial applications. With it came than 85% and today’s lamps are 6–7 times more
advances in the efficiency of sources, including the efficient than conventional incandescent sources.
stability and longevity of filaments, glass coatings, The next several sections introduce the
and gases. The introduction of linear fluorescent most commonly used electric light sources, from
lamps, originally developed in Europe, drove the legacy technologies like incandescent and gaseous
expansion of commercial U.S. applications to allow discharge to solid-state lamps, which have rapidly
for deeper building floor plates and longer periods transformed the market in recent years. Many
of indoor occupation. Parallel advances in indoor of the most energy-efficient LED sources were
climate control allowed fluorescent sources to designed to replace legacy lamps and use the bases
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
replace perimeter daylight design strategies. By and bulb shapes of their predecessors. To contex-
the middle of the twentieth century, commercial tualize these solid-state technologies, this section
and industrial buildings relied almost exclu- will begin with an overview of legacy technolo-
sively on electric light sources to meet general gies. While many incandescent and gaseous
illumination requirements. discharge sources are no longer recommended due
Linear fluorescent lamps provided a market- to energy considerations, they are still commonly
viable lamp for wide-spread commercial use, but found in existing buildings and provide important
it wasn’t until the 1973 oil crisis, that energy technological context for today’s more efficient
efficient lamps came into high demand within light sources.
residential markets. At this time, researchers at
General Electric and Sylvania developed a compact
fluorescent lamp composed of a bent fluorescent
tube and small hidden ballast. The compact fluo-
INCANDESCENT LAMPS
rescent lamp (CFL) was brought to market in
the 1980s and while initially expensive, offered
15.2 THE INCANDESCENT FILAMENT
significantly longer lamp life and higher efficiency.
LAMP
Over the next decade, this technology continued
to improve, offering efficient light at a fraction of
(a) Construction
the energy as incandescent sources.
The next disruptive wave to hit the electric The standard incandescent lamp has existed in
lighting industry occurred in the early 2000s some form or another since the mid-nineteenth
when energy-related legislation put increased century and was the first electric source to sustain
pressure on manufacturers to meet more stringent emittance for long enough to be considered
efficiency targets. The updated Energy Policy Act market-viable. Today’s incandescent lamp consists
THE INCANDESCENT FILAMENT LAMP 701
of a tungsten filament inside a gas-filled, sealed common in sports-lighting installations because

glass envelope. Current passing through the of the high installation cost of tower-mounted
high-resistance filament heats it to incandescence, floodlights, making it mandatory to extract the
producing light. Gradual evaporation of the maximum light from each unit.
filament causes the bulb to blacken and the fila-
ment to eventually rupture, leading to lamp failure. (c) Other Characteristics
Incandescent lamps are available in many bulb
1. Lumen maintenance. Light output decreases
and base types, with specific designs to fit a range
slowly with lamp life as an incandescent bulb
of luminaire applications (Fig. 15.1). To diffuse
blackens. Lamp position (vertical or hori-
the light output, most bulbs are coated on the
zontal) during operation and the resulting bulb
inside with either white silica or neodymium,
temperatures affect this characteristic.
providing light diffusion with a slight reduction
2. Color. Incandescent light has a large yellow
to light output. While white silica produces a
to red component and is therefore highly flat-
color temperature in the standard incandescent
tering to the skin. The spectral content of the
range, neodymium filters out more yellow light
light produced by a heated source depends
and produces a color spectrum slightly more in
upon its temperature: High wattage lamps are
the daylight range. More extreme colored light bluer, low wattage lamps are yellower. Dimmed
is available from either coated bulbs or bulbs of lamps give yellow–red light.
colored glass. 3. Surroundings. Generally, incandescent lamps
The incandescent lamp base is the connec- are impervious to surrounding heat, cold, or
tion between the socket and the source of electric humidity. Starting is unaffected by ambient
current. Most lamps are made with screw bases of conditions. Some bulbs, however, can be
various sizes, the most common being the medium affected by wet conditions.
screw base. General service lamps of 300W and 4. Luminous efficacy. Incandescent lamps produce
larger use a mogul screw base. When lamps are
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
light as a by-product of heat, where most of their
MENTAL SYSTEMS
placed in precise reflectors or in lens systems where output is in the infrared range of the electro-
exact positioning of the filament is important, a magnetic spectrum. As a result, they are inher-
special base is used. A range of the most common ently inefficient, but luminous efficacy can be
bases are illustrated in Fig. 15.1. slightly improved with increased wattage.
(b) Operating Characteristics (d) Summary

The life, output, and efficiency of an incandescent The principal advantages of incandescent lamps
lamp are critically dependent on the voltage being are low upfront cost; instant start and restart;
supplied and can be impacted by even a small simple and inexpensive dimming; lamp life inde-
change in operating voltage. For example, oper- pendent of the number of starts; and skin-flattering
ating a 120-V lamp at 125 V or 115 V (Table 15.1) color rendering. From a human factor perspective,
affects lumen output and lamp life. Because lumi- the full-spectrum quality of incandescent light,
nous efficacy (the number of lumens emitted for with higher amounts of light in the red wave-
each watt of electricity used) is decreased by this lengths, renders skin tones better than fluorescent
procedure, a detailed life-cycle cost analysis (as per sources, although advances in solid-state lamp
the principles described in Appendix J) should be technologies now offer a more energy-efficient
made. Conversely, where lamps are replaced before alternative with many of these same benefits.
burnout, using a group replacement system, and The principal disadvantages are low efficacy
initial installation cost per lux and/or energy costs (see Table 10.1), short lamp life, and critical
are high, lamps may be operated overvoltage, voltage sensitivity. Low efficacy means more
thereby increasing their output and efficacy but fixtures and larger heat gain than with more
shortening their life. Before the emergence of energy-efficient alternative sources such as fluo-
cost-effective LED sources, this procedure was rescent and LED. Short lamp life results in high
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 15.1 (a) Common incandescent lamp bulb and (b) base types with associated nomenclature. Bulb nomenclature indicates type
and size. The letter is an abbreviation of the shape, and the number is the diameter in eighths of an inch. An A-19 is a standard shaped
bulb 19 /8 inch in diameter. A PAR-38 is a parabolic reflector lamp 38 /8 inch in diameter. (Drawing by Samantha Ruddy, © University of
Oregon, Baker Lighting Lab.)
SPECIAL INCANDESCENT LAMPS 703
Fig. 15.1 (continued)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
TABLE 15.1 Comparison of Operating 15.3 SPECIAL INCANDESCENT LAMPS
Characteristics
In addition to the tungsten-halogen lamp, which
120-V lamp at 120-V lamp at
Operation of Lamps 125 V (104.2%) 115 V (95.8%) is discussed separately, numerous special types
Amount of light 16% more 15% less of incandescent lamps are still available despite
(lumens) recent advances in solid-state technology. Some
Power consumption 7% more 7% less

(watts) of the more well-known types are covered briefly
Efficacy (lumens per 8% higher 8% lower below.
watt) Rough service and vibration lamps are built to
Life (hours) 42% less 72% more
withstand rough handling and continuous vibra-
tion, respectively. Both conditions are extremely
hard on general service lamp filaments. Neither of
lamp-replacement labor costs. Because of its poor
these types is intended for general use, as both have
energy characteristics, incandescent lamp use
lower luminous efficacy than a general-service
should be limited to the following applications:
incandescent and neither can outperform a
• Where use is infrequent LED lamp.
• Where there is frequent short-duration use Extended service lamps are designed for
• Where minimum initial cost is essential 2500-hour life. They were historically used in
• Where good color rendering and warm color locations where maintenance is irregular and/or
temperatures are desired and use is infrequent relamping is difficult. Such lamps are specifically
designed for slightly higher voltage than that
Specific lamp data for use during design devel- which is applied, and therefore efficacy is reduced.
opment should be obtained from current manufac- So-called long-life lamps, which are guaranteed to
turers’ literature. burn for 2, 3, or 5 years, are actually just lamps
designed for higher voltages than those listed. 1987, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (and its 2005
As they normally sell at a high cost and are very update), and the comprehensive energy legislation
inefficient, their use is seldom advisable. passed by the U.S. House of Representatives and
U.S. Senate in 2003 and again in 2007 (through
the Energy Independence and Security Act) have
(a) Reflector Lamps
created requirements to conserve lighting energy.
These are made in “R,” “BR,” “ER,” and “PAR” The American Council for an Energy Efficient
shapes (see Fig. 15.1). They contain a reflective Economy (ACEEE), the U.S. Department of Energy
coating on the inside of the glass envelope that (DOE), and the Environmental Protection Agency
gives the entire lamp accurate light-beam control. (EPA) have developed and support lighting energy
Many reflector lamp types are available in narrow efficiency programs, new research, and initiatives.
or wide beam design, commonly called spot and For example, the ENERGY STAR® program
flood, respectively. R lamps are generally made in (http://www.energystar.gov/), established by the
soft glass envelopes for indoor use, whereas PAR EPA in 1992 to improve and provide energy-
lamps are hard glass, suitable for exterior applica- efficient products (appliances, lighting, heating
tion. When using R and PAR lamps, the fixture acts and cooling equipment) and practices, is aimed at
principally as a lamp holder since beam control is reducing emissions from power plants, avoiding
built into the lamp. These lamps have an improved the need for new power plants, and reducing
reflector design that increases their efficacy. energy bills. In 2008, ENERGY STAR established
A number of incandescent reflector lamps new rules for labeling light sources that meet a
are essentially obsolete in the U.S. because of prescribed set of standards for life expectancy,
ongoing rounds of energy legislation. Lumi- efficiency, color, and performance consistency.
nous efficacy limits as shown in Table 15.2 ENERGY STAR–certified light bulbs last 15 times
are in place. All major manufacturers produce longer, use 70–90% less energy, and produce
incandescent reflector lamps that meet current 70–90% less heat than traditional incandescent
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
legislative requirements; among these are elliptical bulbs. The ENERGY STAR light bulb savings
reflector (ER) and bulge reflector (BR) lamps that calculator allows consumers to compare ENERGY
use a more efficient reflector design. Even the STAR–rated products to calculate their annual
most energy-efficient reflector lamps can now be and life-cycle energy savings.
replaced by an LED option that produces an equiv- All major manufacturers now produce a
alent intensity, color rendering index (CRI), and line of “energy-saving” incandescent lamps.
correlated color temperature (CCT) with a signif- Energy-efficient lamps are frequently known by
icantly longer lamp life and higher lumens/watt trademarked names. They are rated at a lower
rating. wattage than that of the standard lamps they are
intended to replace and are generally more effi-
cient. Any additional first cost should be analyzed
(b) Energy-Saving Lamps by a life-cycle cost analysis and the payback period
Major national energy legislation including the calculated. The designer will find that low-wattage
National Appliance Energy Conservation Act of incandescent lamps are primarily useful for accent
lighting in retrofit work as solid-state sources have
become far more energy efficient and should be
TABLE 15.2 Minimum Required Efficacy of R considered before any legacy lamp technologies.
and PAR Lamps (per 2017 Energy Star)
Nominal Lamp Minimum Efficacy
Wattage (W) (lm/W) 15.4 TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN
40–50 10.5 (QUARTZ-IODINE) LAMPS
51–66 11.0
67–85 12.5
86–115 14.0 This lamp type, illustrated in Fig. 15.2, is concep-
116–155 14.5 tually similar to the standard incandescent lamp
156–205 15.0
in that it produces light by heating a filament.
TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN (QUARTZ-IODINE) LAMPS 705
CC-8 Tungsten Quartz tube Typical performance

filament 00
light output (%)

75
Performance of Performance of
50 conventional halogen lamp
incandescent
Filled with 99.8% argon, Base lamp
25
0.2% nitrogen, and trace of iodine vapor
Double-ended tungsten–halogen 0
lamp 120 V, 50-1500 W 500 1000 1500 2000
Life (h)
(a)
Fig. 15.3 The self-regenerative halogen cycle slows the
evaporation of the tungsten filament, and consequently lowers
light loss depreciation and lengthens the lamp life compared to a
standard incandescent lamp.
(b) axial filament (c) transverse filament smaller bulb for a given wattage (see Fig. 15.2).
Single-ended pin terminal lamps; 12 V, 120 V, 20-65 W The last characteristic is due to the high tempera-
ture required by the halogen cycle, which in turn
Filled with 99.8% argon,
requires a compact, high-temperature filament.
0.2% nitrogen, and trace As a result, the lamp is effectively a point source,
of iodine making it ideal for use in precision reflectors.
Filament Indeed, it is in this area that most of the devel-
opments in tungsten-halogen lamp technology
have occurred.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Quartz tube Due to the lamp’s high filament temperature,
the bulb envelope is generally made of quartz
or a special high-temperature glass, which can
Mini-can screw-base
“T” bulb
withstand high temperatures better than glass;
this, in turn, gave rise to an alternative name,
(d) axial filament (e) transverse filament quartz-iodine, that is sometimes applied to this
lamp type. Another result of high filament temper-
Single-ended screw-base lamps; 12 V, 120 V, 50-500 W

ature is that the gas pressure inside the quartz
Fig. 15.2 Common tungsten-halogen lamps are available in a envelope is elevated and these lamps have been
variety of designs.
known to rupture suddenly, spraying hot quartz
fragments. As a consequence, manufacturers
provide a cautionary notice with their lamps that
It differs in that a small amount of halogen gas includes directions to handle carefully, guard
(iodine or bromine) is added to the inert gas against abrasion and overvoltage operation, and
mixture that fills a small capsule, constructed of not tamper with any shield or screen protecting
quartz glass, surrounding the filament within the the lamp. The shield can be a reflector cover, a
bulb of the lamp. This results in retardation of fixture lens, a screen, or other device that will
filament evaporation, which is the usual cause of contain hot flying fragments in the event that
incandescent lamp failure, and thereby extends a lamp shatters or high temperatures cause a
lamp life (Fig. 15.3). fire hazard.
Although the tungsten-halogen lamp has A number of standards organizations and
only slightly higher luminous efficacy than an professional societies have adopted and published
equivalent standard incandescent lamp, it has cautionary notices, including The Lighting Hand-
the advantages of longer life, lower lamp lumen book (IES), ANSI Standard c15.1451–2002,
depreciation (98% output at 90% life), and a the Canadian Standards Association, and the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Because the lamp must be used with some sort
Exceptions to these precautions exist when a of reflector, it is manufactured with different
lamp is protected by encapsulation inside a sealed terminations to suit the fixture reflector or
envelope. Such encapsulated construction is now secondary lamp envelope in which it is placed.
common in R, PAR, MR, and modified A-lamp All the tungsten-halogen lamp types shown in
shapes. These encapsulated lamps are intended Fig. 15.4 can be used where lamp-only replace-
for direct replacement of standard incandescent ment is intended, such as in floodlights or reflector
lamps of the same bulb shape. fixtures, by using appropriate bases, slide contacts
Other halogen lamp characteristics are similar for double-ended lamps, screw bases for screw-base
in all respects to those of the standard incandes- lamps, and special ceramic pinhole bases for
cent lamp. Color temperature ranges between pin-type lamps.
2000 K and 3400 K; spectral energy distribution
is typical of blackbody radiation, and dimming
(a) Encapsulated Lamps
characteristics are similar to those of standard
incandescent lamps. These lamps (Figs. 15.4 and 15.5) are sealed
The basic tungsten-halogen lamp is a small units intended for direct replacement of either a
gas-filled quartz tube, as shown in Fig. 15.4. corresponding incandescent lamp—in the case of
Sealed
outer lamp Inert gas
Quartz tube
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Inner halogen
lamp Iodine vapor
R
PAR
Screw base
12,120 V, 40-150 W also used. 120 V, 50, 75 W
Spots: 9-15° beam spread Narrow spot
Floods: 30-55° beam spread Narrow flood
(a) Lamps with reflectors
Tungsten–
halogen
capsule
120 Volts
Thick glass
75-150 W
bulb wall
resists breakage
Brass base
resists corrosion
T-10 bulb BT-15 bulb 120 V, 40-75 W, 3500-hr life

(b) General-service encapsulated lamps
Fig. 15.4 Tungsten-halogen lamps can be mounted in a variety of ways inside an enclosing glass envelope. (a) Lamp is used
either horizontally or vertically to the reflector or (b) used without a reflector in a protective glass envelope and an Edison medium
screw base.
TUNGSTEN-HALOGEN (QUARTZ-IODINE) LAMPS 707
Light Distribution – Candlepower Distribution
10° 46PAR16/H 27° 45PAR16/H

Narrow Spot MBCP=5000 Narrow Flood MBCP=1400
FC=813 FC=88
4 ft. ϕ=8.4″ 4 ft. ϕ=24.5″
FC=139 FC=39
6 ft. ϕ=12.7″ 6 ft. ϕ=36.7″
FC=78 FC=22
8 ft. ϕ=16.9″ 8 ft. ϕ=49.0″
FC=50 FC=14
10 ft. ϕ=21.1″ 10 ft. ϕ=61.2″
FC=35 FC=10
12 ft. ϕ=25.3″ 12 ft. ϕ=73.4″
(a) (b)
9°
40° 60PAR30S/H Narrow 50PAR30L/H 75PAR30L/H
Flood MBCP=1,850 Spot MBCP=9,900 MBCP=15,500
Fig. 15.5 PAR halogen lamps with standard medium screw FC = 116 FC = 619 FC = 969
bases in sizes PAR 16, 20, 30, and 38 with a short or elongated ϕ = 33″ ϕ = 7.5″ ϕ = 7.5″
4 Ft. 4 Ft.
lamp neck. Lamp wattages range from 45 to 90 W. (Courtesy of FC = 51 FC = 275 FC = 431
ϕ = 52″ ϕ = 11″ ϕ = 11″
Philips Lighting Co.) 4 Ft. 4 Ft.
FC = 29 FC = 155 FC = 242
ϕ = 70″ ϕ = 15″ ϕ = 15″
8 Ft. 8 Ft.
FC = 19 FC = 99 FC = 155
ϕ = 87″ ϕ = 19″ ϕ = 19″
10 Ft. 10 Ft.
FC = 13 FC = 69 FC = 108
ϕ = 105″ ϕ = 23″ ϕ = 23″
reflector units—or general-service incandescent 12 Ft. 12 Ft.
lamps for reflectorless units. As a sealed unit, the (c) (d)

halogen lamp is not replaceable, and the entire unit
is discarded on burnout. Reflector units are avail-
able in a wide variety of beam patterns detailed in 28° 90PAR38/H 60°
90PAR38/H
1300 MBCP
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
Flood 4500 MBCP
MENTAL SYSTEMS
manufacturers’ catalogs. Typical distribution data W.Flood
FC=125 FC=36
are given in Fig. 15.6. ϕ=36 In. ϕ=83 In.
6 Ft. 6 Ft.
Reflector lamps are also available with a FC=70 FC=20
ϕ=111 In.
ϕ=48 In.
variety of filters: so-called “cool” lamps that direct 8 Ft. 8 Ft.
FC=45 FC=13
ϕ=139 In.
much of the radiant heat out through the back ϕ=60 In.
10 Ft.
10 Ft.
of the lamp; high-efficiency units that reflect and FC=31
ϕ=72 In.
FC=9
ϕ=166 In.
12 Ft.
concentrate radiant heat back onto the lamp 12 Ft.
FC=7
FC=23
ϕ=194 In.
ϕ=84 In.
filament; lamps with ultraviolet (UV) filters for 14 Ft. 14 Ft.
use in displays of UV-sensitive objects; and others. FC=18

ϕ=96 In. 16 Ft.
FC=5
ϕ=222 In.
16 Ft.
For complete design information, see current (e) (f )
manufacturers’ catalogs.
MBCP = maximum beam candlepower

ϕ = diameter of beam spread in inches
(b) MR-16 Precision Reflector Units FC = footcandle measured at 0°
Miniature single-ended 12-V lamps of 2-in.

