Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 10 Daylighting)

C H A P T E R 10
Daylighting
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
DESIGNING WITH DAYLIGHT IS BOTH AN intended ambience and reducing dependency
ART AND A science. The designer, in concert on electrical energy use. Although studies have
with the appropriate combination of building demonstrated that daylighting improves indoor
geometries, materials, and light produced by site environmental quality for occupants, daylighting
conditions, can produce health, well-being, and design is often mistakenly understood to mean
visual delight (Fig. 10.1), while also achieving an that an abundance of light should fill a space.
Copyright © 2019. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.1 (a) Visually appealing daylighting elements at Chiswick Park Office Complex, London, UK. (Richard Rogers Partnership).
(b) Hong Kong International Airport, Hong Kong, China (Norman Foster). (© Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
327
Grondzik, Walter T., and Alison G. Kwok. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/snulibrary-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5896255.
Created from snulibrary-ebooks on 2023-09-04 10:21:02.
328 CHAPTER 10 DAYLIGHTING
Successful design involves a careful balance and resources—is no longer viable. This chapter
control of heat gain and loss. A variety of strategies describes daylight strategies that can be used
are available to control and enhance daylight to increase occupant satisfaction, control glare,
through shading devices, lightshelves, glazing, provide appropriate vertical and horizontal illu-
atria, courtyards, and material finishes (both mination, and address the potential for energy
interior and exterior). savings to enable the designer to create a proper
visual environment.
10.1 THE DAYLIGHTING OPPORTUNITY

(b) Planning for Daylight throughout
Design
(a) Importance of Daylighting Design
Designing buildings for daylighting is a complex
Historically, the architectural form of buildings,
systems integration process. Daylighting design
placement of windows, and location of rooms were
begins with situating a building on its site and
guided by the availability of daylight as the primary
continues through each phase of design; making
source of illumination. Daylight was the only
the best use of daylight continues throughout a
source of abundant light for buildings, provided
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
building’s occupancy. While overall design goals

MENTAL SYSTEMS
through deep, tall windows and thick walls, and

remain generally fixed throughout each design
perhaps replaced (although inadequately) in the
phase, there are key concerns associated with
evening by the flicker of a candle flame or an
each of the phases. For example, in the concep-
oil lamp. Electrical lighting began around 1870
tual design phase, building form, orientation,
with the development of commercially usable arc
layout, and major apertures might be primary
lamps, and was given greater impetus nine years
elements. Further into design development, there
later by Edison’s first practical incandescent lamp.
would be specification of materials and interior
Subsequently, building form changed dramatically
finishes, as well as zoning for integration with elec-
with the development of fluorescent lighting tech-
tric lighting and other services; control systems
nologies, allowing interiors to be uniformly lit by
would be coordinated with occupancy schedules,
electric lighting systems and to function at cooler
and commissioning test procedures set in place.
temperatures (as opposed to the higher temper-
During occupancy, fine-tuning and maintenance
atures produced by heat-intensive incandescent
of the system would occur, and a post-occupancy
lamps). With such advances, buildings such as
evaluation would be conducted, in order to deter-
offices, shopping centers, and factories could now
mine satisfaction, visual comfort, and lighting
operate during evening hours.
system performance.
Designing with daylight can improve energy
efficiency by minimizing the use of electricity for
lighting as well as reducing associated heating and (c) Energy Savings with Daylighting
cooling loads. Daylighting is a critical design factor To obtain lighting energy savings in a building, six
to those concerned about global warming, carbon “essential” ingredients for daylighting design are
emissions, and sustainable design—in addition to recommended by the Illuminating Engineering
visual comfort. Society of North America (IESNA) in RP-5–99,
Research has found daylight to be an impor- Recommended Practice of Daylighting:
tant factor influencing human behavior, health,
and productivity. Windows admitting daylight 1. Plan interior space for access to daylight.
provide occupants with a view and a temporal 2. Minimize sunlight in the vicinity of critical
connection with the outdoors. Daylight renders visual tasks.
the environment in a vivid range of experiences 3. Design spaces to minimize glare.
and delight. It is important for basic visual require- 4. Zone electric lighting for daylight-responsive
ments to view tasks and to perceive space. How control.
daylight is delivered is in the hands of the designer 5. Provide for daylight-responsive control of elec-
at the beginning stages of design. The option of tric lighting.
ignoring daylight—in a world characterized by 6. Provide for commissioning and maintenance of
high energy costs and rapidly diminishing natural any automatic controls.
HUMAN FACTORS IN DAYLIGHTING DESIGN 329
Energy savings from reduced electric lighting as daylighting. The connection to the temporal
will be compromised if any of these factors are qualities of daylight improves our psychological
overlooked. If any one of the first three is missing, well-being and productivity. In studies of class-
daylight will make little contribution to the illu- rooms, windows, daylight, and performance,
mination of the space. Each of these factors is researchers found that students with more
discussed in this chapter. daylighting in their classrooms progressed faster
on math and reading tests than students with
(d) Goals of Daylighting less daylighting. Also, sources of glare negatively
impact student learning, and the issues of control
Improved aesthetics, provision of human biolog- of windows, blinds, sun penetration, and acoustic
ical needs (circadian rhythms and visual relief), conditions are important for teachers. In another
and reduction of electric lighting energy usage study, retail stores were found to have a “daylight
are the most important advantages of daylighting effect on increased monthly sales” (Heschong
a building. Key goals in daylighting design are Mahone Group, 1999–2003).
to provide sufficient illuminance, minimize the
perception of glare, and provide for overall visual
(c) Controlling Daylight in Interior Spaces
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
comfort.
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Daylight, whether diffuse light or direct sunlight,
provides significant benefits associated with
10.2 HUMAN FACTORS IN DAYLIGHTING
psychological well-being. On the other hand,
DESIGN
there are potential problems—such as glare or
substantial cooling loads—caused by uncontrolled
The following human-related factors (as opposed
quantities and qualities of light. Direct sunlight
to the physical aspects of light) are described
is not, however, always a liability. In nontask
briefly to illustrate the importance of considering
areas, a momentary sunny patch, a streak of
daylighting, and especially these factors, in the
sunlight against a wall, or a series of multiple
design of spaces.
shapes provides visual interest and dynamism to a
space. Sunlight in task areas can be controlled in a
(a) Windows and View number of ways:
There is a common belief that if a window is placed
in a wall, there will be sufficient view and daylight. • Provide exterior fixed shades that exclude
The view function of a window, however, is very sunlight for all sun positions.
•
different from the daylighting function. The most Use systems that diffuse the incident sunlight
preferred views from a window include the sky, the sufficiently to eliminate glare potential.
horizon, and the ground. In offices, people enjoy • Provide occupant-controlled adjustable shades.
having windows in their work space because of
the views. The functional advantage to a window (d) Minimize Glare
is that people can look into the distance to reduce
eye fatigue after doing close desk tasks. Depending Glare is a difficult problem to overcome when
upon the type of facility, the designer should balancing daylight and view. Any window
be aware of special circumstances—for example, (including north exposures) can produce prob-
ensuring that bedridden occupants of care facilities lematic glare if the window is within the field of
have views from their vantage points, providing view. High contrast ratios between a window
lower sills in facilities for children (depending upon and adjacent surfaces can occur unless the
safety), or accommodating people in wheelchairs window is designed to reduce luminance ratios
by providing low-sill windows in bedrooms and through the use of sunshading devices, light-
other areas. shelves, high-reflectance interior surfaces, light-
colored window surrounds and mullions, and
low-transmittance glazing (though such glazing
(b) Productivity and Satisfaction
will reduce light flux through the window). Furni-
Productivity is a complex issue that is difficult ture should be oriented to work with sidelighting
to isolate or attribute to a single parameter such (as opposed to having an occupant face a window).
10.3 SITE STRATEGIES FOR (b) Zoning

DAYLIGHTING BUILDINGS
Zoning considerations are among the most impor-
tant influences on building form and external
Optimal daylighting opportunities depend upon
design, along with the familiar aesthetic, social,
a building’s position on a site relative to available
legal, economic, and technical influences that
daylight, horizon obstructions, orientation, and
combine in a tug of war familiar to the building
building form. The quality of daylight, its effects
designer.
on illumination, and solar position for passive
heating and control of cooling loads are of partic- The thermal and luminous zoning of a
ular importance to the designer. Site obstructions building recognizes that different envelopes and
such as neighboring buildings, trees, and land- support systems may be required around and
forms will determine the maximum available within the building. The more carefully zoning is
daylight on a site and the maximum project enve- considered in these early design stages, the lower
lope that will preserve daylight access to adjacent the building’s annual energy consumption will be
properties (Fig. 10.2). because of enhanced lighting and thermal perfor-
mance. Zoning is one of the first steps to passive
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
heating and cooling design.

MENTAL SYSTEMS
(a) Orientation Zoning is most often influenced by the

In many locations, an ideal orientation for build- following visual and thermal factors:
ings is an elongated, narrow plan allowing the
north and south façades of the building maximum 1. Function. Particularly important because of the
exposure to more easily controllable daylight. variations in internal heat gains between func-
From a daylighting standpoint, this is desirable tions, function may also influence the zonal
because direct solar radiation received by the organization of a building, as in Fig. 10.4.
south façade is easier to control to prevent excess Comfort conditions may vary considerably
solar gain, is relatively uniform, and is necessary between functions; air temperatures can be
for passive solar heating strategies. The nearly lower for a strenuous activity than for a seden-
constant diffuse skylight availability on the north tary activity, or heat tolerance may be greater
façade is advantageous for uniform and soft for some activities (restaurant kitchens) than
daylighting. Figure 10.3 shows how orientation for others. Some functions thrive in daylight;
affects cooling, lighting, and heating energy for a others shun it. Some functions adversely affect
building. the IAQ of other functions.
2. Schedule. Closely related to function, scheduling

Maximum project can influence both the envelope and the
buildable envelope support system. An activity scheduled only
that will preserve
daylight to
between 9:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. can often
adjacent property be entirely daylit at a time when the outside
temperatures are the warmest of the daily cycle.
By contrast, an activity that takes place only
Sky exposure from 9:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. will be entirely
angle
dependent on electric lighting, whose heat can
be used to overcome the chill of the outside
temperatures during these hours in winter. (In
Reference height the summer, such heat can be flushed away
on adjacent property with the cool outside night air in many U.S.
locations.) Support systems are often divided
Setback Setback by scheduling considerations: If one activity
Property line Property line has operating hours different from those of the
Fig. 10.2 Protecting a site from obstructions to daylight. remainder of the building, a separate mechan-
(Drawing by Erik Winter.) ical system is often provided. This saves energy,
SITE STRATEGIES FOR DAYLIGHTING BUILDINGS 331
kBtu/ft2/yr 0 10 20 30 40
0 W/sf (0 W/m2)
0.5 W/sf (0.04 W/m2)
1.5 W/sf (0.13 W/m2)
45′
(13.71 m)
222′
(67.66 m)
E-W axis
0 W/sf (0 W/m2)
0.5 W/sf (0.04 W/m2)
1.0 W/sf (0.09 W/m2)

167′ 1.5 W/sf (0.13 W/m2)
(50.9 m)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
60′ (18.28 m)
N-S axis
0 W/sf (0 W/m2)
0.5 W/sf (0.04 W/m2)
100′ 1.5 W/sf (0.13 W/m2)

(30.4 m) 2.0 W/sf (0.18 W/m2)
100′
(30.4 m) N
SQ.
kWh/m2/yr 0 3.51 63.0 94.6 126.2
Cooking Energy Lighting Energy Heating Energy

Fig. 10.3 Effect of building orientation on energy consumption. (Drawing by Erik Winter after Moore, Environmental Control
Systems, 1993.)
because large equipment will not be underused a lack of electric lighting (because daylight
to provide heating or cooling for only one zone. is adequate). These spaces will need heat
3. Orientation. The degree of exposure to daylight, from a mechanical support system. Interior
direct sun, and wind is critically important (no-daylight) spaces are often overheated by
to zoning. Consider the block-square office electric lighting because they cannot lose heat.
building floors (Fig. 10.4) on a cold, sunny, These spaces will need cooling from the support
and windy day. Perimeter spaces with direct system.
sun through the windows may gain more heat
than is lost and thus need cooling. This might
be done by the opening of windows, but too
(c) Form
much cold air (especially on the windy side
of a building) may make occupants near the At its simplest, form can be reduced to questions of
windows uncomfortable. Perimeter spaces tall or short, thick or thin. Figure 10.5 compares
without direct sun may have a net heat loss these form variations to their impacts on heating,
due to heat loss through glass, infiltration, and cooling, and daylighting solutions. Thicker, taller
4. To what extent will daily changes in daylighting

1
control be necessary?
2 3 5. How can adequate daylight be admitted in
an even way, such that unwelcome dark-
7
appearing places are avoided?
6 8 9 10 4
6 Heating Issues
5 1. Can the sun be used to heat spaces? If so, how

will south-wall design be affected?
Fig. 10.4 Daylight zoning for a mixed-use building with perimeter 2. How can openings in walls facing other direc-
and internal zones as well as varying types of use. Scheduling tions be kept to a minimum without daylight
and/or internal load differences within any one of these zones being shut out? Where such openings are desir-
could require division into additional zones. (Drawing by Amanda
Clegg.) able, how low can a fenestration U-factor be
justified?
3. What role will direct sun through south glass or
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
buildings have more floor space away from climate

MENTAL SYSTEMS
skylights play in daylighting?

influences; being electrically lit rather than daylit, 4. How can daylight be admitted but the
they generate heat and need cooling all year. These chilling effects of large, cold glass surfaces
buildings are called internal load dominated (ILD). be minimized?
In contrast, thinner buildings—in which nearly all 5. How can incoming fresh air be warmed before
spaces have an exterior wall—need heating in cold it chills the people sitting near the fresh air
weather and cooling in hot weather; electric lights opening?
by day are largely unnecessary. These buildings are 6. Is there surplus heat elsewhere in the building
called skin-load dominated (SLD). that can be used to help warm perimeter
The ultimate choice of building form is deter- spaces?
mined by a combination of design issues; the
energy use issue can help in the selection process.
Once the building form has been chosen, the func- Cooling Issues
tions can be distributed according to typical archi-
1. Will the strategy be to open the building to
tectural criteria, including daylighting zoning.
breeze or close the building for coolth retention,
In the selection of a building form, some or to use a combination of these alternatives
particularly important questions accompany each (open by night, closed by day)?