(50-mm) diameter (and smaller), with multi- 70° 45° 0°
faceted dichroic (heat-ejecting) reflectors and a

bi-pin base, found wide acceptance in all types of (g)
display and accent lighting applications before the
Fig. 15.6 Typical PAR halogen lamp data. The beam of the PAR
advent of a viable LED alternative. They essentially
lamp is conical in shape. Each type of PAR lamp has a distinct
constitute an entire lighting fixture, like R and PAR illumination pattern (a–f) that varies in size and light intensity,
lamps, requiring only a base for electrification. The depending on the angle at which the lamp is aimed and its
distance from the area illuminated. (g) The round lighting pattern
lamps are known by the generic name MR-16,
changes to oval or elliptical when the lamp is aimed at an angle,
after an early 2-in. (50-mm) diameter model, making illuminance calculations much more complex. (Data in
although each major manufacturer utilizes its (a)–(f) courtesy of Philips Lighting Co.)
FOOT CANDLE CONES
TRU-AIM TITAN™
Distance 10° NSP
from
Diameter Center
Source
(in ft.) FC
(in ft.)
0′ 20W 35W 50W 65W
0.5 556 922 1278 1556
3′
1.0 139 231 319 389
6′
9′ 1.6 62 102 142 173
2.1 35 58 80 97
12′
2.6 22 37 51 62
15′
Distance 25° NFL
from Diameter Center
Source (in ft.) FC
(in ft.)
50W 65W
0′
1.3 356 444
3′
2.7 89 111
6′
4.0 40 49
9′
5.3 22 28
12′
6.7 14 18
15′
Distance 40° FL
from Center
Diameter
Source FC
(in ft.)
(in ft.)
20W 35W 50W 65W
0′
2.2 78 139 222 233
3′
4.4 19 35 56 58
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
6′
6.6 9 15 25 26
9′
8.7 5 9 14 15
12′
10.9 3 6 9 9
15′
Distance 60° VWFL

from Diameter Center
Source (in ft.) FC
(in ft.) 20W 35W 50W 65W
0′
3.5 39 72 111 117
3′
6.9 10 18 28 29
6′
10.4 4 8 12 13
9′
13.9 2 5 7 7
12′
17.3 2 3 4 5
15′
(b)
Fig. 15.7 Typical illumination cones for a MR-16 lamp. Abbreviations: NSP, narrow spot; NFL, narrow flood; FL, flood; VWFL, very wide
flood. (Courtesy of Osram-Sylvania Products, Inc.)
own trade name. A multi-mirror-faceted dichroic adequate means to dissipate this heat to avoid
reflector produces a “cool” precision light beam early lamp failure or creation of a fire hazard.
by ejecting approximately two-thirds of the The lamps are rated from 20 to 75 W. Beam
lamp heat (long-wave radiation) through the characteristics of a few MR-16 lamps are given
back of the reflector. Luminaires must provide in Fig. 15.7.
BALLASTS 709
changes from 60 Hz to 20,000 Hz, or higher,

Magnetic Ballast
depending on the ballast, and this generally func-
tions more efficiently. The frequency change also
greatly reduces flicker in the lamp due to improper
60 Hz 60 Hz line power.
The ballasts discussed in this section primarily
apply to fluorescent lamps. Refer to manufac-
Electronic Ballast turers’ information for details regarding HID
ballasts. Correct matching of ballast to lamp is
critical to successful lamp operation.
60 Hz 20,000-60,000 Hz A ballast has several primary functions:
Fig. 15.8 Ballasts for fluorescent lamps have traditionally been of • Supplies the voltage to break down the gas
the electromagnetic type, operating at a frequency of 60 Hz.
between the electrodes of arc lamps and initiate
Electronic ballasts operate at frequencies of 20,000–60,000 Hz
and cause lighting systems to convert electric power to light starting
more efficiently than systems run by electromagnetic ballasts. • Supplies the voltage and current to heat the
(Drawing by Jonathan Meendering; © Alison Kwok; all rights
electrodes to allow a low-voltage, high-current
reserved.)
arc mode to develop (referred to as glow-to-arc
transition)
• Supplies enough current to heat and evaporate
GASEOUS DISCHARGE LAMPS the light emitting components after an arc has
been established; provides enough sustaining
voltage to maintain the arc during warmup and
Lamps in this category include fluorescent and operation
high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps (mercury • Limits lamp current once all the evaporable
vapor, metal-halide, high-pressure sodium), which
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
materials have reached thermal equilibrium
MENTAL SYSTEMS
function by producing an ionized gas in a glass
Organizations involved with ballast standards
tube or container rather than heating a fila-
and testing include:
ment. When compared to incandescent sources,
discharge lamps are known for their extended ANSI—American National Standards Institute:
life and higher luminous efficacy, although Oversees standards on a national level
solid-state sources such as LED and OLED now CBM—Certified Ballast Manufacturers: A group of
provide even higher luminous efficacies and fluorescent ballast manufacturers who produce
extended lamp life. This section describes the func- ballasts that conform to certain ANSI specifica-
tion of a ballast and the various types of gaseous tions
discharge lamps. ETL—Electrical Testing Laboratories, Inc.:
A private, independent organization and
recognized authority in measurement and
15.5 BALLASTS testing of lamps and lighting equipment
UL—Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.: An inde-
All gaseous discharge lamps require a ballast to
pendent, nonprofit organization that certifies
trigger the lamp with a high ignition voltage and to
electrical products to ensure public safety
control the flow of electric current for proper oper-
from fire
ation. There are two kinds of ballasts: magnetic
and electronic. A magnetic ballast uses coiled wire In the United States, ballasts should be UL
and creates magnetic fields to transform voltage labeled and CBM/ETL certified (for a limited
but does not change the frequency of the power number of fluorescent ballasts). The UL label
to the lamp—in the United States, this is 60 Hz. ensures intrinsic safety, CBM establishes high-
An electronic ballast uses solid-state components quality design criteria, and ETL tests ballasts to
to transform voltage. The frequency of the power determine that design standards have been met.
(a) Ballast Types c15.11 prescribes a minimum ballast factor for

CBM certification for a certain number of ballast
There are three basic types of ballasts: magnetic,
types. A ballast may have different ballast factors
hybrid, and electronic. Ballast technology greatly
for different lamps—for example, one ballast factor
improved at the turn of the twenty-first century
for operating standard lamps, and another for
due to changes in energy policy developed by
operating energy-saving lamps. A lamp with a low
the U.S. DOE, state energy offices, the ACEEE, the
ballast factor uses less energy, but also produces
Alliance to Save Energy, the Natural Resources
lower light output. A lamp with a high ballast
Defense Council, and lighting manufacturers.
factor uses more energy but provides higher
light output. Energy savings with high ballast
Magnetic. Magnetic ballasts (core and coil)
factors may be achieved by using lower-wattage
contain a magnetic core of several laminated
lamps and fewer fixtures. Ballast factor is not a
steel plates wrapped with copper windings; they
measure of energy efficiency. Although a lower
operate at line frequency (60 Hz in the US).
ballast factor reduces lamp lumen output, it also
These ballasts (Fig. 15.8) have become essentially
consumes proportionately less input power.
obsolete, although they may still be found in older
buildings.
Ballast Efficacy Factor. The ballast efficacy
Hybrid. Also called cathode disconnect
factor is the ratio of ballast factor (as a percentage)
ballasts, hybrid ballasts use a magnetic core-and- to power (in watts); it is expressed in lumens
coil transformer and an electronic switch for the per watt for a given lamp–ballast combination.
electrode heating unit. Like magnetic ballasts, they Comparisons using the ballast efficacy factor are
operate at line frequency. The ballast disconnects valid only when comparing ballasts for equiva-
the electrode heating unit after starting the lamp. lent systems in terms of lamp type and number
of lamps.
Because ballast factor is an indication of the
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
Electronic. Solid-state electronic ballasts

MENTAL SYSTEMS
operate lamps at 20–60 kHz and have less power amount of light produced by a ballast-lamp combi-
loss than magnetic ballasts. Electronic ballasts nation, and input watts an indication of power
are lighter, are more energy efficient, generate consumed, ballast efficacy factor is an expression
less heat, and are virtually silent. They are also of lumens per watt for a given lighting system.
available as dimming ballasts, which allow light This measurement is generally used to compare the
output to be controlled between 1% and 100%. efficiency of various lighting systems.
Power Factor. The power factor of a ballast is

(b) Ballast Characteristics a measure of how effectively a ballast converts the
Because of the considerable energy that is lost in voltage and current supplied by a power source
inefficient ballasts, manufacturers and standards into watts of usable power delivered to the lamp.
organizations have established criteria by which In general, the power factor is determined from
ballast energy efficiency can be judged. These char- the ballast design and is considered high (if above
acteristics allow comparisons of lighting system 0.90), low (below 0.79), or “corrected” (0.80 to
operation and performance parameters. 0.90). The power factor addresses the effective
use of power supplied to a ballast—it does not
Ballast Factor. Ballast factor is the measured relate to the luminous output of a ballast-lamp
ability of a ballast to produce light from a combination.
connected lamp. It is the ratio of the light output
of a lamp when operated on a tested ballast, to the
(c) Ballast Performance
light output of the same lamp when operated by a
standard laboratory reference ballast (using ANSI Heat. Ballast heat is usually transferred
test procedures). Ballasts with extremely high or to the luminaire body by direct metal-to-metal
low ballast factors can reduce lamp life because of contact (which must be unimpeded) and is then
inconsistencies in lamp current. ANSI Standard dissipated by radiation and convection from the
FLUORESCENT LAMP CONSTRUCTION 711
fixture. The location and method of fixture instal- specify the flicker percentage of a particular ballast
lation affect the heat transfer from the fixture and, working in conjunction with a given lamp type
consequently, the ballast temperature. Operating and phosphor composition.
temperature directly affects ballast life. At normal
operating temperature, a ballast life of 12 to Dimming Control. Dimming of electronically
15 years can be expected. Electronic ballasts ballasted lamps is accomplished within the ballast
will usually start a lamp at 50∘ F (24∘ C), but a itself. Electronic ballasts alter the power input
special ballast is required for starting at temper- to the lamps through a low-voltage signal into
atures down to 0∘ F (−18∘ C). The more efficient the ballast output circuit. High-power switching
(and thus cooler) operation of electronic ballasts devices to condition the input power are not
reduces air-conditioning loads. required. This arrangement allows control of one
or more ballasts independent of the electrical
Noise. All magnetic and some electronic distribution system.
ballasts make a humming sound that originates
from electromagnetic action causing vibrations in
the steel laminations of the core and coil assembly.
Because electronic ballasts have a small (or no)
FLUORESCENT LAMPS
core and coil assembly, they have the lowest noise
output. Most electronic ballasts make almost no Introduced in 1927, the fluorescent lamp quickly
sound. Ballast noise, if any, may be amplified became the best known and most widely used
by (1) the method of mounting the ballast in type of gaseous discharge lamp. While not as
the fixture, (2) loose parts in the fixture, and/or energy-efficient as LED sources and now mostly
(3) ceilings, walls, floors, and hard furniture that displaced by them, fluorescent lamps offered
reflect the noise. Ballasts are sound rated by a letter, a replacement to incandescent sources with
A through F, which indicates their performance increased lamp life and low up-front cost. The
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
in a space (not the actual sound they produce). typical linear fluorescent lamp comprises a cylin-
A sound rating of A means an average ambient drical glass tube sealed at both ends and containing
sound level between 20–24 dB and designates a mixture of an inert gas, generally argon, and
the quietest ballast. While manufacturers all use low-pressure mercury vapor. Built into each end of
the same ratings, there is no consistent standard the tube is a cathode that supplies electrons to start
that describes the method used to capture this and maintain an electric arc, or gaseous discharge.
measurement or how it is applied. Short-wave UV radiation, which is produced by the
mercury vapor, is absorbed by phosphors coating

Flicker. Flicker is caused by extinguishment the inside of the tube, causing a reaction that emits
and reignition of the arc within a fluorescent visible radiation (light). The particular mixture of
tube and is visible only when a lamp is operated phosphors used governs the quantity and spectral
at a relatively low frequency (such as the 60 Hz quality of the light output. Light from fluorescent
typical of North American electrical systems) and sources radiates from a larger lamp surface area
where long persistence phosphors are thin or than is the case with incandescent sources. The
entirely absent (at the extreme ends of a lamp, for light is diffuse, which is suitable for illuminating
example). A magnetic ballast does not alter the or washing large areas such as ceiling planes.
incoming line frequency. Thus, the lamp voltage
crosses zero 120 times each second, resulting in
120 light output oscillations per second. Flicker 15.6 FLUORESCENT LAMP
is not noticeable to most viewers, but there is CONSTRUCTION
evidence that flicker of this magnitude can cause
adverse effects, such as eyestrain and headache. While most new construction and interior reno-
Most electronic ballasts operate at higher than vations now specify LED sources, rapid-start and
line frequency, which reduces lamp flicker to an instant-start fluorescent lamps (having made
essentially imperceptible level. Manufacturers can preheat lamps obsolete) are still commonly found
in existing buildings. Lamp families include linear voltage across the tube. Most fluorescent fixtures
and compact. Linear lamps are tubular in shape, with two or more lamps are known as rapid
with the most popular versions in the United start. When the lamp circuit is energized, the
States being T8 and T5 (26-mm and 16-mm) in arc is struck immediately. No external starter is
standard and high output (HO) and the legacy required. Because of the similarity of operation,
T12 (38-mm) lamp. Compact fluorescents include rapid-start lamps will operate satisfactorily in a
tubular and helical shapes with a range of base preheat circuit. The reverse is not true, because a
connections. The descriptions that follow cover preheat lamp requires more current to heat the
standard lamps and circuits. Special lamps, acces- cathode than the rapid-start ballast provides.
sories, and circuits, including low-wattage lamps, Most rapid-start T12 lamps operate at
triphosphor lamps, and special-shape lamps, are 430 mA. If the current is increased, the output
discussed separately. of the lamp also increases. Two generic types
of higher-output rapid-start lamps are avail-
able. One operates at 800 mA and is called
(a) Preheat Lamps
simply high-output (HO). The second, operating at
Older fluorescent fixtures use a preheat tech- 1500 mA (1.5 A), is called (by different manufac-
nology that heats the fill gas in order to start turers) very high-output (VHO), super-high output,
the lamp; they use a mechanism called a starter. or simply the 1500-mA, rapid-start lamp. There is
Preheat fixtures either have an automatic starter also a 1500-mA lamp that uses what looks like
or require a manual starting action. The original a dented or grooved glass tube. This lamp has a
T12 (38-mm) fluorescent lamp was a preheat somewhat higher output than a standard VHO
design. Construction of a typical hot cathode lamp tube. All HO lamps use double-contact bases and
(used with both preheat and rapid-start types) special ballasts. Because of the serious heat prob-
is shown in Fig. 15.9. All preheat lamps have lems involved, VHO lamps are frequently operated
bi-pin bases. without enclosing fixtures. Conversely, HO and
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
The lamp shown in Fig 15.9 utilizes a separate VHO lamps are frequently used in cold environ-
starter, a small cylindrical device that plugs into a ments that would prevent proper operation of a
preheat fixture (Fig 15.9f ). When the lamp circuit standard output 430-mA lamp. Most HO and VHO
is closed, the starter enegizes the cathodes; after a lamps have slightly lower luminous efficacy than
2- to 5-second delay, it initiates a high-voltage arc a standard 430-mA, rapid start lamp and have a
across the lamp, causing it to start. Most starters considerably shorter life.
are automatic, although in desk lamps, preheating
is accomplished by depressing a start button for

(c) Instant-Start Fluorescent Lamps
a few seconds, and then releasing it. This closes
the circuit and allows the heating current to Instant-start fluorescent lamps use a high voltage
flow; releasing the button causes the arc to strike. transformer to apply a very high initial voltage
Preheat lamps are no longer the industry standard to the cathodes. An excess of electrons on the
but are included here as a point of comparison. cathode surface forces some electrons into the
fill gas, which ionizes the gas. This creates an
instant voltage difference between the cathodes,
(b) Rapid-Start Lamps
establishing an electric arc. These lamps have
The most popular fluorescent lamp design still in only a single pin at each end that also acts as a
use is the rapid-start lamp, shown in Fig. 15.10. switch to break the ballast circuit when the lamp
This design functions similarly to the traditional is removed, thus lessening the shock hazard. The
preheat lamp, but without a starter switch. lamps are generally operated in two lamp circuits
Instead, the lamp’s ballast constantly channels at various currents; normal currents are 200 and
current through both electrodes, eliminating the 430 mA. The high voltage starting characteristic
delay inherent in a preheat circuit. This current of instant-start circuits lowers the lamp life to
flow is configured so that there is a charge differ- about half that of a corresponding rapid start
ence between the two electrodes, establishing a lamp. Instant starts have the advantage of being
FLUORESCENT LAMP CONSTRUCTION 713
BULB PHOSPHOR CATHODE

Usually straight glass Coating inside the bulb “Hot cathode” at each
tube. May also be transforms ultraviolet end of lamp is coated
circular or U–shaped. radiation into light. with emissive material
Color of light produced which emits electrons.
depends on composition
of phosphor.
(a)
BASE MERCURY GAS

Different types, A minute quantity of Usually argon or a mix–
as shown below. liquid mercury is placed ture of inert gasses at
in the bulb to furnish low pressure. Krypton
mercury vapor. is sometimes used.
Base types
T–12 T–12 Instant start T–12
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Med. bi-pin Recessed cathode Single pin
(b) double contact (f ) (g)
(d)
Preheat and Recessed double contact: High-voltage end Low-voltage end

rapid-start high-output lamps Instant-start
lamps (both ends) and very-high-output lamps (Slimline) lamps
(c) (e) (h)
Fig. 15.9 Details of typical fluorescent lamps and associated lampholders. (a) Construction of preheat-rapid-start bi-pin base lamp.
This type of lamp has type (b) base and is held in type (c) lampholder. High-output (HO) and very-high-output (VHO) rapid-start lamps
use a recessed double-contact (dc) base (d) and lampholders (e). Instant-start lamps are similar in construction to (a) except with
cathode construction (f), have a single-pin base (g), and use single-pin lamp holders (h), which are different at each end. (a: Courtesy of
GTE/Sylvania, Inc.)
Fig. 15.10 Rapid-start fluorescent lamps have two pins that slide against two contact points in an electrical circuit. The ballast
constantly channels current through both electrodes, creating a charge difference between the two electrodes and establishing a
voltage across the tube. (Photo by Jonathan Meendering; © Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
able to start at much lower ambient temperatures typical labeling is in the form FSWCCC-TDD (each
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
(below 50∘ F [10∘ C]) than rapid-start circuits.

MENTAL SYSTEMS
manufacturer has variations on this format).