energy use. Because the question of daylighting 2. How can direct sun be kept out of the building?
versus electric lighting frequently is so influential Can east and west windows be minimized and
in determining whether heating or cooling will be adequate daylight still be provided?
the dominant concern, we begin with daylighting. 3. How can adequate daylight be admitted for
winter conditions without overlighting (and
thus overheating) for summer conditions?
Daylighting Issues 4. When can cooling be provided by outdoor air
1. What will be the relative emphasis on side- rather than by a refrigeration cycle?
lighting (characterized by uneven distribution 5. Can the operation of refrigeration machinery
and glare in the visual field but little glare be concentrated during the coldest (nighttime)
on horizontal surfaces) and toplighting (the hours, when electric power is cheapest?
reverse characteristics)? 6. How can incoming fresh air be cooled before
2. What role will direct sun play in daylighting? it warms the people sitting near the fresh air
In winter, can solar heat without glare be opening?
admitted? 7. Can the structure of the building be used to
3. How can seasonal adjustments be made in the absorb heat by day, then be flushed with night
size of daylight openings? air in climates with cool nights?
BUILDING TYPE DAYLIGHT HEATING COOLING
Core is dark Unbalanced solar Large core requires

gain makes mechanical cooling
perimeter zoning
Perimeter lighting Perimeter ventilates
and control
is unidirectional poorly
critical
THICK TALL BUILDING
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Toplights and Passive heating Passive cooling
perimeter windows systems may be possible but costly
can provide implemented
adequate although
No cross ventilation
daylighting somewhat limited
and unbalanced
THICK SHORT BUILDING
Complete Passive heating Natural ventilation is

sidelighting for and solar heat gain easily accomplished
all spaces can mitigation possible
be achieved
THIN BUILDING, TALL OR SHORT
Complete Passive heating Natural ventilation is

daylighting for and solar heat gain easily accomplished
most spaces mitigation possible
THIN COMBO BUILDING
Fig. 10.5 The effect of building form on environmental control strategies. The illustration shows how building layout affects cooling,
daylighting, and heating opportunities. (Drawing by Nathan Majeski.)
Roofs South walls

Roof ponds
At latitudes
nearer to
tropics
Heating
Trombe walls
Winter
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
fresh air
Ventilating
preheating
Winds
Trombe wall as
summer exhaust “fan”
Cooling tower
Relatively easy fixed

shading of glazing
Cooling
Lightshelf
Daylighting
Fig. 10.6 The components of a building’s envelope can be used both to conserve energy and to admit on-site or natural energy
sources.
Establishing an appropriate building form in Generally, a 15-ft (4.5-m) wide perimeter zone can
the early stages of design is critical to daylighting be completely daylit; the next 15- to 30-ft (4.5-
performance. The width of the long, narrow plan to 9.0-m) area can be partially daylit; and beyond
previously described will determine how much of 30 ft (9 m) will be electrically lit; the total of which
the floor area will have access to usable daylight. can be used to determine the width of a building.
North walls East walls West walls

Southeast direct gain Southwest trombe wall
for morning warmup for late evening heating
High glazing for deep

daylight penetration
Prevailing east Prevailing west
wind wind
Daytime
shaded inlet
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Prevailing Prevailing
west wind east wind
Daily adjustment of
shades or louvers
Vertical fins for very early

and very late blocking of sun
Fig. 10.6 (continued)
(d) Envelope
The next design step involves relating the climate for varying orientations. Sections in this chapter
to the design of the building’s skin. Each skin give numerical criteria for sizing these skin
element provides an opportunity for thermal and elements, with an emphasis on the use of on-site,
luminous exchange between inside and outside; renewable energy resources. These criteria may
heating, cooling, ventilating, and daylighting conflict with the size relationships that may be
devices can be mixed as needed. Figure 10.6 prescribed by codes and standards for conventional
shows some of the most common of these devices buildings.
(e) Fenestration with to provide for sufficient illuminance. Gener-

ally, sidelighting is best for desk tasks because
Codes and standards typically prescribe a rela-
there are no veiling reflections, provided there
tionship between floor area and fenestration
is proper orientation of the worker. A number of
area (residential buildings) or total wall area
generalized sidelighting strategies provide good
and fenestration area (nonresidential buildings).
illuminance fairly far into a space and improve
These prescriptions assume that a building will
visual comfort. The variety of approaches and
be designed conventionally, that is, to rely on
components available to the designer is extensive.
imported energy for lighting, heating, and cooling.
A complete discussion is provided in Daylight in
Thus, prescribed areas of fenestration tend to
Buildings: A Source Book on Daylighting Systems
be rather small. If a designer wishes to rely on
and Components (International Energy Agency,
daylighting to a greater extent, then some proof of
2000). Schematic examples of a few typical
benefit will be needed.
design strategies are described below and in
Daylighting is accompanied by large glass
Figs. 10.7–10.14.
areas, which increase a building’s heating needs
in winter; yet in such buildings, less heat from
• Design for bilateral lighting: Daylight within
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
electric lighting is available to fill those needs.

MENTAL SYSTEMS
a space is generally most evenly distributed

Another complication is that adequate daylight
when a space is lit from two walls (bilateral
requires much larger glass areas under dim winter
lighting), as shown in Fig. 10.7. Bilateral
skies than under bright summer skies. If the
lighting from “opposite” walls produces the
glass area is sized for winter daylighting, then
most evenly distributed lighting condition.
excessive daylight—and, along with it, excessive
Unilateral lighting (windows on one wall) can
heat—might be admitted in summer. With proper
increase the potential for glare.
controls, daylighting can reduce summer cooling
loads, relative to electric lights, but it will usually
• Place windows high on a wall: In general, for
a given window area, daylight will penetrate
increase winter heating loads. Where passive solar
farther into a space and have more uniform
heating or surplus heat from another source is
distribution when windows are placed high
readily available, this trade-off is attractive.
on a window wall (Fig. 10.8). If possible, raise
One of the earliest and most difficult ques-
the ceiling height to accommodate a higher
tions for the designer is how much fenestration is
window position. Use the ceiling as a reflecting
optimum for a building. Some of the major energy
surface by placing window heads as close as
end uses in buildings are: 30% for space heating,
possible to the ceiling.
11% for space cooling and ventilation, and 14%