This starting characteristic makes the instant Depending upon the type of fluorescent lamp,
start lamp and circuit particularly applicable to designations for color rendering index and color
outdoor use. temperatures are also included on the label.
15.7 FLUORESCENT LAMP LABELS 15.8 FLUORESCENT LAMP TYPES

Standard fluorescent lamp labels are printed on (a) T8 Fluorescent Lamps

the end of a lamp and use several identifying
When T8 lamps came to market, they afforded
letters and numbers, as shown in Table 15.3. The
designers (and their clients) cost-effective and
energy-efficient lighting systems that offered a
high degree of flexibility in their application.
TABLE 15.3 Fluorescent Lamp Label T8 lamps are 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter; they are
Designations available in wattages of 17, 25, and 32 at 2 ft, 3 ft,
Label Explanation 4 ft, and 5 ft (600 mm, 900 mm, 1200 mm, and
F Fluorescent lamp. “G” means germicidal shortwave
1500 mm) lengths, respectively. Depending on the
UV lamp. triphosphor coating used, T8 lamps come with a
S Style—no letter indicates a normal straight tube; color rendering index (CRI) of 75, 82, or 85. Lamp
“C” means Circline.
W Nominal power in watts: 4, 5, 8, 12, 15, 20, 30, manufacturers have developed a standard desig-
40, etc. nation to indicate the color temperature of a lamp.
CCC Color. W = white, CW = cool white, WW = warm
white, BL/BLB = black light, etc. For example, “30” indicates a 3000 K lamp. T8
T Tubular bulb lamps are available in 3000 K, 3500 K, 4100 K,
DD Diameter of tube in eighths of an inch. T8 is 1 in. and 5000 K color temperatures, designated “30,”
(nominal 25 mm), T5 is 5/8 in. (nominal 15 mm), etc.
“35,” “41,” and “50” respectively.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUORESCENT LAMP OPERATION 715
(b) T5 Fluorescent Lamps • Temperature and humidity: How a lamp

responds to environmental operating conditions
T5 lamp technology was developed in Europe and
introduced to North America in 1996. Although
• Dimming: Controlling light production of the
lamp
it was expensive, the introduction of a T5 HO line
in 1998 offered about twice the lumen output
in the same length as its T8 counterpart, with
(a) Efficacy
an efficacy that was attractive in meeting project
energy goals. The T5 was the first “metric” lamp The design efficacy (lumens per watt) of a fluo-
introduced in the United States, yet it is commonly rescent lamp depends upon the operating current
called T5 because of industry nomenclature. Stan- and the phosphors utilized. Fluorescent lamp effi-
dard and HO T5 lamps are available in 22 in., cacy is further dependent upon the lamp length,
34 in., 46 in., and 58 in. (560 mm, 864 mm, ambient temperature, frequency of the electricity
1163 mm, and 1473 mm) lengths. The standard supply, and ballast operation. Wattage, in itself,
T5 and the T5 HO lamps are the same diam- is a meaningless quantity unless it is associated
eter and width. The 46 in. T5 (nominal 4 ft) is with a lumen output figure. Thus, energy-saving
rated at 2900 lumens, similar to the lumen per low-wattage or high-output lamps with their
watt output of a T8 lamp (2950 lumens). By special ballasts are seldom the indicated choice in
contrast, the 46 in. T5 HO lamp is rated as high as new design because their efficacy does not usually
5000 lumens, offering twice the maintained light justify the cost premium.
output of a T8 lamp. Because of its smaller 5/8 -in.
(15 mm) diameter construction, significantly less
glass, mercury, and high-quality phosphors are (b) Lumen Maintenance
needed for its construction. T5 lamps also allow The lumen output of a fluorescent tube decreases
a designer to use fewer lamps (and fixtures), thus rapidly during the first 100 hours of burning,
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
providing certain savings on installation and and thereafter much more slowly. Phosphors
long-term maintenance. The narrow lamp diam- deteriorate, typically blackening the ends of a
eter provided an opportunity for the design of new lamp, thereby blocking some light. Most product
fixtures and for use in low-profile, indirect lumi- catalogs list “initial lumens,” which is the lamp
naires. The color rendering quality of light from output under laboratory conditions after 100 hours
T5 lamps (CRI 85) is high. The potential for glare of burning, and “mean” or “design” lumens,
problems exists, however, which can be addressed which is lamp output at 40% of rated life. Unless
by sophisticated shielding techniques. Utilizing T5 otherwise controlled, the illuminance provided by

(and particularly T5 HO) lamps in direct delivery these lamps gradually drops as a system ages until,
lighting installations requires special attention to somewhere in the middle of the effective life of the
glare control. lamps, the intended “maintained” illuminance of
a system is (temporarily) achieved.
15.9 CHARACTERISTICS
(c) Lamp Life
OF FLUORESCENT LAMP
OPERATION The life of a standard fluorescent lamp is defined
as the length of time an average lamp is expected
Five characteristics define the operation of a fluo- to last. This value is dependent upon the burning
rescent lamp: hours per start. Life is expressed as “rated average
life” in hours of operation. The life values listed
• Efficacy: Light output per unit of power input in lamp catalogs are based upon a burning cycle
• Unstable light output over time: Output of 3 hours per start (with 20 minutes of “off”
decreases as a lamp ages status) and represent the average life of a group
• Lamp life: Average (statistically defined) lamp of lamps; that is, half of the lamps in any group
life expectancy will have burned out at that time. Typical lamp
100
90
80
Co
Percent surviving
70
nti
18
nu
60
–h
ou
12
ou
sb
50
–h
10
3–
rc
ur
ou
–h
ho
yc
40
nin
6–
rc
ou
ur
le
g
ho
yc
r
30
cyc
cyc
le
ur
le
le
cyc
20
le
10 70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
Percent of rated average life (3-hour cycle)
Fig. 15.11 Typical mortality curves of standard fluorescent lamps.
225
Continuous burning
range, 41–77∘ F (5–25∘ C), there is a rapid drop
in light output and difficulty in starting. High
Percent of rated average life
200
175 humidity causes electrical leakage along the lamp
150 surface, lowering the starting voltage provided by
Rapid start the ballast. Lamps are precoated with silicone to
125
40 W break up moisture films and prevent such leakage.
100
The temperature of the coolest point on
75
the wall of the lamp bulb determines a lamp’s
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
50 mercury-vapor pressure, which in turn deter-

25 mines the lamp lumen output, wattage, and color.
0 Maximum output for standard lamps occurs at a
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Burning hours (hours per start)
bulb temperature of 104∘ F (40∘ C). The bulb wall
temperature itself is affected by room ambient
Fig. 15.12 Effect of burning hours on fluorescent lamp life. Note temperature, airflow over the lamp (as with
that at 3 burning hours per start, the average lamp life is 100% of
air-return fixtures), and the temperature of adja-
the nominal catalog value.

cent surfaces such as a ballast enclosure. Thus,
catalog data on lamp output and wattage, based
mortality curves are shown in Fig. 15.11 and upon laboratory tests of bare tubes at 77∘ F (25∘ C)
the effect of burning hours per start is shown in ambient temperature in still air, may be very far
Fig. 15.12. Average rated lamp life is not the same from actual field performance.
as the time at which lamps are typically replaced,
which is usually well before 50% failures occur
(e) Dimming
in a batch. Several factors affect fluorescent lamp
life. Longer burning hours per start will extend Dimming of a fluorescent lamp system can reduce
lamp life. Lamp life is shortened by improper energy consumption, correct over lighting,
lamp current, improper voltage to the ballast, or balance illuminance through integration with
improper cathode heating. daylighting, and allow flexibility when full lighting
output is required. Unlike incandescent lamps,
which can be dimmed with just a wall-mounted
(d) Effect of Temperature and Humidity
device, fluorescent lamps require dimming
Fluorescent lamps are affected by extremes in ballasts. The dimming range differs greatly among
ambient temperature and by high humidity. ballasts. With most electronic dimming ballasts,
Outside of the optimal operating temperature output can vary between full and a minimum of
COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS 717
about 10% of full output. However, electronic, • The UVA range includes wavelengths from
full-range dimming ballasts are also available for 315 to 400 nm. Wavelengths from about 345
some lamp types and can operate lamps down to to 400 nm are used for “black light” effects
1% of full lumen output. (causing many fluorescent objects to glow). The
A ballast can be configured so that it UVA wavelengths border the visible spectrum,
(1) receives a signal from a control device and and these lamps are usually slightly visible if
subsequently (2) changes the current flowing isolated from conventional lamps. Shorter UVA
through a lamp, thereby achieving a gradual, wavelengths from 315 to 345 nm are used for
controlled reduction in lamp output. The char- sunning.
acteristics of the ballast circuitry affect the • UVB refers to wavelengths from 280 to 315 nm.
duration and extent of the change in current These wavelengths are more hazardous than
and subsequent lamp output. UVA wavelengths and are largely responsible for
Electronic dimming ballasts for fluores- sunburn.
cent lamps are designed to respond to either an • UVC refers to shorter UV wavelengths, usually
analog or digital signal to achieve the dimming from 200 to 280 nm. Wavelengths in this range,
effect. Because a dimming ballast must be able especially from the low 200s to about 275 nm,
to communicate with connected controllers, the are especially damaging to exposed biological
method becomes the basis for a protocol (common cells. Such short-wave UV radiation is often used
operating parameters adopted by all manufac- for germicidal purposes (either in industry or for
turers of dimming ballasts and controllers that indoor air quality mitigation).
use that method). This ensures interchangeability
between a ballast made by a particular manufac- Although UV lamps are not commonly used
turer and various controllers made by controls in architectural lighting, they are included in
manufacturers. this section as a specialty lamp because they
address a wide range of applications in indus-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
trial, technological, agricultural, laboratory, and
15.10 FEDERAL STANDARDS medical settings.
FOR FLUORESCENT LAMPS
15.12 COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS
A series of U.S. legislative acts have mandated
minimum standards for lamps in terms of efficacy
When compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) first
(lumens per watt) and color rendering index (CRI).

emerged on the market, they offered a comparable
Cascading standards eliminated the manufacture
(in brightness), but energy-efficient alternative
and distribution of several major fluorescent lamp
to incandescent lamps. Unlike standard fluores-
types with low luminous efficacies. Lamps with
cent lamps, they can directly replace standard
very good CRI and special service fluorescent
incandescent bulbs through a range of universal
lamps are excluded from the legislative bans.
screw-base connections. Advances in solid-state
sources now outperform CFLs in both efficacy and
color rendering with the same range of screw- and
15.11 UV FLUORESCENT LAMPS specialty-base connections.
CFLs are simply folded fluorescent tubes with
UV lamps emit radiation in the ultraviolet spec- both ends terminating in a common base. Some
trum, which includes all electromagnetic radiation compact fluorescent lamps have the tubes and
with wavelengths in the range of 10–400 nanome- ballast permanently connected with a screw-in
ters (nm). UV lamps include fluorescent black medium base. Others have separate tubes and
lights, fluorescent tanning and medical UV ballasts, allowing the tubes to be replaced without
lamps, “RS” reflector (“floodlamp”) sunlamps, and changing the ballast. As a result, an exhausted
germicidal and EPROM (erasable programmable lamp is simply replaced in the existing ballast,
read-only memory) erasing lamps. resulting in considerable economy. A CFL produces
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 15.13 A sample of linear and compact fluorescent lamp designs with associated lamp bases. (Drawing by Samantha Ruddy, ©
University of Oregon, Baker Lighting Lab.)
a diffuse light distribution, unlike single-point but are not favored because of excessive heat,
incandescent lamps. This is an important factor to weight, flicker, and reduced efficiency. Lamp colors
consider when replacing incandescent lamps with are similar to those of straight fluorescent lamps
CFLs in high-ceiling applications. (i.e., 3000 K, 3500 K, 4200 K, and 5000 K).
CFLs are manufactured in a variety of styles All CFLs have a CRI of 80 or higher. Their life
or shapes: two, four, or six tubes; circular or spiral is about 6,000 to 15,000 hours, which is 6–15
tubes (Fig. 15.13 and 15.14). They are efficient times longer than the typical 1000-hour life
at lower wattages and can produce light output of an incandescent lamp. Table 15.4 compares
equivalent to that of higher wattage incandescent the wattage of commonly available incandes-
lamps (e.g., a typical 60W incandescent lamp cent lamps to that of a CFL that provides similar
with a 900-lumen output could be replaced by a light output.
13W to 16W CFL). The total surface area of the A major advantage of using CFLs over tradi-
tube(s) determines how much light is produced. tional incandescent lamps is cost savings, as shown
The efficacy of lamp–ballast combinations ranges in Table 15.5. This analysis assumes that a lamp is
from 50 to 70 lm/W, assuming an electronic on for 6 hours per day and that the electric rate is
ballast. Lamps with magnetic ballasts are available 8 cents per kWh.
HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMPS 719
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 15.14 Collection of linear and compact fluorescent lamps (© University of Oregon, Baker Lighting Lab.)
TABLE 15.4 Equivalent Wattage of Common TABLE 15.5 Cost Comparison for Operation of
Incandescent Lamps and Compact Fluorescents an Incandescent Lamp and a Compact
Fluorescent Lamp
Incandescent Compact
Watts Fluorescent Watts 60W Traditional

50 9 incandescent 15W CFL
60 15 Rated life (hours) 1000 10,000
75 20
100 25 Annual energy cost $4.80 $1.20
120 28 (@8¢/kWh for 6hrs/day)
150 39 Annual energy savings – 75%
(%)
Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renew-
able Energy. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/ Source: U.S. Department of Energy, How Energy-Efficient Light
lighting_daylighting/index.cfm/mytopic=12060 Bulbs Compare with Traditional Incandescents. https://www.energy
.gov/energysaver/save-electricity-and-fuel/lighting-choices-save-
you-money/how-energy-efficient-light
15.13 HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE metal–halide (CRI range 65–80), and high-

LAMPS pressure sodium (CRI range 22–75). These lamps
are characterized by high luminous efficacy,
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps (Fig. 15.15) defined warmup time, noticeable restrike time,
produce light by discharging electricity through and historically poor color rendering capabilities.
a high-pressure vapor. Lamps in this category Mercury-vapor lamps were the first commer-
include mercury-vapor (CRI range 15–55), cially available HID lamps, and the early products
E
BT
R
A ED PAR T
M.O.L.
T-10
A-23 BT-37 BT-56 E-25 ED-17 ED-18 ED-23 1/ 2 PAR-38 R-40 R-60
WHITE SON
M.O.L. 5 7/16 111/2 15 3/8 151/16 57/16 9 3/4 7 1/2 513/2 7 10 7/8 5 7/8
Fig. 15.15 Bulb shapes for typical HID lamps with their maximum overall length (M.O.L.).
produced a bluish green light. Today they are

Pinch seal
available with a color-corrected whiter light;
because of inefficiency and potential hazards, Arc tube
Outer bulb
however, said lamps are being replaced by newer
and more efficient metal-halide and high-pressure Arc tube support
sodium lamps. Standard high-pressure sodium Main electrodes
lamps have the highest efficacy of all HID lamps, Starting electrode
but they produce a yellowish light. High-pressure

sodium lamps that produce a whiter light are now Heat deflector
available, but their luminous efficacy is somewhat Starting resistor
lower.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
HID lamps were developed for use when high

illuminance is required over large areas, and when Base
energy efficiency and/or long life are desired. Reflector
mercury lamp
Typical applications included gymnasiums, large
public areas, warehouses, outdoor activity areas, Fig. 15.16 Construction of a typical clear mercury-vapor lamp.
roadways, parking lots, and pathways.
contained in a quartz arc tube (Fig. 15.16). This

15.14 MERCURY-VAPOR LAMPS produces radiation in both the UV region (as in the
low-pressure fluorescent lamp tube) and the visible
The mercury-vapor lamp was the first HID lamp to region, principally in the blue–green band. This
be developed, and for many years it was the only color mix is characteristic of a clear mercury lamp.
commercially available HID lamp. It has largely
been supplanted by the metal-halide lamp because
(a) UV Radiation
of the latter’s better color rendering and lumi-
nous efficacy. Although some installations with A considerable portion of a mercury-vapor lamp’s
mercury-vapor lamps still exist, this technology is radiation spectrum is in the UV range. This does
no longer specified for new buildings. For the same not normally constitute a hazard to people because
energy efficiency, metal-halide lamps have better the outer glass bulb (even a clear bulb) absorbs
color rendering properties and are often preferred most of the UV radiation while transmitting light.
for indoor applications. Mercury-vapor lamps, If the outer bulb is broken, however, the quartz
historically often used to light streets, gymna- arc tube will continue to burn, and the unfiltered
siums, and sports arenas, must be maintained UV radiation becomes a safety hazard, particularly
properly to be safe. to the skin and eyes. As a result, manufacturers
A mercury-vapor lamp operates by passing an include a warning about this condition with all
electric arc through high-pressure mercury vapor mercury lamps sold.
METAL-HALIDE LAMPS 721
(b) Lamp Life the ballast type, and is an important consideration

in design, as a momentary power outage will
Mercury-vapor lamp life is extremely long,
extinguish all lamps, leaving an interior area in
averaging 24,000 hours or more based upon
the dark.
10 burning hours per start. Mercury-vapor
The principal mercury-vapor ballast types
lamps are not suitable for applications that
are reactor, regulating, and electronic. Magnetic
are subject to constant switching. Their life is mercury ballasts are large, heavy, and quite noisy.
affected by ambient temperature, line voltage, and Where this may be a problem, remote ballast
ballast design. mounting should be considered or lighter, quieter,
and more expensive electronic ballasts used.
(c) Lumen Maintenance Because lamp-operating characteristics depend
heavily upon the type of ballast and because the
Lumen maintenance property depends upon the
choice of an appropriate ballast involves highly
specific type of lamp and its burning position.
technical electrical considerations, selection
Manufacturers publish data for each of their lamp
should be left to an electrical engineer or lighting
types. In general, clear lamps have the best lumen
consultant.
maintenance, followed by color-improved and
phosphor-coated units.
(f) Self-Ballasted Lamps
These have been available for some years and
(d) Color Correction and Efficacy
consist of a screw-base color-corrected lamp with
Color correction is normally required because an internal resistive/reactive ballast. They have
the blue–green light from a clear mercury-vapor a CRI of 50, an efficacy of 20 to 25 lm/W, and
lamp distorts almost all object colors. (These a correlated color temperature (CCT) of 3500 K
lamps are frequently used to illuminate outdoor to 4000 K. Their great advantage is their long
gardens because the blue–green light enhances
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
life, which can be used beneficially in applica-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
the green of trees and vegetation.) Color correction tions involving: burning periods of 8 to 10 hours
is achieved by adding phosphors to the inside of the minimum, relative inaccessibility, limited space
outer bulb. The phosphors convert UV radiation that precludes ballast installation, and indifferent
to light exactly as in fluorescent lamps, and the color rendering requirements.
glass acts as a filter to some of the blue–green
radiation. The phosphors reradiate generally in (g) Application
the red band, which is entirely absent in a clear
Mercury-vapor lamps were developed to with-

lamp. Depending upon the arc tube design and
stand both indoor and outdoor use, with proper
the phosphors used, the color of the emitted light
attention to performance characteristics. The
can be corrected to make it acceptable for general
most common exterior application is for parking
indoor use. Lamps are available in clear, white,
lots. Indoor application is generally limited to
color-corrected, and deluxe white, in ascending
mounting heights of 10 ft (3 m) AFF (above finish
order of color improvement.
floor) or higher, to avoid direct glare potential and
permit adequate floor area coverage. Their use in
(e) Ballasts and Lamp Starting industrial spaces and stores was once common,
but today use of metal-halide lamps is typical.
Ballasts are required, as with all gaseous discharge
Warehouses and non-color-sensitive industrial
lamps, to start a mercury-vapor lamp and there-
areas continue to use mercury-vapor lamps.
after to control the arc. From 3 to 6 minutes
are required for a lamp to reach full output
because heat must be generated by electron flow to 15.15 METAL-HALIDE LAMPS
vaporize the mercury in the arc tube before the arc
will strike. Once extinguished (turned off), a lamp This lamp began its life in the early 1960s
must cool before restrike is possible. This restart as a modified mercury-vapor lamp. Major
delay amounts to several minutes, depending upon advances in miniaturization, color rendering,
color temperature, and consistency—by the addi- Spacer

tion of halides such as thallium, indium, and Getter
sodium to the arc tube—resulted in changes in Upper Support

the output, efficacy, color, and life of the lamp. Arc Tube Strap
Metal-halide lamps have excellent color character- End Paint Electode
istics. Pulse-start metal-halide lamps utilize a glass Envelope BT37
Return Lead
Arc Tube
arc tube to contain the arc. Pulse-start technology
includes a new family of lamps (it has been used Probe
with high-pressure sodium lamps), and improves Connector Lead

the start system, efficacy, and lumen maintenance,
while also yielding shorter warmup and restrike Resistor
Lower Support
times. The number of types and sizes is so large,
and changes so rapidly, that any abbreviated Stem
tabulation would be inadequate or misleading. Base
Ceramic metal-halide lamps were an industry
standard for many years (up until the advent of
LED alternatives), offering a high CRI (80–90), a Fig. 15.17 Construction details of a 400-W standard metal-halide
color temperature of 3000 K or 4100 K, improved lamp, which can be mounted either horizontally or vertically.
(Courtesy of OSRAM Sylvania.)
lumen maintenance, and stable color consistency.
Typical metal-halide lamp characteristics and
types are discussed in the following subsections.
Always consult a manufacturer’s catalog for
current and accurate lamp data.
(a) Lamp Configurations

ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Construction details for a basic metal-halide lamp

are shown in Fig.15.17 and are similar to those of
its “parent” mercury-vapor lamp. In addition to
this design (with a BT-shaped bulb), metal-halide
lamps are manufactured in elliptical bulbs, PAR
reflector lamps, and single- and double-ended
tubular shapes (Figs. 15.17 and 15.18).
(b) Safety
Being essentially a modified mercury-vapor lamp,
a metal-halide lamp carries the same safety
Fig. 15.18 Various configurations of metal-halide lamps.
warning as a mercury lamp. An additional
Clockwise from the bottom left: phosphor-coated and clear
warning, however, refers to the fact that metal- elliptical bulbs; PAR 30 and 38 reflector lamps; single-ended and
halide lamp arc tubes have a tendency to explode; double-ended tubular lamps—all have ceramic arc tubes and a
CRI greater than 80. (Courtesy of GE Lighting.)
therefore, the lamp must be used in an approved
enclosing luminaire. All major manufacturers also
make lamps with internal shields that will contain
efficacies of 75 to 105 lumens per watt with
the flying pieces of a ruptured arc tube without
magnetic ballasts, and slightly higher with
damaging the outer bulb.
electronic ballasts (efficacy also increases with
wattage). Lamps are clear or phosphor-coated,
(c) Designs, Shapes, and Ratings with a CCT ranging from 3000 K to 4200 K and
Standard metal-halide lamp designs available are: a CRI ranging from 65 to 85. Their life, at 10
burning hours per start, varies from 10,000 to
• Standard lamps, available in ED, BT, and 20,000 hours depending upon lamp type, size,
PAR shapes, in wattages from 50 to 1500 W, and burning position.
SODIUM-VAPOR LAMPS 723
Lens unnoticed and depends upon the particular design

of lamp. Where color rendering is important, or
Envelope End Paint where the lamp is used with other light sources,
(PAR38)
Arc Tube
Shield a designer should choose metal-halide lamps
Support Electrode that are specially made for color stability. These
Cross Bow Clip lamps are designed not to vary in CCT more than
200 K over the lamp life. Finally, dimming or
reduced output operation of metal-halide lamps is
Base
(Medium Skirted)
not normally recommended because of the very
noticeable color shift that occurs when a lamp is
Fig. 15.19 Construction details of a PAR enclosure for a
dimmed.
metal-halide lamp. The lamp itself is tubular and constructed with
a surrounding protective shield designed to contain arc tube (e) Lamp Ballasts
fragments in the event of a violent rupture. (Courtesy of OSRAM
Sylvania.) A metal-halide lamp will operate satisfactorily on a
simple reactor ballast, although a separate ignitor
is usually required to start the lamp. Such ballasts
• Safety shielded lamps with integral shields to have a low power factor (about 50%), which is
contain a ruptured arc tube. undesirable from the perspective of energy effi-
• Self-extinguishing lamps designed to shut down ciency, wiring economy, electrical losses, and
automatically upon a break in the outer glass component heating. High-power-factor magnetic
envelope. ballasts (pf > 90%) are also available. Magnetic
• High-output lamps designed for a specific ballasts are large, heavy, and often noisy. The last
burning position (as specified on each lamp). characteristic can be improved by the use of a
Output is 5% to 8% higher than that of stan- potted (epoxy-filled) ballast. Electronic ballasts are
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
dard lamps, but the color rendering is somewhat also readily available, along with dimming and
poorer, with a CRI range of 65 to 70. multilevel ballasts. As noted previously, dimming
• Single-ended and double-ended tubular lamps. ballasts are not frequently used because of the
These lamps are characterized by a very high large shift in lamp color that they cause.
CRI (80–93); a somewhat shorter life than stan-
dard lamps, particularly for the single-ended
units (6000–10,000 hours); and slightly lower 15.16 SODIUM-VAPOR LAMPS
efficacy (70–85 lm/W). They are intended

for applications requiring very high color The basic construction of this type of lamp is
rendering. illustrated in Fig. 15.20, which shows schematic
drawings of the design. Construction is quite
different from that of a mercury-vapor or
(d) Operating Characteristics metal-halide lamp. The characteristic color of
Metal-halide lamps are not instant starting; they HPS lamps stems from the spectral absorption
require approximately 2 to 3 minutes for initial phenomenon of the sodium contained in the
startup and 8 to 10 minutes for restrike. (Tubular arc tube—with a resultant pronounced yellow-
lamps require only about half of these times.) As tinted light.
a result, when they are used for indoor installa-
tions, a secondary instant-start source must be
(a) Primary Characteristics of HPS Lamps
available. A number of manufacturers produce
special hot-restrike ballasts that provide imme- Standard HPS Lamps. The extremely low
diate restrike of lamps on restoration of power after CRI (20–22) is not acceptable where any degree
an outage. Lamp output on restrike is inversely of color rendition is required, thus limiting the
proportional to the duration of a power outage. standard HPS lamp to use in exterior areas
The spectrum of light produced by a and for road lighting, where upfront cost is
metal-halide lamp changes as the lamp ages. the primary concern and LED sources are not
The change is gradual, definite, but usually an option.
E Bulb
Dome Mount Support

BT Bulb
Hermetic
End Seal Dome Mount
Ceramic Arc Tube Support
Hermetic Seal
Weather-Resistant
Steel Frame with Heat Shield Vacuum
Glass Envelope
Ceramic Arc
Starting Aid Tube
Steel Frame
Starting Aid
Vacuum Weather-Resistant
Bimetal Circuit Bimetal Circuit Glass Envelope
Breaker Breaker
Residue Gas Getter Residue Gas Getter

Lead-Free Brass Date Brass Date
Recording Base Recording Base
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.20 Simplified drawings of the internal construction of two high-pressure sodium (SON) lamp designs. (a) Noncycling lamp (in an
E-shaped glass bulb) designed to indicate by a special color when the lamp has reached the replacement stage. Unlike standard HPS
lamps, this lamp will not cycle on and off at the end of its useful life. (b) Retrofit HPS (SON) lamp in a BT bulb, intended for direct
replacement of an existing mercury-vapor lamp. This lamp operates efficiently on a mercury-lamp ballast. (Drawings courtesy of
OSRAM Sylvania.)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Color Corrected HPS Lamps. Color can be the light-emitting source. This drastically reduces
improved considerably by increasing the pressure lamp luminance, and therefore glare potential,
inside the arc tube. This causes some of the sodium but also reduces output (and efficacy). Light distri-
in the arc to be reabsorbed, and the radiated light bution from a coated lamp in an open reflector is
widens its spectrum into the red range (at the vastly improved, as can be seen in Fig. 15.21.
expense of efficacy and lamp life).
(b) Other Operating Characteristics

“White” HPS Lamps. A still greater increase
in lamp pressure improves lamp color and yields In contrast to mercury-vapor and metal-halide
a “whiter” lamp color in a limited wattage lamps, high-pressure sodium lamps do not emit
range. These low-wattage, reduced-efficacy, any appreciable UV radiation, do not tend to
shortened-life lamps are normally operated with rupture violently, and can be installed in any posi-
small, lightweight electronic ballasts. tion without affecting operating characteristics.
Because of its high output and narrow linear HPS lamps require a ballast for ignition and
arc tube, any HPS lamp is a potential glare source, arc control. Due to the extremely high voltage
and lamps of 150W or higher must be either required for lamp ignition, both magnetic and
completely shielded or mounted at sufficient electronic ballasts contain an electronic ignition
height (if in an open reflector) to be above the near circuit. Because of this, an HPS lamp must be used
field of vision. These glare prevention strategies with a compatible ballast that carries the same
also apply to metal-halide lamps. ANSI designation as found on the outer glass
If a diffusing coating is added to a sodium- bulb. If used with an incompatible ballast (and
vapor lamp, the entire glass envelope becomes fixture), the lamp may rupture and constitute a
LOW-PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS 725
serious safety hazard. As with metal-halide lamps,

ballasts for HPS lamps are available that provide
instantaneous restrike after a power interruption.
(c) Lamp Design Types

In addition to standard HPS lamps, including
the color-corrected types, three additional special
lamps have been developed to solve specific prob-
lems. They are:
1. Noncycling lamp. As an HPS lamp ages, its arc

voltage rises. Eventually, the ballast is unable
to sustain the arc, and the lamp extinguishes.
After cooling, the lamp lights to full brightness
and soon thereafter extinguishes again. This
30,000 on–off cycling is characteristic of an HPS lamp
25,000
at the end of its life. To eliminate this condition,
a special noncycling lamp was developed that
20,000
uses very little sodium amalgam in the arc tube
Candlepower
15,000 and is more environmentally friendly because of

this reduced content. Photometric characteris-
10,000
tics are similar to those of standard lamps.
5,000 2. Standby lamps. As noted previously, HPS lamps
require a minute or more to restrike after being
0
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
90° 70° 50° 30° 10° 10° 30° 50° 70° 90° extinguished. A crowded public area plunged
into complete darkness is a recipe for disaster;
Clear HPS lamp operating at 12,000 lumens in open-bottomed fixture.
therefore, such areas must always be furnished
(b)
with instant-on emergency lighting. Standby
lamps have two arc tubes. When the lighted one
6000 is extinguished due to a momentary power loss,
5000 the second (cool) arc tube immediately begins
to glow—assuming that voltage has returned.

4000
It is not acceptable as emergency lighting as
Candlepower
3000 required by NFPA 101: Life Safety Code.

3. Retrofit lamps. These HPS lamps are designed
2000
as a direct replacement for mercury-vapor
1000 lamps of the same wattage. They are enclosed
0
in BT-shaped bulbs of the same size as the lamp
90° 70° 50° 30° 10° 10° 30° 50° 70° 90° being replaced, and they operate properly on
Coated HPS lamp operating at 12,000 lumens in open-bottomed fixture.
mercury-vapor lamp ballasts.
(c)
Fig. 15.21 (a) HPS retrofit and noncycling lamps. (b) The narrow 15.17 LOW-PRESSURE SODIUM LAMPS
linear arc tube of an HPS lamp is not suitable for use in an open
reflector designed for a larger source such as a phosphor-coated
mercury lamp. (c) A coated HPS lamp creates a large, diffuse
The low-pressure sodium (SOX) lamp produces
source with improved light distribution. (Drawings courtesy of light characteristic of sodium’s monochromatic
OSRAM Sylvania.) saturated yellow color, making it inapplicable for
general lighting. Because of its very high efficacy light bulbs, which allows consumers to compare
(more than 150 lm/W, including ballast loss—but lamp sources and calculate energy savings. For
with a CRI of 0), it can be applied where color example, replacing a 60W incandescent bulb with
rendition is not an important criterion, but energy a 9W LED results in an 85% energy savings and a
efficiency is. Thus, SOX lamps are used for street, $73 net life-cycle savings cost.
road, parking lot, and pathway lighting. SOX LED lamps and luminaires now cover a broad
lamps are also used around astronomical observa- range of application areas in conventional archi-
tories because the yellow light can be filtered out tectural and urban scale lighting. They are easy
of a telescope. to install, last longer than incandescent or fluores-
cent lamps, are efficient (with good luminous effi-
cacy values), and can provide good color rendering
and even tunable color-changing capabilities.
SOLID-STATE LIGHTING LED lamps are essentially micro-light sources.
A single A60 9.5W LED lamp may have 30+ indi-
The term “solid-state lighting” currently encom- vidual LEDs inside (Figure 15.22). Implementation
passes light produced by semiconductor light- of these micro-light sources into mainstream
emitting diodes (LED) and organic light-emitting architectural lighting applications requires the
diodes (OLED). Over the past decade, LEDs have packaging of these point sources into composite
emerged as not only a viable option for architec- lamps, many of which mimic the lamp sources
tural and urban scale lighting, but as a preferred they were designed to replace, with standard
technology for general illumination, accent screw bases and shapes.
lighting, and high-intensity discharge applica- Manufacturers now bundle LEDs into a wide
tions. Due to energy-driven regulations at the range of architectural lighting products that allow
state and federal levels, LEDs have led the market designers to use LED lamps for nearly all building
as a viable replacement for incandescent and lighting applications including tubes, spots, HID
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
gaseous-discharge sources. replacement, bulbs, capsules, and candles.

Some positive characteristics of LEDs are:
15.18 SEMICONDUCTOR • Excellent longevity (25,000 + hours)

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDs) • Excellent luminous efficacy
• High-quality color rendering
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), otherwise known • Variable color and color rendering capability
as light-emitting semiconductors, have been within a single lamp

used since the 1960s in a wide range of applica- • Directional and multi-directional light output
tions, from medical instruments to bar coders, • Lower environmental impact relative to
fiber-optic communication, mobile electronic mercury-based lamps
technologies, consumer appliances, automotive
instrument panels, signal lights, courtesy lighting,
(a) Primary Characteristics of LED Lamps
and transport signaling (traffic, rail, aviation).
LEDs first were used for specialty applications LED Lamps and Tubes. As many LED lamps
in architectural illumination, like signage, retail were developed to replace existing electric sources,
displays, emergency lighting (exit and emergency most are made to fit into existing luminaires
signs), and accent lighting for pathways. Since designed for incandescent or gaseous discharge
the proposed phase-out of energy inefficient light lamps. Lamps designed to replace incandescent,
sources through the federal Energy Independence halogen, and compact fluorescent sources come
and Security Act of 2007, the consumer lighting with standard screw-base connections such as
industry has taken large strides to develop and medium and candelabra as well as miniature
market LED replacement options for many incan- connections like G4 and GU5.3. Bulb types are
descent and fluorescent lamp sources. ENERGY available in a range of shapes including “A,”
STAR offers an “Energy Savings Calculator” for “BR,” and “PAR.” Lamps designed to replace
SEMICONDUCTOR LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDs) 727
Cover
LED
LED panel
Heatsink
Driver
electrical
connector & base
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.22 Schematic diagram showing the construction of a typical (a) globe and (b) linear LED lamp. (Drawn by Siobhan Rockcastle, ©
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
University of Oregon, Baker Lighting Lab.)
referred to as a “12W (32W) LED T8.” Similarly,

the LED replacement for a standard 60W A19
lamp may be called a “7W (60W) A19 lamp.” This
makes it rather easy to identify the application and
relative output of each lamp if you are familiar
with the original source. Lumen output, however,

is a more reliable metric for comparing electric
light sources.
Operating Characteristics. Unlike other

lamp technologies introduced in this chapter, LED
sources are composed of a series of diodes and emit
light directionally. LED lamps designed to replace
Fig. 15.23 A sample of LED light sources. (© University of
Oregon, Baker Lighting Lab.)
omnidirectional technologies require clusters of
diodes to replicate that light distribution. Whereas
most electrical light sources run on alternating
linear fluorescent sources are, like their predeces- current (AC) electricity, LED sources run on direct
sors, called “T” shapes. As most consumers and current (DC) and require a driver to convert the
designers are accustomed to identifying lamps alternating current AC electrical supply which
based on their wattage, many LED lamps contain is common in residential and commercial build-
both their actual wattage and the wattage of ings. This driver is often embedded directly in
the lamp source they are replacing within their the lamp as shown in Figure 15.22. The lifespan
product title. For example, a LED T8 might be of LED sources is negatively impacted by high
temperature, making heat dissipation critical the cycle of light output, it is possible to reduce
for the thermal management of LED lamps. To the amount of light emitted from the lamp source
prevent overheating from higher currents, LEDs by delaying its signal. Most LED drivers have been
are operated at 350 mA. Rather than increase the designed with a PWM generator, which controls
current to produce more light, multiple diodes the on and off cycle of the LED lamp. Because
are required to achieve a high intensity light the frequency of this altered signal should not be
distribution. visible to the human eye, it is important to use
a driver designed to work with the specific LED
White Light. Most lighting applications in lamp assembly.
buildings require white light, but LEDs emit light
in narrow wavelengths of red, green, and blue Lamp Life and Operating Efficiency. One of
(R, G, and B). To produce white light, red, green, the principle advantages of LED sources is their
and blue diodes can be combined, but the CRI of efficacy and extended lamp life, which leads to
this white light is typically low due to the narrow significant life-cycle cost savings, as shown in
wavelength of each combined source. To produce Table 15.6. If we compare a 60W incandescent
LED lamps with a higher CRI as we now see on the to a 14W CFL and a 12W LED, the 14W CFL has
market, two strategies are used. The first strategy a payback period of only 0.3 years over the tradi-
involves combining more than 3 diode colors to tional 60W incandescent (when operated 4 hours
produce a “trichromatic” white light. The second a day). The 12W LED takes closer to a year to break
strategy uses R, G and B LEDs in combination even with the cost of purchasing and operating
with a phosphor, which absorbs some light from a 60W incandescent, but the LED achieves the
the LEDs and allows them to fluoresce in different greatest life-cycle net cost savings. Despite the
colors. This extended color range of the LEDs higher upfront costs of the lamp itself, the annual
plus phosphor can produce CRIs up to 90, with energy savings and extended lamp life (25,000
a typical value of 82, which matches fluorescent hours in this example) of the LED lamp means a
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
sources. Using phosphors, LED lamps can achieve greater life-cycle net cost savings over both the
color temperatures across a broad range (from incandescent and CFL lamps. Other LED lamps can
2200 K to 7000 K). This makes LEDs not only one
of the most energy-efficient sources of white light,
but also the longest lasting and most versatile.
TABLE 15.6 Comparison of Bulb Life, Annual
Dimming and Color Changing. The combi- Electricity Cost, and Life-cycle Energy Savings
nation of individual diodes and phosphor coatings Between a Traditional 60W Incandescent, and
allows these sources to achieve a broad range of a 14W CFL and 12W LED Lamp (Operated
colors and intensities depending on which diodes 4 Hours a Day)
are activated. LED lamps can be dimmed using a 14W CFL 12W LED
couple of different strategies. As LEDs require a Lamp Life 10,000 hours 25,000 hours
constant current and voltage supply to operate Annual Electricity Cost $8.00 $9.00
efficiently, a simple analog dimming strategy Savings
Life-cycle Energy $ Saved ∼77% ∼80%
(lowering the voltage to the lamp as is done with (%)
legacy lamps) does not work well. Reducing the Life-cycle Net Cost $49 $110
savings*
current and voltage to an LED lamp can produce Simple payback period** 0.3 years 1.0 years
a dimming effect (until a given threshold where
the lamp will fail), but it negatively impacts its Source: U.S. Department of Energy, How Energy-Efficient Light
Bulbs Compare with Traditional Incandescents. https://www.energy
efficacy and produces visible variations in the .gov/energysaver/save-electricity-and-fuel/lighting-choices-save-
lamps CCT. you-money/how-energy-efficient-light.
*Life-cycle Net Cost Savings refers to the life-cycle electricity cost
Another strategy is called “pulse width modu- savings plus the avoided cost for replacement, minus the purchase
lation” (PWM), which causes the LED to flicker price of the lamp.
**Simple payback is the time required to offset the additional cost
off and on at a rate that is undetectable to the of the LED lamp through accrued savings in energy (ignoring the
human eye. By controlling the rate of flicker and time value of money).
INDUCTION LAMPS 729
achieve even higher lamp life (up to 50,000 hours

for a typical T8 LED). When compared to a typical OTHER ELECTRIC LAMPS
T8 fluorescent lamp, the T8 LED is around 30%
more efficient with a 60% longer lamp life.
15.19 ORGANIC LIGHT-EMITTING 15.20 INDUCTION LAMPS