for electric lighting. By building type and location,
• Use adjacent walls as reflectors: Interior walls
become reflectors when windows are placed
however, this proportion of energy use can change
adjacent to them, thus reducing the contrasting
substantially. Daylighting and the related square
edge around the window (Fig. 10.9). This
footage of windows can largely determine whether
arrangement can also bring visual delight if the
space heating or space cooling will be the domi-
reflecting wall is a light color, which will reveal
nant need within the building.
patterns and colors from sunlight and reflect
diffuse light farther into the space.
• Splay the walls of an aperture: This strategy
10.4 APERTURE STRATEGIES: is similar to the reflector strategy described
SIDELIGHTING previously, where light washes across a longer
or rounded surface area around the window.
Sidelighting systems admit light from apertures in When the edges of window openings are splayed
window walls, and light sweeps across the space (Fig. 10.10) or rounded, these illuminated
from one or more sides. The distance to which surfaces surrounding the window reduce
usable daylight penetrates a space and falls onto contrast and are more visually comfortable,
a work plane is the variable that designers work thereby reducing the potential for glare.
APERTURE STRATEGIES: SIDELIGHTING 337
Unilateral lighting
Bilateral lighting
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.7 (a) Plan diagrams of unilateral and bilateral daylighting. (b) Windows on two sides (a bilateral approach) at the Crystal
Cathedral campus, Anaheim, California. (Drawing by Erik Winter; photo by Alison Kwok; © Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.8 (a) With higher windows, daylight extends farther into a space. (b) High windows in a classroom at the University of Oregon.
(Drawing by Erik Winter; photo by Nathan Majeski.)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.9 (a) Windows adjacent to a wall provide an additional reflecting surface. (b) Reading carrel adjacent to a window at the
Graduate Theological Union Library, Berkeley, California. (Drawing by Erik Winter; photo by Alison Kwok; © Alison Kwok; all rights
reserved.)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.10 (a) Splayed window and wall provide additional reflecting surfaces. (b) Splayed window opening to increase visual comfort
and reduce glare potential at the 2011 Solar Decathlon EMPOWER House by the New School and Stevens Institute of Technology.
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(Drawing by Erik Winter; photo by Alison Kwok; © Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.11 (a) Trellis at Westcave Environmental Center, Round Mountain, Texas. (b) Several layers (trees, shading, curtains) at a
window can filter light and provide shade. (a: © Walter Grondzik; all rights reserved; b: photo by Nathan Majeski.)
• Provide daylight filters: Daylight may be modi- may include blinds, drapes, or translucent
fied (either blocked or diffused) by a number glazing.
of elements, which include trees, vines, and • Provide summer shading: Depending upon
trellises (Fig. 10.11) on the exterior of a passive solar heating and cooling design
building; filters for the interior of a building strategies, in some instances direct sunlight
APERTURE STRATEGIES: SIDELIGHTING 339
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.12 (a) Horizontal overhangs block light but also act as a reflector for light from the ground plane. (b) Horizontal shading
devices at Ash Creek Intermediate School, Monmouth, Oregon. (Drawing by Erik Winter; photo by Alison Kwok; © Alison Kwok; all
rights reserved.)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Lightshelf
Reflected
daylight
Shaded
window
section
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.13 (a) Lightshelf reduces the daylight factor near a window and increases it at greater depths. Shelf material (opaque,
translucent) and angle of installation (horizontal, sloped up) markedly affect performance. (b) Classroom lightshelf, Allen Hall School
of Journalism, Eugene, Oregon. (© Karen Tse; used with permission.)
should be blocked before it enters a space at

certain times of the year. Figures 10.12–10.14
show examples of exterior louvers (horizontal or
vertical), overhangs, trellises, trees, and light-
shelves that can block direct sunlight, reflect
diffused sunlight into a space, and provide solar
control. Light-colored materials or finishes on
these components will reduce contrast between
the element and the view or sky beyond. Light-
shelves that also serve as a shading device can be
designed as a horizontal (integrated or attached)
component positioned inside and/or outside a
Fig. 10.14 Fixed horizontal louvers on the south façade at the
window. Typically above eye level, they divide a
Phoenix Public Library, Phoenix, Arizona. (© Walter Grondzik; all window into a lower view portion and an upper
rights reserved.) area exclusively for daylight.
10.5 APERTURE STRATEGIES: light to diffuse upon, virtually becoming a larger

TOPLIGHTING source (Fig. 10.16). This strategy works well in
spaces where the skylight is well above the field
Skylights, roof monitors, and clerestories are of view.
suitable aperture strategies for the top floor of • Use interior devices to block, baffle, or diffuse
a building, particularly for interior locations of light: Direct sunlight can be redirected by a
large floors that are far from perimeter windows. reflector below a skylight, clerestory, or roof
To prevent veiling reflections or direct glare situ- monitor that, depending upon the surface
ations, toplighting components should be placed material, diffuses the light onto another surface
away from the offending zone (areas with a direct within the space (Figs. 10.17 and 10.18).
view from an occupant), or a baffle or interior
reflector should be used to diffuse and control
daylight. Most of the strategies for sidelighting 10.6 SPECIALIZED DAYLIGHTING
also apply to toplighting, several of which are STRATEGIES
discussed here.
A number of innovative daylighting systems
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
• Splay the “walls” of an aperture: Splaying the can be categorized as experimental, yet they
sides of a skylight makes the skylight appear have tremendous potential. Some of these strate-
larger because light washes along a larger gies include laser-cut or prismatic panels, fiber
surface area and reflects diffuse light into the optics, solar tubes, and heliostats. More advanced
space (Fig. 10.15). This strategy reduces the systems use reflectors and lenses to introduce
potential for glare similarly to the way splayed concentrated luminous energy into some type of
windows function. light-conducting device. These may be fiber-optic
• Place toplights high in the space: Higher ceil- bundles, prismatic light pipes, or some type
ings with skylights allow more surface area for of mirrored channel. The problem of heat
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.15 (a) Splayed surfaces of a skylight provide areas for diffusely reflected light. (b) Conical skylights at Millesgården Museum and
Sculpture Garden, Lidingö, Sweden (Everet Milles). (Drawing by Erik Winter; photo © Karen Tse; used with permission.)
SPECIALIZED DAYLIGHTING STRATEGIES 341
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.16 (a) A skylight near a north wall provides reflecting surfaces for uniform light distribution and reduces the potential for glare.
(b) The linear toplight enables light to wash an interior concrete wall at the Chapel of the Holy Cross, Turku, Finland (Pekka Pitkänen).
(Drawing by Erik Winter; photo © Karen Tse; used with permission.)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.17 (a) Skylight with baffles that block direct solar radiation. (b) Baffled skylight daylighting design at Mt. Airy Public Library,
Mt. Airy, North Carolina (Edward Mazria). (Drawing by Erik Winter; photo by Fuller Moore; © 2004 The Society of Building Science
Educators; used with permission.)
rejection becomes more severe as the degree of

solar energy concentration increases. Thus, light
pipes are much less critical in this regard than are
optical-fiber systems. The efficiency and economic
feasibility of these systems are interdependent
because of the materials used; the farther the light
is transmitted, the lower the system’s overall effi-
ciency and the higher the cost to make the system
technically feasible.
Light pipes. This term refers to several strate-
gies: daylight pipes, electric light pipes, and fiber-
optic pipes (Fig. 10.19). The light pipe operates by
collecting light through a heliostat; channeling
daylight (or electric light) through a reflective tube
made of prismatic glass, plastic film, and mirrors;
and diffusing light at the end of the pipe. It is
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
an exciting strategy because of the length it can

transport light—65 ft (20 m)—from a single-point
light source.
Tubular skylights. These light shafts have
highly reflective surfaces and are capped by a clear
skylight (Fig. 10.20). The amount of light trans-
mitted and delivered varies with the diameter of
Fig. 10.18 Clerestory skylights with louvers at the U.S. Holocaust the shaft. They are convenient and econom-
Memorial Museum in Washington, DC (Pei, Cobb, Freed & ical for supplemental illumination in hallways,
Partners). (© Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
closets, and areas without a need for a lot of
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.19 (a) Heliostat on the rooftop of a building tracks the sun and directs light into an 8-ft (2.4-m) wide atrium and down 14 floors.
(b) The heliostatic light tube is a 120-ft (37-m) long, 6-ft (1.8-m) diameter, 12-sided steel-and-aluminum frame—enclosing laminated
glass panels and surrounded by fabric—within the atrium at the Morgan Lewis building in Washington, DC. (© Carpenter Norris
Consulting; used with permission.)
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT SOURCES 343
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.20 (a) Skylight through a roof structure. (b) Top of Solatube® skylights on the roof at Ash Creek Intermediate School in
Monmouth, Oregon (Bora Architects). (Drawn by Karen Tse; photo © Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
control. The light quality is comparable to that daylighting goals of the project. Technological
of a ceiling-mounted fluorescent fixture (often developments in the lighting industry offer the
indistinguishable). designer a variety of energy-efficient and environ-
mentally responsible sources and controls to fully
integrate daylight and electric light into the design
10.7 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT process (Fig. 10.21).
SOURCES Daylight sources may be categorized as direct
(direct sunlight or diffuse skylight) or indirect
For daylighting design a good understanding of (light reflected or modified from its primary
light sources, characteristics of light, sky condi- source). Efficacy is a basic characteristic common
tions, and lighting “behavior” will optimize the to daylight (and electric light) sources—measured
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.21 (a) A daylit space; sunlight streams through a window at the Santa Anna Monastery in Santa Anna, Italy. (b) An electrically lit
space—a wall sconce at the Westin Peachtree Plaza hotel in Atlanta, GA. (© Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
in lumens per watt (lm/W). Efficacy is the ratio nonresidential buildings consumes 25% to 60% of
of lumens provided, to watts of heat produced the electric energy utilized, any attempt to reduce
by a light source. Table 10.1 lists efficacies of this quantity must necessarily include integration
common light sources. Due to its high efficacy, of the cheapest (insofar as energy is concerned),
diffuse daylight introduces less heat per lumen most abundant, and, in many ways, most desirable
than electric sources, making use of daylight an form of lighting available—daylight. In selecting
attractive strategy for reducing cooling loads in appropriate light sources for buildings, under-
buildings caused by lighting (assuming effec- standing the characteristics of the light sources
tive, balanced distribution and utilization of will allow a designer to use them appropriately for
illumination). energy efficiency and to provide visual and thermal
The efficiency of a standard incandescent comfort. For resource efficiency, a designer should
lamp in converting electrical energy to light is first optimize daylight sources through building
approximately 7%; the other 93% is released as geometries and material finishes, and then design
heat. Fluorescent lamps are approximately 22% the electric lighting system to supplement and
efficient, and although they are a great improve- enhance illumination and effect.
ment over incandescents (as are LED lamps),
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
the generally low efficacy of lighting in build-

ings accounts for a large proportion of building 10.8 SKY CONDITIONS
energy use. Consequently, selecting light sources
for buildings—whether daylight or electric light The most prominent characteristic of daylight is
(or, more likely, a combination of both)—involves its variability. The source of all daylight is the sun.
simultaneous lighting and thermal consider- Exterior illumination, at a particular place and
ations. Because electric lighting in American time, depends upon (a) solar position, which can
be determined if the latitude, date, and time of day
are given, (b) weather conditions (e.g., cloud cover,
TABLE 10.1 Efficacy of Various Light Sources smog), and (c) effects of local terrain (natural and
built obstructions and reflections). The position
Source Efficacy (Lm/W) of the sun in the sky is expressed in terms of its
Candle 0.1 altitude above the horizon and its azimuth angle.
Oil lamp 0.3
Original Edison lamp 1.4 For all latitudes in the northern hemisphere, the
1910 Edison lamp 4.5 sun’s altitude is highest in summer, lowest in
Incandescent lamp (15–500 W) 8–22
winter, and in between in spring and fall. Azimuth
Tungsten–halogen lamp (50–1500 W) 18–22

Fluorescent lamp (15–215 W)a 35–80 angle is defined as the sun’s horizontal position
Compact fluorescent lampb 55–75 angle, measured from the south. Solar position
Mercury-vapor lamp (40–1000 W)a 32–63
Metal-halide lamp (70–1500 W)a 80–125 is absolutely predictable for any given time and
High-pressure sodium lamp 55–115 location.
(35–100 W)a
Induction lampc 48–70
Cloud cover, unlike solar position, is only
Sulfur lampc 90–100 statistically predictable, on the basis of extensive
Direct sun (low altitude = 7.5∘ ) 90 U.S. Weather Service observations at numerous
Direct sun (high altitude > 25∘ ) 117
Direct sun (mean altitude) 100 weather stations throughout the United States.
Sky (clear) 150 At locations other than those for which recorded
Sky (average) 125
Global (average) 115 data are available, an educated guess is necessary.
Maximum source efficacy predicted 150 Outside the United States, a designer must rely
(in the year 2010) on locally available data, which are often difficult
Maximum theoretical limit of source 250 (approximate)
efficacy to obtain.
The third factor—local terrain and construc-
a Includes ballast losses (with electronic ballasts, lumens per watt
become much higher). Losses vary between ballasts and manufac-

tion conditions that either reduce illumination
turers. by shadowing or increase it by reflection—can be
b With electronic ballasts. considered only on a case-by-case and site-specific
c With a power supply. basis.
SKY CONDITIONS 345
For manual calculation procedures, it is

sufficient to establish four basic sky conditions.
These are:
1. Solid overcast sky

2. Clear sky without sun (in the field of view)
CIE SKY
3. Clear sky with sun Lz
4. Partly cloudy sky
2.5Ev
(a) Standard Overcast Sky Lz
Ev
3
This condition, which occurs for much of the year
in northerly climates such as England, Scandi- COMPLETELY OVERCAST SKY:
navia, and the Pacific Northwest, is called the (NONUNIFORM LUMINANCE)
CIE sky, because it was adopted by the Commis- (a)
sion Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) as the
standard design sky for daylighting calculations
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(CIE, 1970). This sky, as defined by the CIE, has
AREA OF
a nonuniform brightness distribution, increasing MINIMUM
from horizon to zenith in approximately a 1:3 LUMINANCE,
ratio. Sky luminance at any altitude angle above Lz ESSENTIALLY

AREA OF UNIFORM
the horizon is defined in Equation 10.1 as MAXIMUM
LUMINANCE
1 + 2sin A
LA = LZ (10.1)
3 3Lz 3Lz
where
CLEAR SKY:
LA = luminance at A∘ above the horizon (NONUNIFORM LUMINANCE)
(in any direction) (b)
LZ = luminance at the zenith
Fig. 10.22 (a) The completely overcast sky has a zenith
luminance LZ , which is 3 times the horizon luminance. With such
a sky, illuminance on unobstructed exterior horizontal surfaces
Thus at the horizon, where A = 0∘ , (EH ) is about 2 1/2 times that on similar vertical surfaces (EV ).
LZ (b) The clear sky has the area of brightest luminance around the
LA = sun. The area opposite the sun is darkest and can be considered
3
as essentially uniform at approximately 3500 cd/m2 (1000 fL).