DIODES (OLED)
Induction lamps have been around in some
Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED) sources are form or another since Nikola Tesla demonstrated
a form of LED where the emissive surface is an the technology in the late 1890s. Due to high
organic compound or semi-conductor located upfront costs and the availability of other low-cost
between two electrodes (Figure 15.24). OLED sources, this technology was not introduced to
sources were first introduced in digital displays the market until the 1990s due to market pres-
such as computer monitors, television screens, sure for energy-efficient solutions. An induction
and mobile phones, but are now being incorpo- lamp is filled with low-pressure mercury vapor.
rated into architectural lighting applications. As When ionized by a high-frequency induction coil
a flexible emissive surface, OLED sources offer inside the lamp, the mercury vapor produces UV
unique application potential. radiation, which then strikes a phosphor coating
Philips Lighting offers a brand called “Lumi- on the inside of the lamp, producing light. This
blade,” which contains a series of OLED panel prod- is similar to the light-producing process used
ucts. Where normal LEDs are composed of a cluster by standard fluorescent lamps; the difference
or filament of diodes, OLEDs emit light through a is that the gas is ionized by an induction coil
flexible medium, giving them the ability to take a (rather than an electron stream)—thus the name
range of shapes depending on the intended light induction lamp. Two such designs are shown in
distribution and luminaire design. Figs. 15.25 and 15.26.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
As such, this technology does not conform Despite their high upfront cost, induction
to the “typical” range of lamp shapes and sizes lamps offer low-maintenance operation, high effi-
seen with previous electric light sources. While cacy (70+ lumens/watt), excellent color rendering
currently more expensive than typical LED sources,
OLED technologies are rapidly evolving and can be
expected to match and even exceed LEDs in terms
of luminous efficacy, stability, dimmability, color
change capability, and application versatility.
Fig. 15.25 Schematic diagram of an induction lamp (rated 85W,

including all losses) showing the operating principles. The lamp is
4.3 in. (109 mm) in diameter and 7.5 in. (191 mm) high overall. The
generator (C) produces a high-frequency current, which
circulates in the coil on the power coupler (B). This ionizes the
mercury vapor inside the lamp (A), producing UV radiation. The
UV radiation strikes the fluorescent coating inside the lamp,
Fig. 15.24 OLED structure. (Drawn by Siobhan Rockcastle, © producing light. (Illustration courtesy of Philips Lighting
University of Oregon, Baker Lighting Lab.) Company.)
Mercury-vapor fill Induction coil Electronic ballast
Phosphor coating Plastic housing Medium screw base
Fig. 15.26 Cutaway of the GE induction lamp showing the essential elements: induction coil, phosphor-coated bulb with
mercury-vapor fill, and electronic ballast. This 23W lamp in a modified R (reflector)-shaped bulb has a height just under 5 in. (127 mm)
overall and a 3 in. (76 mm) maximum bulb diameter. (Photo courtesy of GE Lighting.)
(80 CRI+), a broad range of color tempera- previously, no mercury vapor is used in this lamp,
tures (2,700–6,500 K), instant strike, dimming and the radiation is full spectrum light with very
capability, high power factor, and excessively long little ultraviolet or infrared radiation. A proto-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
life (100,000 hours+). type lamp was a 6 kW unit that emitted more
A self-contained induction lamp of lower than 400,000 lumens (a lot of light). A more
wattage is illustrated in Fig. 15.26. This lamp recent version of the lamp exhibited the following
is built into a modified R-shaped envelope with characteristics:
a standard Edison base, and is therefore readily
applied as a direct replacement for a 100-W incan- Total power input 1320 W
descent reflector lamp. The published performance Initial lumens 130,000
values for the lamp are: Efficacy 101 lm/W

Diameter of globe 29 mm (1.1 in)
Total wattage 23 CCT 5600 K
Initial lumens 1100 CRI 80
Efficacy 48 lm/W Life of lamp (estimated) 60,000 hours
CCT 3000 K Life of exciting magnetron 15,000 hours
CRI 82 Lumen maintenance Very high
Life 10,000 hours Color constancy with aging Excellent
Lumen maintenance at 70% life 75%
Current sulfur lamp technology provides
approximately the same output as a 1000W HPS
15.21 SULFUR LAMPS lamp, but with much better color characteristics.
It also compares to about 1200W equivalent
The principle of microwave energy excitation of metal-halide lamp with similar efficacy, but
has been applied successfully to a lamp type again, because of its full-spectrum radiation, it
that consists of a golf ball–sized globe filled with has superior color characteristics. Initial trials
an inert gas and a few milligrams of sulfur. of the lamp as a driver for a “light pipe” were
In contrast to the induction lamp described successful.
LUMINAIRE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION 731
15.22 FIBER OPTICS because most common light sources emit light
in all directions. How this distribution control is
Although optical fibers have been available since accomplished is well known to luminaire designers
the 1920s, practical applications (in the medical and manufacturers. The characteristics of the
field) were not developed until the late 1950s and reflectors, baffles, lenses, and louvers that perform
early 1960s. Bundled fibers used as a diagnostic these functions are discussed in some detail in
tool can deliver light to remote regions of the body the following sections. However, the problem in
and carry coherent (understandable) images back luminaire selection is that the requirements are,
to a doctor. In recent years, fiber-optic systems in many respects, incompatible, and therefore a
have made their most significant advances in trade-off between various luminaire characteris-
the communications field, wherein long-distance tics must be made. For instance, high-efficiency
telephone cables and complex wire networks installations can entail high fixture luminance
have been replaced by much simplified fiber-optic with resultant glare. Wall lighting from a ceiling
installations. Architectural applications of fiber fixture means high-angle luminaire output with
optics have included alternatives that directly resultant direct glare potential (see Figs. 6.23
replace recessed ceiling downlighting, track and and 6.24). Low-angle light means reduced direct
display case lighting in museums, and lighting for glare potential but possible veiling reflections.
pools/spas, supermarkets, and other commercial A high shielding angle (>35∘ ) means good
buildings. visual comfort but reduced efficiency, and so on.
Illuminators for fiber-optic systems utilize a It follows that:
variety of lamp types. The primary advantages
of using a fiber-optic system are that no heat is • No single luminaire design is ideal for even a
produced where the light exits the fiber (permitting majority of applications.
“cool” lighting installations), and no UV radiation • To make an intelligent selection among the
is transmitted through the fiber. hundreds of lighting fixtures commercially
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
available, it is necessary to understand both the
specific requirements of the application and the
light control characteristics of the luminaire
LUMINAIRES being considered.
15.23 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 15.24 LUMINAIRE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION

(a) General
The two intensity distribution curves shown in
A luminaire (lighting fixture) is the interface Fig. 15.27a are actual test results from two 2-lamp,
between a lamp and a building. The luminaire 1 ft × 4 ft (0.3 m × 1.2 m) semi-direct fluorescent
must be designed for the intended lamp type (LED, fixtures with prismatic enclosures. The flat bottom
fluorescent, incandescent) and be designed for of the curve in Fig. 15.27a indicates even illumi-
installation in the intended ceiling type (gypsum nation over a wide area—therefore permitting a
board, suspended acoustical tile, other). The high spacing to mounting-height ratio (S/MH)
aesthetics of the fixture are often of concern of 1:4, while still providing uniform illuminance.
during the selection process. The rounded bottom of the curve in Fig. 15.27b
indicates uneven illumination and closer required
spacing for horizontal uniformity.
(b) Luminaire Characteristics
The straight sides of the curve in Fig. 15.27a
The purpose of a luminaire or lighting fixture (the show a fairly sharp cutoff, and the small amount
terms are synonymous) is twofold: physically, to of light above 45∘ means high efficiency, prob-
hold, protect, and electrify the light source (lamp); ably insufficient wall lighting, barely adequate
and photometrically, to control the lamp output diffuseness, and very little direct glare potential
(i.e., to redirect the light produced by the lamp) but a distinct possibility of veiling reflections.
200 200
400 400
600 600
60° 800 60° 60° 800 60°
1000 1000
1200 1200
45° 45° 45° 45°
30° 30° 30° 30°

0° 0°
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.27 Semi-direct fluorescent fixture crosswise distribution (two lamps, 32W each, prismatic enclosure). Note the sharp cutoff and
wide, horizontally even distribution of (a) in contrast to the diffuse, broad, and horizontally uneven distribution of (b).
Conversely, the curve in Fig. 15.27b shows a 45∘ is directed to the walls and reaches the
large amount of horizontal illumination (above working plane only after multiple attenuating
45∘ ) with resultant direct glare potential, diffuse- reflections.
ness, and relative inefficiency, because horizontal 3. Diffuseness exists when light reaches the work
light output is attenuated by multiple reflections plane from multiple directions. This requires
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
before reaching the horizontal working plane. that light be reflected from walls and ceilings
Here, however, low output below 45∘ minimizes to the work plane, which in turn requires lumi-
reflected glare potential. The uplight component naire light output above 45∘ from the vertical.
of luminaire (a) is directed outward to cover the 4. Direct glare is caused by light output at high
ceiling and will not cause hot spots; the corre- angles (i.e., above 45∘ from the vertical). Direct
sponding light from fixture (b) is concentrated glare from linear fluorescent fixtures can be
above the fixture and gives uneven illuminance on minimized by placing the long axis parallel to
the ceiling. the line of sight, because such fixtures normally

These conclusions were reached based on the have low endwise high-angle output.
following observations: 5. Reflected glare is caused by reflection of
low-angle output from the task. Therefore,
1. Uniformity of illumination requires that the fixtures with control means that limit output
intensity at angles above the nadir (0∘ from between 0∘ and 45∘ minimize the potential for
the vertical) be greater than the intensity at veiling reflections (see Section 15.26b).
0∘ , so that location-points distant from the 6. Shielding is a function of the shape of the fixture
fixture centerline obtain the same illumination housing plus any additional lamp conceal-
as those below the fixture (because illuminance ment means, such as louvers or baffles. The
varies inversely with the square of distance). shielding angle is defined as the angle between
This is exactly the case with the flat-bottom a horizontal plane through the louvers or
characteristics of Fig. 15.27a. Therefore, such baffles and the inclined plane at which the
fixtures can be spaced more widely than the lamp first becomes visible as one approaches
units of Fig. 15.27b. the fixture (Figs. 15.28 and 15.29). Cutoff angle
2. High efficiency is achieved by directing the is usually defined as being synonymous with
luminaire output to the work plane (i.e., the shielding angle. However, because some
from 0∘ to 45∘ from the vertical). Light above sources define it as the complement of the
LUMINAIRE LIGHT CONTROL 733
45° shielding with 45° shielding with vertical baffles Large-aperture Small-aperture
horizontal baffles R lamp R lamp General-service lamp
θ θ θ θ θ
45° 45° 45° 45° 45°
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig. 15.28 Methods for shielding downlights using circular shields for vertically symmetrical sources such as incandescent and HID
lamps. Halogen lamps mounted vertically in R lamp envelopes are symmetrical; horizontally mounted units in PAR or other reflectors
are not. Baffled downlights (a–c) control unwanted high-angle light by cutoff as illustrated. Black baffles aid by absorbing light and
appearing dark. Other colors give a ring of light at the baffled edge. Cones (d, e) control brightness by cutoff and by redirection of light
due to their shape. They are either parabolic or elliptical. A light specular finish such as aluminum appears dull; a black specular finish
appears unlighted. Black finishes require high-quality maintenance because dust shows as a bright reflection. CFL lamps in reflectors
are not normally a serious direct glare concern and are considered to be vertically symmetrical. A shielding angle of 45∘ minimum is
recommended for high-luminance lamps.
Lamp FLUORESCENT LUMINAIRE

holder
Fluorescent lamp
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Shielding angle Shielding
angle
45°
30°
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.29 Shielding of fluorescent lamps is less critical due to lower lamp luminance. For T12 lamps, 45∘ × 35∘ crosswise/lengthwise
shielding as shown is excellent, and 35∘ × 30∘ is satisfactory. For T8 lamps, 45∘ × 35∘ should be used. Because fixture luminance is
higher in the transverse direction (a) than lengthwise (b), a better cutoff angle is required. The shielding elements may be louvers or
baffles. Opaque shielding elements provide better visual comfort than translucent plastic units.
shielding angle, it is best to avoid the term and 15.25 LUMINAIRE LIGHT CONTROL
use only shielding angle.
7. Ceiling illumination is produced by light above (a) Shielding
the horizontal. As with light below the hori-
zontal, a spread-out characteristic (Fig. 15.27a) Except where it is desired to use a bare lamp as
means good ceiling coverage, no hot spots, a source of sparkle, such as in chandeliers and
and, ultimately, good diffuseness. Concen- other decorative fixtures, all lamps in interior
trated uplight means a potential hot spot if fixtures should be shielded from normal sight lines
the fixture suspension hanger is too short, (i.e., sight lines in a head-up, eyes-straight-ahead
and in any event, it yields uneven ceiling position; see Fig. 6.19). The reason is simple:
illumination. bare lamps are so bright (see Table 6.2) that
they usually constitute a source of direct or even
Inspection of a luminaire intensity distribu- disabling glare, depending on the apprehended
tion curve can yield a large amount of information angle (closeness to the eye and size of the lamp)
on the fixture’s performance. and eye adaptation level. The range of permissible
luminaire luminances (listed in Table 6.3) of 1000 (b) Reflectors

to 7000 cd/m2 depends upon apprehended angle
The basic shapes and beam patterns of luminaire
and adaptation level.
reflectors are illustrated in Figs. 15.31 through
As a rule, exposed incandescent lamps, 6W
15.33. A so-called pinhole downlight requires
and larger, are sources of direct glare and should be
an elliptic reflector to focus the light while main-
avoided. The upper direct-glare limit (7000 cd/m2 )
taining even minimal fixture efficiency. Elliptic
corresponds to the luminance of a bare 34-W T12
reflectors are large, and frequently the space above
fluorescent tube, which accounts for the fact that
the ceiling is too restricted for their use. Lamps
bare-lamp fluorescent fixtures are tolerated from a
with integral elliptic reflectors can be utilized with
glare perspective. If such a fixture is relamped with
a standard baffled reflector to achieve roughly the
a lamp whose luminance exceeds 10,000 cd/m2 ,
same effect.
it becomes a source of annoying direct glare that
actively impairs visual ability.
Shielding of lamps is accomplished with
(c) Reflector Materials
the fixture housing/reflector or with baffles and
louvers, as mentioned previously (see Fig. 15.30). Until recently, reflector materials were of two
Fluorescent fixtures require shielding most when types: white gloss paint for portions of fixture
placed crosswise to the line of sight, thus exposing body interior that acted as a reflector, and
the entire length of the lamp to the field of view. anodized aluminum for the shaped reflectors
Such fixtures require longitudinal baffles, deep of the types shown in Figs. 15.31 through 15.33.
housings, or louvers to provide the necessary The reflectances of both materials are approxi-
shielding. Alternatively, when at all possible, place mately the same, varying between 0.84 and 0.88
fixtures with their long axis in the direction of when new and clean. Neither, however, is truly
sight lines. specular; the paint finish is primarily diffuse,
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Deep symmetric
(a)
Fixture
body Fluorescent
lamps
Baffles
or shields
(b) (c)
Fig. 15.30 Shielding elements. (a) The most basic shielding element is the lamp reflector, which may double as the fixture body. (b)
Shields perpendicular to the long axis of a linear fluorescent lamp are normally called baffles. They are less important than lengthwise
shields (louvers) because endwise lamp luminance is lower than crosswise luminance. (c) Two-way shielding is most effective but
seriously lessens luminaire efficiency. (From B. Stein. 1997. Building Technology: Mechanical and Electrical Systems, 2nd ed.;
reproduced by permission of John Wiley & Sons.)
LUMINAIRE LIGHT CONTROL 735
Parabolic reflector
s
ƒ
s, ƒ ƒ
s
s = source
(a) (b) (c) ƒ = focus
ƒ
sƒ s s
Ceiling
line
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 15.31 Parabolic reflector action shown with the fixture below: (a) with the source at the focal point, rays are parallel; (b) with the
source below the focal point, they converge; (c) with the source above the focal point, they diverge. This focusing action is illustrated
by fixtures correspondingly designated. Note that type (c) requires a large ceiling opening to achieve even minimal efficiency.
ƒ1
Fig. 15.32 (a) Action of an elliptical

reflector section. With the light source at
focal point f1 the light converges at the
other focal point, f2 . This effect is useful in
45° fixture design, as in (b). By projecting light
up only (using a silvered bowl lamp), the
output light can be redirected through a
ƒ2 constricted aperture at the other focal
point, with little loss. This design is the
basis of high-efficiency “pinhole”
(a) (b) downlights.
accurately shaped reflector, the result of overall

reflectance reduction is simply an overall reduction
in output while maintaining the same photometric
distribution characteristics.
Previous energy conservation programs and
utility rebates led to the addition (via retrofits)
of very-high-reflectance auxiliary reflectors to
existing fluorescent troffers approximately as
shown in Fig. 15.34b. Unfortunately, many of the
claims of highly increased efficiency were based
Horizontal
on retrofitting aged, dirty luminaires, and the
shield
results were often very misleading. A reasonable
Fig. 15.33 The extended section reflector allows the source to estimate of the possible improvement in luminaire
be concealed (shielded) while projecting its light directly down,
efficiency can be made by considering these facts:
but horizontally displaced, from the source.
• Approximately 40% of a lamp’s output in an

open luminaire is directed downward and
whereas the aluminum is principally specular. is therefore completely independent of any
Where shaped reflectors are not used, as in the reflector action.
case of a fluorescent troffer, the lack of specularity • The difference in reflectance between a new,
is immaterial because, at worst, the diffuseness will clean, painted surface and an old, dirty surface
reduce luminaire output slightly by increasing the is, at most, 50%. That means that the maximum
number of interreflections within the fixture body light loss of an open fixture due to poor main-
(Fig. 15.34a). The idealized specular reflections for tenance is 50% of 60% (the latter percentage
shaped reflectors shown in Figs. 15.31 through being the maximum reflected light component),
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
15.33 are just that; the reflectances are consider- or 30% of the overall light output.
ably more diffuse and become increasingly so with • The maximum reflectance of the best (and
reflector aging and dirt accumulation. most expensive) silver reflectors is about 95%,
Painted fixture body interiors lose their high comprising 93% specular and 2% diffuse.
reflectance by rapid aging due to elevated temper- This is only 10% higher than the original
atures and accumulation of dust and dirt. This minimum 85% paint reflectance. Therefore,
causes a decrease in overall reflectance, which is at most, retrofit of a very dirty, old fixture
compensated for by initial overdesign. However, with a high-quality (expensive) silver reflector
because a rectangular fixture body is not an improves performance by the 30% lost to dirt
Diffuse reflection
Lighting fixture body
Painted white
enamel, 85% High-reflectance
reflectance ±
specular reflector
95% R. F.
~ 40% Specular reflections
of lamp output
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.34 (a) Approximately 40% of lamp output in an open linear fluorescent fixture is unrestricted. The remainder leaves the fixture
after one or more reflections. (b) A mirrored reflector narrows the distribution pattern of the luminaire by specular reflection and
increases output somewhat (R.F. is reflectance factor; i.e., reflectance).
LUMINAIRE DIFFUSERS 737
plus 10% of the 60% reflected light for a total conditions and cleaning schedules like those of the
of 36% maximum. Relamping also improves area under consideration.
output, but that is not connected with fixture
body reflectance.
• Simple cleaning of a very dirty fixture body 15.26 LUMINAIRE DIFFUSERS
restores 20% to 25% of the light loss. The
remaining loss is due to aging of the paint. A cost Diffusers are elements of a luminaire placed
analysis is required to determine whether the between the lamp(s) and the illuminated space,
10% to 15% differential in light output between that function to disperse the light, control fixture
simple cleaning and silvered reflector addition brightness, redirect the light, and obscure (hide)
is economically feasible. and shield the lamps (and fixture components).
An important consideration in retrofit and