The illuminance (density of light in lux) on unob- (Redrawn by Erik Winter.)
structed exterior horizontal and vertical surfaces
produced by this luminance distribution has an
Solar altitude (and azimuth) for various times of
approximate ratio of 2.5:1 (Fig. 10.22). This
day can be obtained from Table D.1. Figure 10.23 is
results from an integration of Equation 10.1 over
a plot of year-round averages for both vertical and
the whole sky.
There is agreement among all sources that horizontal illuminance from an overcast sky as a
with an overcast sky, exterior horizontal illumi- function of solar altitude, based on U.S. Weather
nance varies directly with the sun’s altitude, irre- Service observations.
spective of azimuth. Various formulations for this It is interesting to compare the exterior hori-
relationship have been put forward. One formula- zontal illuminance obtained from the two sources
tion that gives good agreement with observations given: Krochman’s formula (Equation 10.2) and
is by Krochman (1963), shown in Equation 10.2: the observation-based data of Fig. 10.23, for a few
EH = 300 + 21,000 sin A (10.2) typical conditions. Solar altitude is obtained from
Table D.1.
where
Latitude: 38∘
EH is exterior horizontal illuminance (lux) and A is Solar Time: 10:00 A.M.
the solar altitude, in degrees. Dates: Dec. 21, March/Sept. 21, June 21
Unobstructed exterior surface illuminance, solid overcast sky

3600
3200
34
32
2800 30
28
2400 26
Illuminance, (footcandles)
24
Illuminance, (Klux)
2000 22
20
18
1600 EH
e
f ac 16
s ur
al 14
1200 nt
izo
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
r 12
Ho 10
800
8
rface E V
l su 6
tica
400 Ver 4
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Solar altitude, (degrees)
Fig. 10.23 Curves giving unobstructed exterior surface illuminance directly from an overcast sky. (Data based on U.S. Weather Service
observations; courtesy of Libbey-Owens-Ford.)
Eq. 10.2 Fig. 10.23

source components: diffuse illumination from
Dec 21 8500 lux (790 fc) 8608 lux (800 fc)
the entire sky plus the much larger component
Mar/Sept 21 14,623 lux (1359 fc) 15,923 lux (1480 fc) of direct sunlight. As with overcast sky, various
June 21 18,669 lux (1735 fc) 23,134 lux (2150 fc) empirical formulas for both components have
been proposed, and here too, all sources agree that
The degree of agreement is generally satisfactory, the total illumination, diffuse plus direct, varies
and either source will yield suitable results. directly with solar altitude.
One way of expressing the quantity of daylight Figure 10.24 gives values for both compo-
illuminance during the schematic design of build- nents of exterior horizontal illuminance based
ings is the concept of daylight factor (primarily upon observations. The sky only values are used
intended for overcast skies). Daylight factor is the to determine shaded skylight illuminance or
ratio of indoor illuminance to available outdoor daylong ground illuminance outside a shaded
illuminance. Daylight factor is discussed in Section window—that is, a north-facing window, or an
10.13 as a means of setting criteria for, and east/west window when the sun is on the oppo-
determining the effectiveness of, a daylighting site side of the building. In determining ground
design. illuminance, the values given in Fig. 10.24 must
be reduced somewhat, because they represent
unobstructed horizontal illuminance, whereas
(b) Clear Sky with and without Sun
the area outside a building window is partially
Horizontal Illuminance. Exterior horizontal obstructed from sky light by the building itself. If
illuminance on a cloudless day consists of two a building is so large that the ground outside the
SKY CONDITIONS 347
shaded window effectively receives diffuse radia- at a window can also be determined from these
tion only from the half of the sky away from the figures.
sun, an average figure for EH of 1000 fc (∼10,000
lux) can be used. This is because the luminance Vertical Surface Illuminance. Inasmuch
of the half of the sky away from the sun varies as most daylighting is accomplished via vertical
from a minimum of approximately 300 fL (1031 fenestration, vertical surface illumination is the
cd/m2 ) for the deep-blue patch directly opposite major component of interior daylight. It is also
the sun to about 2000 fL (6874 cd/m2 ) at the important for determining the daylight contri-
sides, giving an average half-sky luminance of bution of vertical elements in skylights. There is
about 1000 fL (∼3400 cd/m2 ). This, in turn, gives no simple relationship between horizontal and
a horizontal illuminance EH , diffuse, of about vertical illuminance from a clear sky, as there is
1000 fc (∼10,000 lux) (see Fig. 10.22). for an overcast sky, because the illumination on
Figure 10.24 also gives horizontal illumi- a vertical surface depends upon solar azimuth as
nance from the sun only, as a function of solar well as altitude. More specifically, it depends upon
altitude. This value, when combined with the the bearing angle (Fig. 10.25), which is defined
proper portion of diffuse illuminance, as discussed as the horizontal angle between a vertical plane
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
previously, is useful in determining ground illu- containing the sun and a plane perpendicular to
minance outside a sunny building exposure, or the vertical surface in question. A bearing angle
illuminance on an unshaded skylight. The light of 0∘ indicates that the sun plane is perpendic-
incident on an external reflector or lightshelf ular to the vertical surface. Like EH , EV (vertical
thousands
thousands
lux in
fc in
110 10
100 9
90 Direct sun only;

8 no diffuse (sky) component
EH, illuminance on an unobstructed
80
7
horizontal exterior surface
70
6
60
5
50
4
40
3
30
2
20
Sky component only;
10 1
no direct sun
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Solar altitude (degrees)
Fig. 10.24 Components of the exterior horizontal illuminance on an unobstructed surface, from a clear sky, as a function of solar
altitude. Total illuminance EH is the sum of the two components. (From data in Rennhackkamp, 1967.)
Bearing angle
Sunset west
Vertical surface
Sunrise east
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 10.25 The bearing angle of a vertical surface—the angle between a hypothetical vertical plane perpendicular to the surface (say, a
window) and a hypothetical vertical plane containing the sun. Other sources refer to this angle as the window-to-sun azimuth angle or
surface azimuth.
illuminance) is divided into two components: sky 6
only and direct sun only, as plotted in Fig. 10.26 as 5.5

a function of solar altitude and bearing angle. The
sky only component is effectively for the half-sky 5 Bearing
0° angle
because a vertical surface can be exposed to a
Vertical surface illuminance, (fc in thousands)
4.5
30°
maximum of only half of the full sky. Solar radia-
4
tion data may be translated into illuminance by
using average “efficiency” figures for solar energy 3.5
45°
in units of lumens per watt of received radiation