(a) Translucent Diffusers
new construction is the photometric characteristic
of high-reflectance linear fluorescent luminaires. Because these do not redirect the light but merely
In general, they are shaped like the curve of diffuse it, the distribution characteristic is circular,
Fig. 15.27b. This means that light is concentrated as seen in Fig. 15.35a. Typical examples of this
downward, resulting in a requirement for closer type are white opal glass, frosted glass, and white
luminaire spacing to obtain uniform illuminance. plastics such as Plexiglas, polystyrene, vinyl,
In new construction, this can be considered in and polycarbonates. The distribution is basi-
design, although it can be a serious economic cally the same as it would be for bare lamps:
penalty. In retrofit work, it can result in unac- lamp-hiding power is good; depending on the
ceptable lack of illuminance uniformity, requiring material, direct glare can be a problem; visual
additional luminaires and expensive relocation of comfort probability (VCP) is poor; veiling reflec-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
existing units. tion potential is high; the S/MH does not exceed
Another factor to be considered is the extent 1.5; the fixture is generally inefficient; and wall
of maintenance required to keep “super” reflec- illumination is good because of a large compo-
tors in pristine condition to achieve the 15% ± nent of high-angle light (which reduces VCP).
maximum output differential. To determine this, The net result of using this type of diffuser is a
designers should request an aging test and inspect reduction in apparent lamp luminance due to
a previously retrofitted installation with ambient a distribution of the lamp output over a larger
Miniature parabolic
Plain diffuser Louver/baffle louver Prismatic lens Batwing diffusers
45° 30° Cuttoff45°

angle
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig. 15.35 Comparison of typical candlepower distribution curves for common linear or PL lamp fluorescent luminaire diffuser
elements (for a full description of types a–d, see text). Note that for a given geometry of viewer and luminaire, the severity of veiling
reflections depends entirely on the fixture’s photometric characteristic. In the individual figures, the potential to produce reflected glare
is indicated by the weight of the line representing fixture output and reflectance from the work task. The batwing distribution
(e) concentrates its output in the 30∘ to 60∘ range, which minimizes both direct and reflected glare potential.
diffusing area. Applications include corridors,

stairwells, high-ceilinged spaces, and other areas
without demanding visual tasks.
A polarizing flat plastic panel, when initially (a)
introduced, held great promise because it
decreased veiling reflection at an angle of 60∘ ,
but much less at other angles. Because most
viewing is in the range 20∘ to 40∘ , using these
panels did not result in any appreciable reduction
in reflected glare in normal office work situations. (b)
Fluorescent
(b) Louvers and Baffles
lamp
These are generally rectangular and are of metal
or plastic; they serve primarily to shield the source
(see Figs. 15.28 and 15.29) and to diffuse the
output, particularly when plastic translucent
louvers are used. Candlepower distribution curves
are shown in Fig. 15.35b. The exact curve shape
depends on the shielding angle, design of the
louver, and its finish. Louvers finished in spec-
ular aluminum or dark colors exhibit low direct
glare potential. The large downward light compo-
nent can cause serious veiling reflections. Overall
fixture efficiency is average.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
The S/MH ratio, which indicates the (c)

maximum spacing permissible for a given lumi- Fig. 15.36 (a) Section through a conventional, miniature
naire mounting height that yields uniform parabolic wedge, eggcrate type of louver. These units give
illumination, is fully explained in the next section. exceptionally low brightness when seen at a normal viewing
angle. Most such units are made of aluminized plastic. Fixtures
For this diffuser type, it does not exceed 1.5 and equipped with these louvers exhibit low overall efficiency due to
varies inversely with the shielding angle. This is the large amount of light trapped by the broad top of each
because the basic circular distribution is changed parabolic wedge. (b) A modified wedge design uses a curved top
on each wedge to redirect and utilize light striking the top. (c)
to an egg shape by cutoff and redirection, reducing Solid lines represent light rays redirected by the bottom curve,
the high-angle light. Thus, a 45∘ shielding angle whereas dotted lines show light redirected by the top curve,
results in lower direct-glare potential but requires which was lost in the design of (a). Typical louver cell dimensions
are a 1/2-in. (12-mm) cube for design (a), with a consequent 45∘
closer spacing. shielding angle, and 5/6 to 3/4 in. (21 to 19 mm) square by 1/2 in.
A special design in this category is the minia- (12 mm) high for design (b), giving a 35∘ to 45∘ shielding angle.
ture eggcrate parabolic wedge louver shown in
Fig. 15.36. These units redirect a large portion
of the light directly downward, and because of units are used, additional wall lighting is almost
this redirection and their specular finish, they always required. The luminance of fixtures and
appear completely dark—darker, indeed, than surfaces can be easily checked in the field using a
the unlighted portion of the ceiling when viewed portable luminance meter, as in Fig. 15.37.
obliquely. Fixtures using these louvers have low Because of the low efficiency of the parabolic
efficiency due to trapped light, with a maximum louver design shown in Fig. 15.36a, caused by
coefficient of utilization of about 0.5. VCP is very the wide light-trapping tops of the louvers, an
high, but veiling reflections can be troublesome; improved version was developed with the tops
S/MH varies between 1.0 and 1.5. The shielding shaped to reflect incident light efficiently. This
angle is usually 45∘ . A typical candlepower distri- improved design, which is shown in Fig. 15.36b,
bution curve is shown in Fig. 15.35c. When these increases luminaire efficiency by about 20%.
LUMINAIRE DIFFUSERS 739
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.38 Action of a Fresnel lens. With a Fresnel lens fixture, a

smaller housing without a reflector can be used while still
maintaining beam control. The lens performs the same function
as a reflector, controlling the beam as a function of source
placement. By utilizing a lens fixture, the curved reflector (a) can
be largely eliminated, yielding a smaller fixture while maintaining
accurate beam control. A common design (b) uses a regressed
lens to provide shielding, although lens brightness is not normally
objectionable.
distribution characteristic—a prismatic lens and

Fig. 15.37 Checking the luminance of a fixture with a luminance
meter.
parabolic reflectors and baffles.
1. Prismatic batwing diffusers. These are either

linear or radial; that is, they produce the
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(c) Prismatic Lens batwing distribution either in one direction
or in all directions. Typical characteristics of
Many designs are available with varying distribu-
both types are shown in Fig. 15.39. Note that
tion characteristics. Figures 15.27a and 15.35d
the characteristic shape is more pronounced
can be taken as typical of this genre. They produce
in the linear diffuser, which indicates better
an efficient fixture (high coefficient of utilization),
control of veiling reflections in that direction
good diffusion, wide permissible spacing—an
(usually crosswise). Fixtures equipped with
S/MH as high as 2.0—and low direct glare

these diffusers have good efficiency, low direct
potential (high VCP). Veiling reflections can be
and reflected glare, and good diffusion. As with
troublesome, depending upon viewing angles and
all enclosed ungasketed fixtures, the lens acts
position (see Fig. 6.32).
as a dust trap, necessitating frequent cleaning
to maintain high output.
(d) Fresnel Lens 2. Deep parabolic reflectors. These luminaires
(Fig. 15.40) produce modified versions of
The action of this lens is like that of a reflector: the characteristic batwing distribution in the
lamp-hiding power is poor, but efficiency is high normal (crosswise) direction. Distribution in
and visual comfort likelihood is good; S/MH is the parallel or lengthwise direction is circular
seldom more than 1.5 (Fig. 15.38). (diffuse), indicating minimum beam control in
that direction. These fixtures, like the batwing
lens-type diffuser units, have high efficiency,
(e) Batwing Diffusers
high S/MH, low reflected glare, and low to very
The theory behind this type of diffuser is covered low surface brightness, making them usable
in Section 16.6h. A typical characteristic is shown in digital display areas. They are normally
in Fig. 15.35e. There are two fluorescent lumi- applied with the long axis in the direction of
naire designs that produce the batwing shape sight lines.
PERPENDICULAR
PARALLEL
45°
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.39 (a) Linear batwing distribution with extremely sharp cutoff in the upper and lower ranges. The curve is taken across the
lamp axis for a single-lamp unit. (b) Distribution curves for a radial batwing distribution lens. Note that the perpendicular, parallel, and
diagonal curves are almost identical. Zonal flux is maximum in the 30∘ to 60∘ range and drops off at both extremes, as desired.
15.27 UNIFORMITY OF ILLUMINANCE luminaires that yields the same illuminance on the
working plane midway between the luminaires as
In a space intended to be lighted uniformly directly under each one. This process deliberately
with multiple, discrete, ceiling-mounted direct- ignores any contributions from other fixtures in
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
distribution fixtures, a fixture spacing that gives a multifixture installation and from interreflec-
acceptable uniformity of illumination must be tions, accounting only for the direct component
used. A 1:1.3 ratio of maximum to minimum illu- of illuminance from the two test fixtures. There-
minance on the working plane is readily acceptable fore, in an actual installation with several rows of
because such a difference is not easily noticed. For fixtures, the illuminance at point P1 in Fig. 15.42
general background or circulation lighting, a ratio is higher than the average by 20% to 30% because
of up to 1.5 is acceptable. S/MH recommendations of the other fixtures and interreflections, and
given by manufacturers are generally based upon the illuminance at point P2 is approximately
a 1.0 illuminance ratio (Fig. 15.41). Therefore, equal to the room average. The illuminance levels
such S/MH recommendations may be somewhat along the walls, assuming a distance between
exceeded without affecting occupant perceptions. the last row and the wall equal to one-half of the
When a luminaire’s distribution charac- side-to-side spacing, range from 60% of average
teristic is symmetrical in all directions, as is at point P3 down to 50% at point P4 , assuming
generally the case with small-source lamps such light-colored walls.
as incandescent, compact fluorescent (CFL), and With dark walls, bookshelves, dark wood
high-intensity discharge (HID), only a single S/MH paneling, and the like, adjacent illuminance
value is required for design. Most fluorescent can drop to less than 50% of the average room
fixtures, however, have an asymmetrical distri- illuminance. To counteract this negative effect,
bution and both crosswise and lengthwise S/MH particularly when placement of furniture is such
ratios are required. The transverse (crosswise, that visual tasks will occur near walls, the designer
perpendicular) ratio is almost always considerably has three choices:
higher than the longitudinal (parallel, endwise, 1. Reduce the distance between the last row of
lengthwise) ratio. The S/MH (also called spacing fixtures and the wall to a third or less of the
criteria [SC]) for a specific luminaire is deter- row-to-row spacing. This also provides required
mined by finding the distance between two test wall lighting.
UNIFORMITY OF ILLUMINANCE 741
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 15.40 A 2-ft (610-mm) square, deep parabolic reflector luminaire designed for three F40, 22.5-in (572-mm) twin-tube CFL lamps,
with a rated output of 3150 lm each. Total power input is 134W and ballast factor (BF) is 0.9, giving a luminaire efficacy rating (LER) of
42. The typical modified batwing crosswise distribution and circular lengthwise distribution are clearly shown. Photometric data are
also shown. (Courtesy of Columbia Lighting.)
Spacing
Mounting height
1.5
1.0
0.5
60° 60°
200 150 200 150 200
Fig. 15.41 The ratio of maximum to minimum illuminance should

not exceed 1.3 in areas requiring uniform illumination.
30° 0° 30°
Fig. 15.43 Curves for approximating the ratio of fixture

spacing to mounting height (S/MH) above the working plane for
typical direct distribution luminaires. These curves were
D D developed for point sources such as incandescent (and HID) but
2 D 3 can also be applied to asymmetric distribution luminaires using
fluorescent lamps. The practical permissible S/MH is somewhat
higher than the curves indicate because this is a semi-direct
distribution, and the ceiling light component permits wider
Dark wall
spacing between units. (After Odle and Smith, from IESNA

P3 P1 Journal, January 1963.)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Light wall
P4 P2 Because endwise illumination from linear

fluorescent fixtures is considerably lower than
crosswise illumination, end walls have lower
illuminance than side walls and greater illu-
minance variation. It is, therefore, particularly
important to provide some additional illumina-
tion, as discussed previously, and to terminate

fixture rows no more than 1 ft (0.3 m) from an end
wall. This is even more important where visual
tasks without supplementary task lighting occur
Fig. 15.42 The diagram shows lighting fixtures installed
according to the manufacturer’s recommended spacing criteria
at these walls.
(ratio of spacing to mounting height above the work plane), with It was mentioned previously that the fixture
a row-to-row spacing, D, and a row-to-wall spacing, D/2, as in Fig. 15.27a had a high S/MH because of
shown at the left wall. Assuming a high-reflectance (light color)
finish on the wall, illuminances P3 and P4 are at least one-half of
its flat-bottomed curve. This ratio, when not
the illuminance directly below a fixture. With a dark wall, as on given by the manufacturer, may be approxi-
the right, illuminance would fall below this value. Consequently, mated from Fig. 15.43. A more accurate method
the right row of luminaires should be placed closer to the wall,
as shown.
of calculating maximum to minimum illumi-
nance ratios is available in the IESNA Lighting
Handbook.
2. Provide some type of continuous perimeter The foregoing discussion of illumination
lighting or wallwash units, both of which uniformity was concerned with uniformity on a
increase illuminance levels at the walls. horizontal work plane. Occasionally, it is necessary
3. A combination of choices 1 and 2. to know the degree of uniformity vertically—that
LUMINAIRE MOUNTING HEIGHT 743
Downlight Continuous row fluorescents
1'
1'
2'
100 fc
2'
100 fc
3'
3'
25 fc 50 fc
11.1 fc 33.3 fc
(a) (b)
Luminous ceiling Parabolic reflector
1'
1'
100 fc
2'
2'
100 fc
3'
100 fc
3'
100 fc
100 fc 100 fc
(c) (d)
Fig. 15.44 Variation of illuminance vertically, directly below the fixtures, for different source types. (a, b) Illuminance directly below the
fixture varies inversely with the square of the distance for a point source and inversely with the distance for a line source. (c, d)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Illuminance remains constant at all distances from either an infinite (or nearly so) source or a parabolic reflector.
is, on horizontal planes at different elevations particularly a large room, by using such a low
directly below the fixtures. Four different lighting mounting height that the apparent ceiling height
situations are normally encountered. They are is affected (Fig. 15.45). General rules for mounting
point sources, such as point source downlights; height are:
line sources, such as continuous-row fluores-
cent fixtures; infinite sources, such as luminous 1. Indirect and semi-indirect luminaires should
ceilings—whether transilluminated or indirect; normally be suspended no less than 18 in.
and parabolic reflector beams, such as from (460 mm) from the ceiling and preferably
parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps. 24 to 36 in. (610 to 915 mm). Single-lamp
The vertical uniformity of each type is shown luminaires with a very wide distribution
graphically in Fig. 15.44. (inverted batwing) may be suspended as little
as 12 in. (305 mm) from the ceiling. Manu-
facturers’ recommendations should be sought
15.28 LUMINAIRE MOUNTING HEIGHT and followed.
2. Direct-indirect and semi-direct fluorescent
Luminaire mounting height is normally estab- fixtures should be suspended not less than
lished before determining their spacing. For 12 in. (305 mm) for two-lamp units and 18 in.
fixtures with an upward distribution component, (460 mm) for three-lamp and four-lamp units.
a balance must be struck between low mounting
(greater distance from ceiling), which affects The effect of mounting height (expressed as
ceiling brightness and gives good utilization of pendant length) on lighting system coefficient of
light, and a reluctance to dominate an area, utilization is given in Fig. 15.46.
LIGHTING FIXTURE
PROPERTIES
This and subsequent sections cover luminaire

construction, installation, and assessment. Electric
lighting fixtures typically constitute 25% to 30%
of the electrical systems budget, which is normally
around 4–5% of the overall building budget.
The difference between a high-quality luminaire
and an inferior one is often not apparent under
casual inspection. Thus, care must be taken when
specifying lighting fixtures and in reviewing lumi-
naire submittals (shop drawings) and samples—
to ensure that an appropriate quality fixture has
been delivered and properly installed.
All fixtures, if used properly, can give a suffi-
cient quantity of light, but only a good quality
unit will provide ease of installation and main-
tenance, lack of degradation, and expected life.
Fig. 15.45 Fixture mounting height may be lower in a small room Proper installation is key to ensuring mechanical
than in a large room because of the illusion of lowness that is rigidity and safety, electrical safety, freedom from
created in a large room. excessive temperatures, and requisite accessibility
of component parts and of the fixture outlet box.
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
The following information is a combination of

National Electrical Code (NEC) minimum require-
ments and factors beyond these minima that may
be important.
Area of space (m2) Area of space (m2)

0 18 27 37 46 92 185 278 371 464 0 18 27 37 46 92 185 278 371 464

0.9 0.8
direct–indirect
or
0.8 general diffuse 0.7 indirect and
semi-indirect
mounting height, ft
distribution
Coefficient of utilization
Coefficient of utilization
distributions all pendant

0.7 8 0.6 lengths
9 12 in. to 48 in.
10
0.6
pending lengths, ft
11 0.5
1
0.5 2 0.4
3
4
0.4 0.3
0.3 0.2
0.2 0
0 200 300 400 500 1000 2 3 4 5 0 200 300 400 500 1000 2 3 4 5
2
Area of space (ft ) Area of space (ft2)
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.46 Coefficient of utilization (CU) as a function of pendant length for various fixture distributions. With a substantial downward
component, as in direct–indirect or general diffuse lighting (a), CU increases slowly as the fixture descends (pendant length increases).
Maximum differentials occur in small rooms and can reach 20%. Where the ceiling is the light source, as in indirect and semi-indirect
systems (b), the pendant length does not change the room illuminance. This curve can be used to estimate CU for indirect and
semi-indirect luminaries in the absence of manufacturer’s data. (Redrawn with SI units by Lisa Leal.)
LIGHTING FIXTURE CONSTRUCTION 745
15.29 LIGHTING FIXTURE A brief survey of the most common stan-

CONSTRUCTION dard transparent and translucent lighting fixture
diffusers follows.
1. All fixtures should be wired and constructed
to comply with local codes, NEC (Article 410), 1. Glass. Transparent to translucent, scratch resis-
the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Stan- tant, easily cleaned, nonflammable, available in
dard for Luminaires, and should bear the UL all grades of impact resistance, non-yellowing,
label where label service is available. Reflec- usable with all sources, unaffected by and effec-
tive Luminaire Manufacturer (RLM) standards tive in blocking UV, readily formed into desired
should be adhered to for all porcelain-enameled
patterns. Heavy and expensive.
fixtures.
2. Acrylic (Plexiglas). Clear to translucent, easily
2. Fixtures should generally be constructed of at
scratched, slow burning, low impact resis-
least 20-gauge (0.0359-in. [0.9-mm]) steel.
tance, resistant to yellowing, and available in a
Cast portions of fixtures should be no less than
special low-yellowing composition (UV grade).
1/16 in. (1.6 mm) thick.
Usable indoors and outdoors. Not usable at the
3. All metals should be coated. The final coat
elevated temperatures (>90∘ C [194∘ F]) found
should be a baked-enamel white paint of at
in some HID applications. Does not readily
least 85% reflectance, except for anodized,
embrittle, warp, or craze. Molds well.
aluminum, or silvered surfaces.
3. Polycarbonate. Initially very clear and highly
4. No point on the outside surface of any fixture
impact resistant, but with a tendency to opacity
should exceed 90∘ C (194∘ F) during continuous
and strength loss with age. Good scratch resis-
operation. For an exception, see NEC Article
tance and excellent thermal resistance. Usable
410 M.
indoors and outdoors with all sources. Readily
5. Each fixture should be identified by a label
molded to prismatic forms. Self-extinguishing
carrying the manufacturer’s name and address
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(burning rate). Expensive.
and the fixture catalog number.
4. Polystyrene. Usable only indoors because of
6. Glass diffuser panels in fluorescent fixtures
rapid yellowing when exposed to exterior UV
should be mounted in a metal frame. Plastic
radiation. Slow burning, but smoke-generation
diffusers should be suitably hinged. “Lay-in”
properties problematic with some fire codes.
plastic diffusers should not be used.
Not usable in the long term because of discol-
7. Plastic diffusers should be of the slow-burning
oration, particularly with UV-producing
or self-extinguishing type with a low
sources. Good thermal resistance. Readily