3
(Fig. 10.26).
60°
2.5
(c) Partly Cloudy Sky 2
The luminance of a partly cloudy sky cannot be 1.5

75°
expressed mathematically because of its infinite
1
variability of conditions. However, statistical data
on cloud cover are available from observations 0.5
at many weather stations, and these data should

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
be used in computer-calculated, hour-by-hour
Solar altitude (degrees)
energy analysis programs. For the purpose of (a)
lighting design, it is important to note that the
illumination from a partly cloudy sky is higher Fig. 10.26 (a) Vertical surface illuminance, year-long average,
sun only, no sky contribution. (b) Vertical surface illuminance,
than that from a clear sky by 10% to 15% because clear summer sky, no sky contribution. (c) Vertical surface
of additional reflected sunlight from cloud edges. illuminance, clear sky during various seasons, no sky
Several attempts have been made to account contribution. (Courtesy of Libbey-Owens-Ford.)
for this type of sky in terms of the effect on the
daylight factor within a room, but none has
received general acceptance.
DAYLIGHT FACTOR, SPATIAL DAYLIGHT AUTONOMY, ANNUAL SUN EXPOSURE 349
1400
1400
1300
0°
0°
1300
1200
1200
1100
45°
1100 45°
1000
Illumination on a vertical surface, (fc)
Bearing angle
Illumination on a vertical surface, (fc)

1000
Bearing angle
60° 900
60°
900
800
800
90° 700
700
90°
600
600
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
500
500
180°
400 400
180°
300 300
200 200
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Solar altitude (degrees) Solar altitude (degrees)
(b) (c)
Fig. 10.26 (continued)
10.9 DAYLIGHT FACTOR, SPATIAL distributions are fixed for the purpose of calcula-
DAYLIGHT AUTONOMY, ANNUAL tions. Daylight factor cannot be used with skies
SUN EXPOSURE with constantly changing luminance (partly
cloudy and direct sun) because under such condi-

When a building is designed to rely on daylighting, tions the daylight factor at a given point also varies
daylight factor (DF) may be considered, which is continuously, making the concept useless as a
expressed as the ratio of interior daylight illumi- calculation tool for absolute daylight values.
nance (Ei ) to available outdoor illuminance (EH ) Daylight factor as a means of expressing
under overcast skies. interior daylight illuminance is both absolute
Ei indoor illuminance, at a given point and relative. With a given sky luminance distri-
DF = × 100%
EH outdoor illuminance bution, variations in daylight illuminance inside
(10.3) correspond exactly to variations outside (i.e., the
where daylight factor remains the same). This assumes
a minimal effect from obstructions and ground
EH is the unobstructed horizontal illuminance. reflections. Thus, the daylight factor allows deter-
mination of interior daylight distribution for
The daylight factor concept is applicable only varying fenestration, spatial arrangement, and
where the sky luminance distribution is known building orientation.
or can reasonably be estimated. The Commis- Daylight factor is constant for a given space
sion Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE) defines an and window configuration. Interior illuminance
overcast sky and a clear sky whose luminance can easily be calculated by knowing the daylight
factors for locations in a given space and the exte- DF = SC+ERC+IRC1+IRC2
rior illuminance derived from sky luminance data.
1
Daylight design analysis can use a combination of
IRC
minimum exterior illuminance and corresponding
SC ERC
minimum daylight factor requirements to predict
daylight sufficiency under almost all exterior
conditions.
2
C
IR
In recent years, because daylight factor does
not take into consideration location, climate,
and building orientation, more accurate predic- Fig. 10.27 Total daylight factor (DF) is composed of the SC, ERC,
and IRC. The IRC, in turn, is subdivided into reflected sky light and
tors of actual daylight performance have come reflected ground light components. Note that surfaces deep in
into use: Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) and the room are illuminated with re-reflected light. (Drawing by Erik
Annual Sun Exposure (ASE) together provide more Winter.)
accurate performance predictions over the entire

year. These metrics are used in the USGBC LEED given DF is based upon contributions from these
v4 certification and the AIA Committee on the components: DF = SC + ERC + IRC.
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Environment’s Top Ten Honor Award submission The sky component (SC) is that portion of total
requirements. daylight illuminance at a point received directly
Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) is the from the area of the sky visible through an aper-
percentage of regularly occupied floor area ture. As the SC represents received light, it takes
receiving at least 300 lux (28 fc) for at least 50% of into account reductions due to window obstruc-
the annual occupied hours. This metric describes tions (mullions, etc.) and losses in transmission;
how much of the building receives sufficient that is,
daylight. SC = incident skylight − window losses
Annual Sun Exposure (ASE) is the percentage
The externally reflected component (ERC) represents
of floor area that receives at least 1000 lux light reflected from exterior obstructions onto the
(93 fc) for at least 250 occupied hours per year. point under consideration. This does not include
The ASE metric describes how much of space ground-reflected light. ERC is of significance only in
receives too much direct sunlight, which can built-up areas (where there are structures opposite
cause visual discomfort (glare) or increase cooling an aperture) and can be estimated as the portion
loads (Reinhart, et al., 2006; IESNA Daylight of the SC for that area of obstructed sky, reduced
Metrics Committee, 2012; Van Den Wymelenberg by the percentage of the sky obstructed (RD) and
and Mahić, 2016; and Sefaira.com). the reflectance factor (RF) of the obstruction; that is,
ERC = SC × RD × RF
Thus, if 25% of the sky is obstructed by a building
10.10 COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT
with a 20% RF, we have:
Understanding the components of daylight is ERC = SC × 0.25 × 0.20
important to the design of apertures and the For this particular example, then
selection of materials. Daylight illuminance in
ERC = 5% of SC
a building consists of three components (see
Fig. 10.27): to be added to the remaining 75% of SC (25% of the
sky was obstructed).
1. Sky component (SC) The internally reflected component (IRC)
2. Externally reflected component (ERC) represents the light received at the point under
3. Internally reflected components (IRC1 + IRC2 ) consideration that has been reflected from interior
surfaces. IRC is subdivided into reflected skylight
DF is the sum of these three components, (IRC1 ) and reflected ground light (IRC2 ). IRC2 is
each calculated individually for each location generally small, and IRC ≅ IRC1 . IRC is, there-
being considered. DF is a ratio, but the value of a fore, primarily dependent upon interior surface
COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT 351
% and obstructions, alters these curves and requires

2.2
recalculation and replotting. Exact calculation of
Internally reflected component of daylight factor (%) 2.0
even a few variants for a space is a tedious and
1.8
time-consuming procedure.
1.6 The following manual methods describe
%
65
alternative approaches available to save time and
=
1.4
ll
wa
increase accuracy:
RF
1.2
1.0
0.8
=3
0% 1. Use of simplifications, such as standard curves,
ll
wa tabular data, or the CIE method
0.6 RF
0.4 2. Use of a library of graphic light distribution