smoke-density rating and low heat-distortion
molded. Cheap. Not scratch resistant.
temperatures. The latter should be low enough
that the diffuser distorts sufficiently to drop
out of the fixture before reaching ignition As can readily be seen, no ideal diffuser mate-
temperature. rial exists. A designer must select the material
8. It is imperative that plastics used in air-handling that best suits the use and budget, considering
lighting fixtures be of the noncombustible, both initial and replacement costs as well as
low-smoke-density type. These requirements long-term optical properties. Ballasts should be
also apply to other nonmetallic components of mounted in fixtures with captive screws on the
such fixtures. fixture body to allow ballast replacement without
9. All plastic diffusers should be clearly marked fixture removal.
with their composition material, trade name, All fixtures mounted outdoors, whether under
and manufacturer’s name and identification canopies or directly exposed to the weather, should
number. Results of ASTM combustion tests be constructed of appropriate weather-resistant
should be submitted with fixture submittals materials and finishes, including gasketing to
(shop drawings). The characteristics of many prevent entrance of water into wiring, and should
plastic diffusers change radically with age and be marked by the manufacturer as being “Suitable
with exposure to UV radiation. for Outdoor Use.”
15.30 LIGHTING FIXTURE STRUCTURAL figures for different fixtures on a common basis.
SUPPORT This commonality also extends to ballast type (i.e.,
magnetic or electronic). In addition, Standard LE5
Although some codes allow fluorescent fixtures lists benchmark LER figures that are considered to
weighing less than 40 lb (18 kg) to be mounted represent an acceptable luminaire. An additional
directly on the horizontal metal members of item of data useful in economic comparisons that
hung-ceiling systems, experience has shown that is included in LE5 is the yearly cost per 1000/lm,
vibration, member deflection, routine mainte- based on 3000 burning hours and $0.08 per
nance operation on equipment in hung ceilings, kWh (see Fig. 15.40). The actual cost for a given
and poor workmanship can cause such fixtures project is easily calculated from this figure.
to fall, endangering life. It is therefore strongly In 2014, NEMA revised its approach to lumi-
recommended that all fixtures—surface, pendant, naire efficiency ratings with publication of LE6:
or recessed—whether mounted individually or Procedure for Determining Target Efficacy Ratings for
in rows, be supported from the ceiling system Commercial, Industrial, and Residential Luminaires
(NEMA, 2014). LE6 describes a Target Efficacy
support (purlins) or directly from the building
Rating (TER) defined as:
structure, but in no case by the ceiling itself. This
is particularly important in the case of an exposed TER = (EFF × TLL × BF)∕input watts
“Z” spline ceiling system. where,
EFF = Energy Effectiveness Factor (which includes
an averaged CU value)
15.31 LUMINAIRE EFFICACY RATING TLL = total initial lamp lumens
BF = Ballast Factor
A U.S. Energy Policy Act (EPACT) mandate called
for industry-wide testing and information dissemi- LER and TER are both presented herein—
nation to improve lighting fixture energy efficiency. although TER is the currently preferred perfor-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
One result was NEMA Standard LE5, Procedure

mance metric—to show the evolution of thinking
for Determining Efficacy of Luminaires. Standard
LE5 expressed the stand-alone energy efficiency about specifying luminaire performance that has
of a luminaire—in lumens per watt (lumens of occurred over a fairly short time span (LE5 in
light output per watt of electrical input) and used 2001 and LE6 in 2014). The LE6 TER procedure
the same “efficiency” term used for lamps (i.e., addresses LED fixtures as well as more traditional
efficacy). Luminaire efficacy considers all power incandescent and fluorescent luminaires.
used by a luminaire, including the ballast, and
includes the ballast factor, which is itself an energy

efficiency metric. The expression used to calculate 15.32 LIGHTING FIXTURE ASSESSMENT
the luminaire efficacy rating (LER) is:
photometric efficiency × ballast factor Intense competition in the lighting products field
LER =
luminaire input watts necessitates close scrutiny of the characteristics
The LER metric applies to a specific type of of luminaires and all accessories. To compare the
fluorescent luminaire and is identified by an abbre- relative merits of similar lighting fixtures manu-
viation as: factured by different companies, complete test data
plus a sample in a regular shipping carton from a
FL = fluorescent lensed normal manufacturing run are needed.
FP = fluorescent parabolic The following list should be used as a basic
FW = fluorescent wraparound guide to required information, with additional
FI = fluorescent industrial items added according to job requirements:
FS = fluorescent strip light
1. Photometric and design data. Manufacturers
Thus, the LER value shown in Fig. 15.40 should furnish complete test data, including
is labeled “FP” to denote a fluorescent parabolic candlepower distribution curve(s), coefficients
luminaire. This enables a designer to compare LER of utilization, wall and ceiling luminance
WHY LIGHTING CONTROL? 747
coefficients, luminance data from 45∘ to 85∘ , can reduce energy usage up to 60% over a simple
a table of VCP values, energy performance on–off installation. In addition, other operating
data including LER, and recommended S/MH economies result from:
(SC). These data should come from a reliable
independent testing laboratory, not from the • Reduced energy use
manufacturer’s test facilities. In addition, many • Reduced air-conditioning costs as a result of
lower light-to-heat energy conversion
manufacturers either publish or make available
upon request various design aids such as isolux • Longer lamp and ballast life due to lower oper-
ating temperatures and lower output
(isofootcandle) curves and point-by-point
illuminance plots for different fixture layouts. • Lower labor costs due to control automation
2. Construction and installation. The designer Lighting in most new US nonresidential
should check the sample for workmanship; construction is designed within the energy
rigidity; quality of materials and finish; and constraints of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
ease of installation, wiring, and leveling. 90.1. This standard provides lighting power
Installation instruction sheets should be suffi- credits for automatic energy-conserving controls.
ciently detailed to be of use on the job site. These credits permit the effective connected load
Results of actual operating temperature tests in to be reduced by factors that increase with energy
various installation modes should be included. conservation effectiveness. Thus, for example,
Air-handling fixtures should be accompanied circuits with a simple on-off mode initiated by
by heat-removal data, pressure-drop curves, a daylight sensor have a smaller power credit
air-diffusion data, and noise criteria (NC) than daylight sensing with continuous dimming,
values for different airflow rates. because the latter is more energy economical (but
3. Maintenance. Luminaires should be simply and much more expensive initially).
quickly relampable, resistant to dirt collection, To avoid confusion, particularly in view of
and simple to clean. Replacement parts must be overlapping and sometimes inaccurate termi-
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
readily available. nology, it is necessary to differentiate between
control functions, control devices, and control
systems. For lighting, the only control functions are
LIGHTING CONTROL switching and dimming. The control devices are
the means by which the switching and dimming
functions are accomplished. These devices are
15.33 WHY LIGHTING CONTROL? numerous, ranging from a simple wall switch to
time switches and dimmers of all sorts. Generally,

The term lighting control encompasses all the tech- also included in this category are control initiation
niques by which a lighting system can be operated devices, such as occupancy sensors and photo-
and includes both manual and automatic controls. cells. The control system is the entire assembly of
A control strategy must be determined simulta- control and signal-initiating equipment together
neously with the lighting delivery design because with all interconnections. Microprocessors and
the control scheme must be appropriate to the programmable controllers are also considered
light source. In turn, the system’s accessories part of the control system. The system can be
and arrangement depend on the control scheme. a stand-alone arrangement or, alternatively, as
For instance, if dimming a fluorescent light source is the case in large facilities, it can be part of
is desired, the expected range of dimming deter- an energy management system (EMS) and/or a
mines the type of ballast, the ballast switching building automation system (BAS). The difference
points, and the degree of dimming flexibility. between an EMS and a BAS lies in the underlying
The primary purposes of lighting control objective—which is primarily energy-oriented
are flexibility and economy. Flexibility to provide for an EMS, and function-oriented for a BAS.
desired changes in illuminance, luminance, and In the discussion that follows, key control criteria
brightness patterns; economy of both energy and are energy conservation, cost reduction, and
costs. A properly designed lighting control system operating flexibility.
15.34 LIGHTING CONTROL: SWITCHING Use of split-wired two-lamp ballasts is advanta-

geous from the cost and energy viewpoints. Even
There are two basic control functions—switching more uniform light reduction and finer control
and dimming. Switching is an on-off function. are possible with two-level ballasts (at increased
By selecting the number of lighting elements to cost). With a two-level system, each lamp can
be activated (or deactivated) by each switching operate at either full or half output. Thus, the
action, the designer can establish the number system could have 0%, 50%, and 100% output
of control levels. The more levels, the finer the or, by combining alternate ballast switching with
control. Thus, in a space requiring several levels of two-level ballasts, could have 0%, 17%, 33%, 50%,
67%, 83%, and 100% output options. However, if
uniform illuminance for different functions, there
that range of control options is desirable, dimming
are many switching alternatives. Entire fixtures
is probably preferable. The choice depends on the
can be switched, but this adversely affects lighting
type of space and on the project economics, as
uniformity. Using three-lamp fluorescent fixtures
discussed later. An alternative method of using
as an example, better uniformity and four levels switching to achieve reduced lighting levels in
of illuminance can be obtained by switching the discrete steps is to introduce impedance into the
ballasts (assuming appropriate ballast circuiting lighting circuit. This acts to reduce circuit current
as described below): and light output. Such devices are readily available
for control of fluorescent lamps (see Fig. 15.51).
All ballasts on 100% illumination Recognition of the fact that an increased
Two-lamp ballast on 66% illumination number of control (switch) points makes possible
Half of two-lamp ballast on 33% illumination finer control, and can reduce energy consump-
All ballasts off 0% illumination
tion if properly utilized, led to requirements in
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1 relating
The energy and flexibility benefits of such to the number of control points in a space and
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
ballast control need to be assessed against the cost their types. Many field studies have demonstrated
of the necessary ballasts and circuiting. Similar conclusively that reliance on manual switching
control possibilities, and cost considerations, are is not an effective long-term energy reduction
available for other lamp types. strategy, regardless of the good intentions of the
Lamp switching has the advantage of light space occupants. Indeed, studies have shown that
reduction in relatively small steps at low cost. space “ownership” affects even the low level of
A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 15.47. energy savings possible with manual switching.
Three-lamp fluorescent fixture Two-lamp

Lamps
ballast
(a) Switching lines
S S S S S S
Two-lamp ballast, split-wired

(b) Impedance device
Fig. 15.47 Schematic diagram of switching arrangements to achieve multiple discreet lighting levels with three-lamp fluorescent
lighting fixtures. Two-lamp ballasts are used in the interest of energy conservation and financial economy. In scheme (a) ballasts are
switched, thus removing either one or two lamps from service. Finer control is achieved by using two-level ballasts or by introducing
impedance (b) into the circuit, either in a block for an entire circuit or distributed in each fixture.
LIGHTING CONTROL: CONTROL INITIATION 749
Essentially, lighting in private offices, conference 100

rooms, and small storage spaces may be switched
off, whereas lighting in multi-occupancy and 90
Fluorescent
common-use spaces such as libraries, large office Mercury
80
spaces, break areas, and the like, may not be. As a Incandescent
Lumen output (%)

result, Standard 90.1 first specifies the minimum High-pressure
70 sodium
number of control points required in a space and Metal-halide
then awards automatic switching or dimming a 60
higher number of control points.
50
The basic requirement is for one control point
for every 450 ft2 (42 m2 ) or fraction thereof of 40
LED
enclosed lighted space, plus one control point
for each task (or group of tasks) located in the 30
space. Thus, the classroom would require two
control points for its 517 ft2 (48 m2 ) floor area 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
plus one control point for all similar tasks grouped
Power input (%)
in the room, for a total of three control points.
This requirement could be met with three wall Fig. 15.48 Typical dimming curves for generic light source types.
Note that fluorescent lighting is efficient and approximately linear
switches, or one wall switch and an occupancy
down to 40% output. LED lamp dimming is similar to that of
sensor, or an automatic dimming system most fluorescent. All other sources have reduced efficacy when
likely initiated by daylight sensors. The point is to dimmed. (Drawing revised by Martin Lee.)
encourage use of automatic controls, which is the
only proven method of attaining significant energy
use reductions.
than magnetic ballasts and would be provided for
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
all new installations, dimmed or not. For retrofit
15.35 LIGHTING CONTROL: DIMMING work, silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) or triac
dimmers give excellent results (down to 40%
The techniques and equipment required to dim output) with existing magnetic core-and-coil
each lamp type, as well as the effect on the color ballasts.
of the light produced and on the lamp itself, are
discussed in the sections above dealing with lamp
types. Figure 15.48 shows typical lumen output 15.36 LIGHTING CONTROL:
versus power input curves for common light CONTROL INITIATION
sources. Note that for fluorescent lamps, even with
conventional magnetic ballasts, dimming down to Control initiation is either manual, automatic, or a
approximately 40% of output is possible without combined manual-automatic function. Combined
reducing efficacy. This desirable characteristic control is usually in the form of an override
can be exploited in control schemes where it is function: for example, manual override of an auto-
desired to change light output gradually without mated procedure to address special or unusual
sacrificing efficiency. Due to efficacy reductions situations with automatic reset to the automatic
that occur below 40% output, an economical and function to reestablish normal operation.
efficient control scheme combines dimming and
switching of multi-lamp fluorescent fixtures to
(a) Manual Control Initiation
yield an almost stepless output range of 13% to
100% output. Continuous dimming over a 10% Numerous studies dating back over 50 years have
to 100% range is practical with special individual shown increased employee satisfaction when at
magnetic dimming ballasts or with electronic least a degree of control over the working environ-
ballasts. As discussed previously in this chapter, ment is provided to the employee. Such satisfaction
electronic ballasts are much more energy-efficient is frequently accompanied by increased work
output, at least in the short term. Unfortu- For normal working spaces, however, even the
nately, manual control of lighting levels has installation of manual dimmers in private offices
been demonstrated to be energy-wasteful due is not effective because of the need to go to the
to the tendency to leave lights at maximum dimmer on the wall to readjust. Manual dimming
output even when daylight is supplying more in multiple-occupancy spaces is effective only in
than enough light or when leaving a room for an creating personnel dissatisfaction and friction.
extended period. Some energy use reduction in the There are practical remote-control dimming
latter instance is possible with the installation of systems that can control single or multiple lumi-
time-out switches in spaces normally used for short naires, making them applicable to all occupancies.
periods, such as supply closets (see Fig. 26.46). Figure 15.49 illustrates the use of such a system in
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 15.49 (a) Ceiling-mounted fluorescent fixtures within an 8-ft (2.4-m) radius of the optical sensor can be dimmed by remote
control and restored almost instantaneously. (b) The handheld IR remote-control device for continuous dimming and for dimming
override for maximum or minimum light. (c) The IR-activated receiver/dimmer, which fits into a 4-in (100-mm) square standard outlet
box, can be mounted inside the luminaire as in (a) or adjacent to it. (d) High-frequency electronic dimming ballast for one to four lamps
can provide full-range dimming down to 1–5% of output or down to 10% of output, depending on the type. The optical tube that carries
the IR signal must be exposed on the ceiling. It may be mounted on the underside of an open luminaire or close by. (Courtesy of Lutron
Electronics Co.)
LIGHTING CONTROL: CONTROL INITIATION 751
1. Static control. The most common type

of open-circuit lighting control is the
programmable time-base controller. These vary
from small, relatively simple units that replace
wall switches and fit into a common device
box to the more sophisticated units shown
in Fig. 26.13. These devices are available in
myriad designs and capacities, but all perform
the same basic function: (remote) control of
loads and circuits on a preprogrammed time
basis. The programming, in turn, is deter-
mined after analysis of operating schedules,
task requirements, and field conditions. With
“tight” programming, energy savings of up
to 50% over an uncontrolled installation are
possible.
Fig. 15.50 Remote control (right) may be used to operate a Because these devices act only on a time
wall-mounted dimmer (left). (Courtesy of Lutron Electronics Co.)
signal and are insensitive to actual field condi-
tions, an override feature must be incorporated
an open multiple-occupancy space. This enables to permit accommodation of special conditions.
an individual worker to adjust the output of Thus, if a timer is set to shut off a row of fixtures
those luminaires closest to his or her worksta- adjacent to windows between 10:00 a.m. and
tion without disturbing other employees. This 3:00 p.m., local override must be provided to
adjustment, which is easily accomplished (see accommodate dark rainy days and the like.
Fig. 15.49a) by remote control, can alleviate direct Similarly, if luminaires are turned off during
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
and reflected glare experiences or can be a tempo- nonworking hours, provision must be made
rary expedient suitable to the task at hand, as, for persons working overtime. The override
for instance, when working with a digital display. arrangement can be entirely local, in which
Figure 15.49b–d shows the system components for case it may lead to energy waste because it
such control. Wiring of the system can be arranged depends on local cancellation; it can be local
so that a single receiver/dimmer can control up with a time-out, which can be a nuisance to
to 20 ballasts (or fixtures) or, conversely, multiple a person working for an extended period; or it
dimmers may be connected on a single circuit. can incorporate an override feedback link to the
The latter arrangement would be used in wiring controller, usually operated by telephone lines.
a group of small single- or double-occupancy In general, programmable time controls are
rooms. Such rooms are frequently wired with best applied to facilities with regular, repetitive
a wall-mounted dimmer, which can then be schedules and few exceptional situations.
activated by the remote control, as shown in 2. Dynamic control. The second type of automatic
Fig. 15.50. control initiation responds to sensor-indicated
field conditions via an information feedback
loop. It is frequently referred to as dynamic
(b) Automatic Control Initiation
control because the initiation of a control
Automatic controls are of two types: an function depends not on a fixed parameter
open-circuit type and a closed-loop feedback such as a specific time, but on real-time field
type—these are also known as static and dynamic parameters (as measured at that instant). In
control, respectively. The former initiates a control the case of lighting control, these parameters
function that is independent of the actual lighting may be ambient illuminance, time, system
situation, whereas the latter reacts to the condi- kW demand, kWh usage during a specified
tion of the lighting situation it controls via a time period, or space occupancy—singly or in
feedback loop. combination—depending on the programming
algorithm (i.e., how the controller micropro- (a) System “Tuning”

cessor has been instructed). The control device
In every lighting installation there is a difference
in its entirety is called a programmable controller
between the intended design and the installed
(see Section 26.16) which, in combination
result. This is due to unrealized assumptions,
with the field sensors and the interconnecting
imprecisions in calculation, differences between
wiring, constitute the control system. Some
systems are wireless, using high-frequency specified and installed equipment, equipment
signals impressed on the power wiring system location changes, and so on. Thus, a lighting
to transmit control signals. This arrangement is system should be “tuned” in the field to attain the
known as a power line carrier (PLC) system and intended design results—prior to occupancy. This
is discussed in Section 26.34. Other systems usually means reducing lighting levels in nontask
are completely wireless, using radio frequen- areas because spill light is frequently sufficient
cies and a system of wireless transmitters and for circulation, rough material handling, and the
receivers. like. Field tuning can often result in an energy
reduction of 20% to 30%, depending upon the
control technique.
In addition to its CPU (microprocessor), a
The smaller the number of light sources
programmable controller contains input/output
controlled, the more accurate the tuning and
(I/O) interfaces, memory, and means for program-
the larger the energy saving potential. Lighting
ming (and reprogramming). An operational block
system retuning is required when the function
diagram is shown in Fig. 25.14. The controller
of an entire space is changed, or when an area is
accepts not only the usual time-based signal
altered by a furniture move or by a task change. An
function, but also information (feedback) from
ancillary benefit of field tuning is glare reduction,
field devices via its I/O device. It then “processes”
which frequently improves task visibility. Tuning
the signal in its CPU, which consists of logic
is a one-step task in the sense that, once accom-
and storage memory, and sends out a resultant
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
plished, it does not require change unless the space

processed control signal.
function changes. Therefore, it should also be
Large lighting control systems use a computer
in lieu of a programmable controller and usually reversible to accommodate such changes. Tuning
have additional control facilities, such as telephone should not be confused with lumen maintenance,
interfaces and local control/relay/switching described in Section 15.37d, which is a control
centers, which process local sensor input and strategy designed to compensate for normal system
control local lighting blocks (see Fig. 26.54). output decline and its corollary—initial system
Identical systems are used for building automa- overdesign.

tion, HVAC control, energy management, and The tuning action most often required is a
the like, the difference being the types of sensing reduction in illuminance and this can be accom-
devices and the control algorithms. plished by:
1. Making appropriate field modifications to

15.37 LIGHTING CONTROL STRATEGIES adjustable fixtures (aiming, lamp position,
etc.)
A good lighting control system varies the light 2. Replacing installed lamps with lamps of lower
supplied to match the light required, in real time wattage—changes that reduce light output
as the requirement varies; thus, overlighting and reversibly
underlighting are avoided. In addition, the control 3. Replacing installed fluorescent ballasts with
system must be capable of permitting initial low-current ballasts, thereby lowering output
adjustments and of accommodating external, 4. Adding current-limiting impedances to lumi-
non-lighting constraints such as commands naires or lighting circuits, as previously
from a peak-demand controller. Common mentioned (Fig. 15.51)
lighting system situations addressed by a control 5. Ballast switching or use of multilevel ballasts
system follow. (see Section 15.34)
LIGHTING CONTROL STRATEGIES 753
(c) Occupancy Sensing

Within a normal 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. working
schedule, offices in commercial spaces are typi-
cally unoccupied for 30% to 60% of the time. The
reasons are several—coffee breaks, conferences,
off-site work assignments, illness, vacation, and
reassignment to a different work location are a
few. Occupancy sensors can operate relays to turn
off lighting after a preset minimum period (about
Fig. 15.51 This type of compact solid-state electronic circuit 10 minutes) or can dim the lighting to a minimum
reduces ballast power input by approximately 30% and lamp in areas such as corridors, which always require
output by about 28%, resulting in a net gain in efficacy. The some light. Occupancy sensors can also turn off
power factor remains above 90%. Similar units are available for
larger power decrease. They can be mounted on the lamp end or other energy consumers such as fan-coil units,
in the fixture channel, as shown. An ancillary benefit is cooler fans, and plug loads. Reestablishment of the orig-
ballast operation, resulting in extended life. (Photo courtesy of inal lighting level can be instantaneous, delayed,
Remtec Systems.)
or manual following action by the occupant.
Another useful function of an occupancy sensor
6. Dimming by adjustment of a potentiometer at is to provide an automatic override in sched-
individual fixtures that are so equipped uled systems, thus both relieving the occupant
7. Replacing standard wall switches with time-out of the necessity of using a manual override and
units (see Fig. 25.46), programmable units, or limiting the energy use to actual occupancy time.
dimmer units Occupancy sensing can also light an occupant’s
way into a space and shut off the system after
he/she has left.
Some of the suggestions listed above go
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Occupancy sensors (that can detect a human)
beyond simple tuning and are suggestive of design
are of three types—passive infrared (IR), ultra-
considerations best addressed during design rather
sonic, and a hybrid of both technologies. The IR
than during pre-occupancy. Including moderate
sensor (Fig. 15.52) reacts to the motion of a heat
cost tunable elements during the design process
source within its range. It operates by creating
would be a benefit in many projects. a pattern of beams and activates when a heat
source (such as a person) moves from one beam
(b) Variable Time Schedule to another. It will not activate to a stationary heat
source. Although the IR sensor is quite sensitive, it
No normal task area has a constant 24-hour, has several disadvantages:
365-day lighting requirement. In commercial
and industrial spaces, work areas have regularly • Small movements may not be detected, as they
scheduled periods during which design illumi- may not cross from one beam (zone) to another.
nance is not required. These include coffee and As a result, a person sitting quietly may not
lunch breaks, cleaning periods, shift changes, be detected and the sensor may shut down the
and unoccupied periods. Programmed time lighting.
controls can readily save 10% to 25% of the • Very slow movements may not be detected, even
energy use, compared to relying on occupants when they cross zones.
to manually operate controls. “Tight” program • The IR detector must “see” the heat source; a
scheduling takes account of lunch hour and heat source blocked by furniture will not be
provides after-hours lighting only in those areas detected.
being cleaned rather than across whole floors. • The beams have a discrete width and depth.
The payback period for the investment in control Therefore, there may be “dead” spots under the
equipment varies between 1 1/2 and 5 years. Note beams if the units are not carefully selected to
that static control that is insensitive to actual field have adequate multilevel beams, or properly
conditions has only limited ability to save energy. located to give the desired coverage.
(a) (b)
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(c)
Fig. 15.52 Passive infrared (PIR) occupancy sensors. All sensors can be equipped with an adjustable override to prevent turning on
lighting when ambient light is sufficient. All units have adjustable delayed-off timing and a flashing LED that indicates sensor operation.
(a) Flush-mounted ceiling unit. The 360∘ circular pattern of the lens indicates omnidirectional coverage. The unit is approximately 4 in.
(100 mm) in diameter. (b) Flush-mounted combination wall switch and PIR occupancy sensor. Operation of the switch overrides the
sensor function. (c) Surface-mounted wall PIR occupancy sensor. The semicircular shape of the lens indicates wide horizontal
coverage. (Photos courtesy of Leviton Manufacturing Co.)
Ultrasonic sensors emit energy in the 25 to by the sensor. Any movement within the space
40-kHz range, which is well above the range of disturbs this pattern and is immediately noted by
human hearing. The waves immediately fill a the sensor. Ultrasonic sensors have distinct advan-
space by reflecting and rereflecting off all hard tages over IR sensors in that they do not require a
surfaces, establishing a pattern that is detected direct line-of-sight exposure to the movement and
they can detect small movements. The latter char- (See Section 30.2, which discusses the security
acteristic, however, is also a disadvantage because application of motion detectors and illustrates
the movement of curtains and even air movement their operation.)
can often trigger a sensor. It is frequently necessary ASHRAE Standard 90.1 recognizes the great
to adjust (reduce) a sensor’s sensitivity to avoid effectiveness of these devices by giving both
false sensing. Unfortunately, this also decreases connected power credit and a high control point
its coverage. equivalency.
Hybrid (dual-technology) sensors combine
the characteristics of both sensor types by usually
(d) Lumen Maintenance
requiring both sensors to react to turn the
lighting on. Once the lighting is on, a reaction To maintain design illuminance across time,
in either sensor keeps the system on. In addi- initial illuminance must be higher than the design
tion, sophisticated electronic circuitry “learns” a illuminance to compensate for light losses. The
space’s occupancy patterns and is programmed to extent of this overdesign is the reciprocal of the
react accordingly. light loss factor (LLF). With a typical LLF of 0.60,
Placement of sensors is very important and the overdesign amounts to (1/0.60) or 66%.
should be tested before final installation. Studies Assuming a linear light falloff over a 2-year main-
have shown that reducing the minimum “on” tenance period, higher-than-necessary initial
period below 10 minutes is counterproductive, illuminance results in an average of 33% annual
and frequently causes space occupants to shut energy waste. Over the next 2-year maintenance
off the sensors. Depending on their type and cycle, the over-illuminance is slightly less due to
mounting position, sensors can cover a maximum a small amount of unrecoverable losses. Because
area of 250 to 1000 ft2 (23 to 93 m2 ) per unit. the light delivery depreciation is a continuous
The payback period for this equipment runs and very gradual process over time, the most
between 6 months and 3 years, depending on appropriate control strategy is one that reduces
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
the type of space, the degree of control already the initial overlighting by the required amount (as
existing, and energy costs. Occupancy sensors are verified in the field) and then gradually restores it
best applied in areas that are divided into indi- as the system ages. This control strategy, known as
vidual rooms and work spaces. Sensors can be wall lumen maintenance, is accomplished by a dimming
or ceiling mounted or mounted in a wall-outlet system operating in conjunction with local light
box in a combined sensor/wall-switch configu- sensors (photocells). The photocells measure
ration. A few designs are shown in Fig. 15.53. ambient light, and, in response to their signals,
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.53 Ultrasonic occupancy detectors. (a) Ceiling-mounted sensors, bidirectional on the left and unidirectional on the right.
(Courtesy of Leviton Manufacturing Co.) (b) Sensors in various designs, intended for differing applications. Left to right: Ceiling-mounted
two-way sensor intended for large rooms of up to 2800 ft2 (260 m2 ). Dual-function sensor and wall switch designed for rooms of up to
300 ft2 (28 m2 ); wall mounted on a single- or double-gang wall box. One-way ceiling-mounted sensor designed for use in rooms of up to
approximately 1250 ft2 (116 m2 ). (Courtesy of Novitas Inc.)
the controller(s) operates the dimming units to When a lamp is operated at rated voltage, its lumen
decrease (or increase) the light output. Depending output drops during its life (according to the type of
on the size of the installation, the dimmers can lamp). However, if lamps are operated at reduced
either be dispersed or centralized. The modulating output, the lamp life cycle is greatly extended,
action of such a system over the maintenance lumen depreciation is reduced, and lamp energy
period is shown in Fig. 15.54. Lumen mainte- consumption is linearly reduced.
nance, manually enacted, gives only about a Typical life extension (to the point where it is
10% energy use reduction; whereas in an auto- economical to replace the lamp) values are:
mated system typically a 33% reduction can
be delivered. Fluorescent 80%
In a new installation, whether to use elec- Metal–halide 40%
tronic ballasts and full-range dimming, or partial High-pressure sodium 20%
dimming, or a system of multilevel switching is
These increases in lamp life are for interior
an economic decision and depends upon many
zones; for perimeter zones with ambient daylight
factors, one of the most important of which is the
compensation, they are higher.
cost of energy. Often a combined control system
is advisable. In interior zones, lumen mainte-
nance reduction does not usually exceed 30% to
(e) Daylight Compensation
40%, and full-range dimming is not required. In
perimeter zones, daylight often provides all the A control system arranged for continuous light
required illuminance, and full-range dimming, compensation, as described for lumen main-
dimming plus switching, or a multilevel switching tenance purposes, might also automatically
system is most logical. See the discussion of compensate for ambient daylight. The difference
daylight compensation in Section 15.37e for more is that compensation for lumen maintenance due
information. The payback period for a lumen to light loss factors is a very gradual process of
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
maintenance installation of this type varies from increasing output, whereas daylight compensation
1 to 5 years. Shorter payback periods can be can be a minute-by-minute variation and gener-
obtained by using multilevel switching rather ally in the direction of decreased electric lighting.
than dimming because of its lower first cost. Because of these possible rapid changes, switching
An additional favorable effect of initial light systems are undesirable, as the constant on–off or
reduction is the lengthening of effective lamp life level switching of lamps can be very annoying to
and a reduction in the rate of lumen depreciation. occupants and bad for lamps.
Automatic dimming is the system of choice.

In perimeter areas daylight often supplies all the
required light, thus either full-range dimming
110 Energy use without or substantial partial dimming is necessary.
luminance maintenence
100 Figure 15.55 shows the action of both types of
Energy used (%)
Energy dimming in a fluorescent installation with daylight

90
saved compensation. The crucial design element in a
80
daylight-compensating system is the establish-
70 ment of zones. Depending on the latitude and
60 Energy use with Unrecoverable
climate, the southern and possibly the eastern and
luminance maintenence loss western exposures can have an interior (second)
perimeter zone that receives enough daylight for
1 2
a large enough portion of the year to economi-
Maintenance cycle (yr)
cally warrant dimming. The northern exposure
Fig. 15.54 Energy use pattern of a system that reduces the initial has only a narrow perimeter zone (Fig. 15.56).
illuminance to compensate for necessary overdesign and As a starting point, the size of the zones is estab-
gradually increases light output as system elements depreciate.
In subsequent cycles the energy savings are reduced slightly
lished by determining the maximum room depth
because of unrecoverable light losses. (Redrawn by Martin Lee.) that receives at least half of its illuminance from
Uncontrolled Photocells
fluorescent
lighting
Maximum dimming range

100 100 Shield
24
Daylight factor
20
20
100-40%
80 80
16
12 10
Light (%)
60 60
Daylight
level 8
in work 4
40 area 40 4
A B C
0
Power (%)
20 20 Distance from window wall
Fig. 15.57 Typical daylight factor curve plotted on a room

7 A.M. 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 P.M.
section with unilateral sidelighting. The photocell control
Noon
technique for daylight compensation described in the text
Time of day
assumes a constant daylight factor (DF) distribution
Lighting energy saved indoors—that is, from a fixed-luminance sky and no direct sun.
with dimming/switching system
Additional energy saved
by full-range dimming control signal for the specific area involved.
Fig. 15.55 Energy savings typical of a daylight-compensating
Alternatively, a daylight-factor map of the space
lighting control. A full-range dimming system is more effective can be made—preferably after the installation is
than one that dims down to only 40%, because daylight often complete and the furniture in place—and photo-
supplies most of the required illuminance. An economic analysis
cells located at one select point, based on this map.
is required to determine whether the additional cost of such a
system is justified. Daylight factor at any interior point is constant.
Therefore, by measuring actual daylight level
at a point either immediately inside or outside
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
the window, shielded from direct sun and from
N
inside electric light (Fig. 15.57), we can relate it
North
to any area in the room by the ratio of daylight
factors, and establish a switching value at which
the lighting for that inside area is partially or
West
East
Interior fully switched.

In Fig. 15.57, the photocells are mounted at
point A. The ratio of daylight between points A and

B is the ratio of daylight factors—that is, 20/10,
South 2
or 2.0. Therefore, if 500 lux (47 fc) of daylight
South 1 is required at point B before switching lights in
that area, twice that amount (2.0 × 500 lux) or
Fig. 15.56 Typical building plan showing approximate daylight 1000 lux (93 fc) is required at point A. Similarly,
perimeter zones. Exact delineation of zones depends upon
latitude, climate, window design, and cost of electric energy.
a 500-lux requirement at point C corresponds to
(20/4)(500) or 2500 lux (230 fc) at point A. There-
fore, switching can be initiated by two single-level
daylight for several hours a day. A computer photocells or a multilevel unit at point A, with
daylight and dimming cost study with perimeter settings at 1000 and 2500 lux (93 and 230 fc).
zone depth as a variable is an effective design Other switching arrangements can be made on
approach. the same principle. Dimming initiation can also be
Placement of the control photocells depends arranged in this fashion.
on the control system. Where daylight compen- Daylight compensation can reduce energy use
sation is desired in conjunction with lumen in perimeter areas by up to 60%, depending on
maintenance (see the preceding subsection), area latitude, climate, depth of perimeter zone, hours
photocells are desirable, as they give a feedback of building use, initial power density, and so on.
The amount saved for an entire building depends Energy Star. 2018. Certified Products: Light Bulbs.
on the building configuration—that is, the ratio of https://www.energystar.gov/products/lighting_
perimeter area to total floor area. Payback time is fans/light_bulbs
usually in the range of 3 months to 3 years. Federal Energy Management Program (HID
In summary, a well-designed lighting electronic/dimming ballasts). http://energy.gov/
control system can provide energy conserva- eere/femp/articles/new-and-underutilized-
tion of up to 60%, extended lamp life, reduced technology-hid-electronicdimming-ballasts//
cooling costs, extended ballast life, and reduced IES. 2011. The Lighting Handbook, 10th ed. New
maintenance costs. When all these factors are York: Illuminating Engineering Society.
Krochman, J. 1963. “Uber die horizontal
considered, the investment payback period is
Beleuchtungsstarke der Tagesbeleuchtung.”
always short and therefore financially attrac-
Lichtechnik 15, No. 11.
tive. An aspect of a centralized lighting control
Lightsearch.com—fixtures. www.lightsearch.com/
system, not discussed previously, is its use in
search/fixtures.html
connection with peak demand reduction efforts NEMA. 2001. NEMA LE5–2001: Procedure for
(see Chapter 25). When interconnected with a Determining Luminaire Efficacy Ratings for
demand controller, this approach can reduce Fluorescent Luminaires. Rosslyn, VA: National
the electric lighting load in accordance with a Electrical Manufacturers Association.
predetermined preferential-load schedule and can NEMA. 2004. NEMA LE6–2004: Procedure for
achieve significant savings. Determining Target Efficacy Ratings for Commercial,
Industrial, and Residential Luminaires. Rosslyn, VA:
National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
(f) Emerging Opportunities
NFPA. 2017. NFPA 70–2017: National Electrical
As control system capabilities increase, many Code. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection
intriguing uses for lighting-based controls are Association.
emerging. Some of these applications include: U.S. Department of Energy. 2013. LED Lighting
ACTIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
remote diagnostics, demand control, color tuning, Facts. www.lightingfacts.com/

high-end tuning, plug load control, occupancy U.S. Department of Energy. 2016. “L Prize.” https://
sensing, traffic sensing, and personal control. www.lightingprize.org/
Several of these control options are inherent to U.S. Department of Energy. 2009. Induction
the lamp/luminaire element itself; several take Lighting: An Old Lighting Technology made New
advantage of the fact the luminaires tend to be Again. https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/
everywhere in and around a building. A common articles/induction-lighting-old-lighting-
technology-made-new-again
thread that underlies the expansion of how lumi-
U.S. Department of Energy. 2018. How
naires (and lamps) can be used and controlled is
Energy-Efficient Light Bulbs Compare with
their networking and digitalization of signals.
Traditional Incandescents. https://www.energy
.gov/energysaver/save-electricity-and-fuel/
lighting-choices-save-you-money/how-energy-
efficient-light
References and Resources
U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2018. How
ANSI. 2011. ANSI c15.11, High-Frequency much electricity is used for lighting in the United
Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts. New York: American States? https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?
National Standards Institute. id=99&t=3
ANSI. 2002. ANSI c15.1451, Electric Lamps—Use of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Energy
Protective Shields with Tungsten-Halogen Star–labeled lamps and luminaires. http://www
Lamps—Cautionary Notice. New York: American .energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=lighting.pr_
National Standards Institute. lighting
Eley Associates. 1993. Advanced Lighting Guidelines: UL. 2008. UL 1598, Standard for Luminaires.
1993 (EPRI TR-101022s Rev. 1). Palo Alto, CA: Northbrook, IL: Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Electric Power Research Institute.

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 15 Lamps Luminaires and Controls)

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C H A P T E R 15

of a tungsten filament inside a gas-filled, sealed common in sports-lighting installations because

(b) Operating Characteristics (d) Summary

Fig. 15.1 (continued)

Power consumption 7% more 7% less

CC-8 Tungsten Quartz tube Typical performance

light output (%)

Single-ended screw-base lamps; 12 V, 120 V, 50-500 W

(a) Lamps with reflectors

T-10 bulb BT-15 bulb 120 V, 40-75 W, 3500-hr life

Light Distribution – Candlepower Distribution

10° 46PAR16/H 27° 45PAR16/H

lamps for reflectorless units. As a sealed unit, the (c) (d)

use in displays of UV-sensitive objects; and others. FC=18

MBCP = maximum beam candlepower

Miniature single-ended 12-V lamps of 2-in.

faceted dichroic (heat-ejecting) reflectors and a

FOOT CANDLE CONES

Distance 60° VWFL

changes from 60 Hz to 20,000 Hz, or higher,

(a) Ballast Types c15.11 prescribes a minimum ballast factor for

Electronic. Solid-state electronic ballasts

Power Factor. The power factor of a ballast is

mercury vapor, is absorbed by phosphors coating

is accomplished by depressing a start button for

BULB PHOSPHOR CATHODE

BASE MERCURY GAS

T–12 T–12 Instant start T–12

Preheat and Recessed double contact: High-voltage end Low-voltage end

(below 50∘ F [10∘ C]) than rapid-start circuits.

manufacturer has variations on this format).

15.7 FLUORESCENT LAMP LABELS 15.8 FLUORESCENT LAMP TYPES

Standard fluorescent lamp labels are printed on (a) T8 Fluorescent Lamps

(b) T5 Fluorescent Lamps • Temperature and humidity: How a lamp

by sophisticated shielding techniques. Utilizing T5 otherwise controlled, the illuminance provided by

Fig. 15.11 Typical mortality curves of standard ﬂuorescent lamps.

50 mercury-vapor pressure, which in turn deter-

the nominal catalog value.

(lumens per watt) and color rendering index (CRI).

Watts Fluorescent Watts 60W Traditional

15.13 HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE metal–halide (CRI range 65–80), and high-

produced a bluish green light. Today they are

but they produce a yellowish light. High-pressure

HID lamps were developed for use when high

contained in a quartz arc tube (Fig. 15.16). This

(b) Lamp Life the ballast type, and is an important consideration

Mercury-vapor lamps were developed to with-

color temperature, and consistency—by the addi- Spacer

sodium to the arc tube—resulted in changes in Upper Support

with high-pressure sodium lamps), and improves Connector Lead

(a) Lamp Conﬁgurations

Construction details for a basic metal-halide lamp

tubular shapes (Figs. 15.17 and 15.18).

Lens unnoticed and depends upon the particular design

efficacy (70–85 lm/W). They are intended

Dome Mount Support

Residue Gas Getter Residue Gas Getter

(b) Other Operating Characteristics

serious safety hazard. As with metal-halide lamps,

(c) Lamp Design Types

1. Noncycling lamp. As an HPS lamp ages, its arc

15,000 and is more environmentally friendly because of

to glow—assuming that voltage has returned.