0.2 plots with varying parameters
3. Use of a less-laborious manual calculation
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Ratio of glass to floor area (%)
procedure (one such technique is known
commonly as the lumen method or the IES
Fig. 10.28 Plot of the IRC of the daylight factor as a function of method)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
amount of glazing, expressed as per DF (i.e., as a percentage of
exterior illuminance). As expected, the effect of a lighter wall 4. Use of computer simulation software
finish becomes more pronounced as the fenestration area
increases.
Designers may use daylight factor criteria as
a starting point for daylight design, translating
reflectances and upon the amount of window the DF values (such as those given in Table 10.3)
glazing, and becomes a large portion of DF deep into actual illuminances in footcandles (lux)
within an interior space (see Fig. 10.28 illus- and comparing the results to recommended
trating IRC as a function of the amount of glazing). illuminance values. The U.S. Green Building
IRC is normally calculated using published inter- Council (USGBC) promotes a Leadership in Energy
reflectance tables, because direct calculation is and Environmental Design (LEED) certification
extremely complex. for buildings. Prior to LEED 2009, the LEED
Typical curves for both horizontal and vertical criteria specified that a daylight factor of 2%
daylight factors for a room with single (unilat- was required in 75% of the space occupied for
eral) sidelighting (windows on one side) are critical visual tasks. LEED’s daylighting criteria
shown in Fig. 10.29. These curves are produced have subsequently become more complex. As
by a longhand daylight-protractor-aided tech- an example, we use the daylight factor method

nique (Building Research Station, London). Any and consider two cities in the United States that
change in parameters, such as window dimen- have overcast skies for appreciable portions of
sions or height above the working plane, ceiling the year—Columbus, Ohio (40∘ N latitude), and
height, surface reflectance, ground reflection, Seattle, Washington (48∘ N latitude). Table 10.4
TABLE 10.2 Effect of Wall Reflectance Factor on the Proportion of IRC in the DF
30% Wall Reflectance 60% Wall Reflectance

IRC IRC
Distance from Window in ft (m) Total DF (%) Total DF (%)
DF DF
0 30 1 31 3.5
5 (1.5) 16 1.9 17 6.5
10 (3.0) 5.5 5.5 6.3 16.9
15 (4.5) 2.1 14.3 2.9 37.9
20 (6.0) 1.3 23 2.1 52.4
Room data:
Room 24 ft × 28 ft (7.3 m × 8.5 m); 70% ceiling reflectance
Window on 28-ft (8.5-m) wall—one side only; 20% floor reflectance
Window area = 20% of floor area
DFV
H
DFH
1H 2H
50
40
30
DFV
20
Vertical daylight
factor
10
Daylight factor (%)
Sky component of DFH

7
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
5
Total horizontal daylight
factor DFH
3.0
2.0
Reflected component of DFH

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.5
0 H 2H 3H 4H
Distance from window (multiples of window
height above work plane)
Fig. 10.29 Typical daylight factor curves for horizontal (DFH) and vertical (DFV) illuminance for a room with large windows on one side
only. Note that the SC represents almost the entire DF near the window, but its proportion reduces at greater depths. There,
interreflected light constitutes 50% of the available daylight.
compares illuminance values calculated by the TABLE 10.3 Recommended Daylight Factors
DF method with those recommended by IESNA
Task DFa
and the Chartered Institution of Building Services
Ordinary seeing tasks, such as reading, filing, 1.5–2.5%
Engineers (CIBSE). For most of the year (with the and easy office work
exception of winter), daylight provides all the light Moderately difficult tasks, such as prolonged 2.5–4.0%
necessary for the tasks in Table 10.3. In this case, reading, stenographic work, normal
machine tool work
where the available exterior daylight is as low as
Difficult, prolonged tasks, such as drafting, 4.0–8.0%
5000 to 7000 lux (465 to 650 fc), supplemental proofreading poor copy, fine machine
electric lighting would be required for all interior work, and fine inspection
areas beyond H feet (that is, one window height
Source: Millet and Bedrick (1980).
from the window—see Fig. 10.29). a Use the smaller DF values for southern latitudes with plentiful
In addition to the recommendations in winter daylight.
Table 10.3, the ratio between the minimum and
average daylight factor in a space, which relates to
contrast ratios, should be no less than 30%:
The minimum daylight factor in any portion
Dfmin
≥ 0.3 of a space should not drop below 0.5%, which is
DFavg sufficient for circulation.
GUIDELINES FOR PRELIMINARY DAYLIGHTING DESIGN 353
TABLE 10.4 Horizontal Illuminances (EH ) from Overcast Sky, at Selected Times, in Columbus,
Ohio, and Seattle, Washington, Corresponding to the Recommended DF
Available DF Illuminance Illuminance
10 am Solar Daylight, EH Recommendation fc (lux) Calculation fc (lux)d
Location Altitudea Fc (lux)b (%)c From DF Recommendation
Columbus June 21 2100 (22,500) 1.5–2.5 31–52 (338–563) 28–47 (300–500)
40∘ N latitude 60∘ 2.5–4 52–84 (563–900) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 84–167 (900–1800) 70–93 (750–1000)
Mar./Sept. 21 1400 (15,500) 1.5–2.5 21–35 (225–375) 28–47 (300–500)
41∘ 2.5–4 35–56 (375–600) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 56–112 (600–1200) 70–93 (750–1000)
Dec. 21 700 (7500) 1.5–2.5 11–18 (113–188) 28–47 (300–500)
21∘ 2.5–4 18–28 (188–300) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 28–56 (300–600) 70–93 (750–1000)
Seattle June 21 1950 (21,000) 1.5–2.5 29–49 (315–525) 28–47 (300–500)
48∘ N latitude 56∘ 2.5–4 49–78 (525–840) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 78–156 (840–1680) 70–93 (750–1000)
Mar./Sept. 21 1220 (13,000) 1.5–2.5 18–30 (195–325) 28–47 (300–500)
36∘ 2.5–4 30–48 (325–520) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 48–97 (520–1040) 70–93 (750–1000)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Dec. 21 500 (5400) 1.5–2.5 8–13 (81–135) 28–47 (300–500)
14∘ 2.5–4 13–20 (135–216) 47–70 (500–750)
4–8 20–49 (216–532) 70–93 (750–1000)
a From Appendix D.1.

b From Fig. 10.23.
c From Table 10.3.
d Fromformer CIBSE and IESNA recommendations retained here for this example: CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting (1994). Reference 25:
CIBSE Lighting Guide LG3: Areas for Visual Display Terminals; Code for Lighting (2006); IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th ed. (2000).
10.11 GUIDELINES FOR PRELIMINARY Head

Height
DAYLIGHTING DESIGN H
Workplane
Guidelines provide the designer with a variety of
broadly based rules useful during the conceptual 2.5H
and schematic stages of design. Based upon design Daylight Penetration
experience and lighting research, these guidelines
Fig. 10.30 Section shows the 2.5H guideline, which assumes

assume overcast sky conditions. During design that sufficient daylight for the desk plane will be delivered at a
development, they may be used as a starting depth 2.5 times the height of the window above the desk plane.
point for performance analyses that include (Drawn by Jonathan Meendering and Ayush Vaidya; © Walter
Grondzik; all rights reserved.)
other parameters such as sky conditions, orienta-
tion, and wall color, using computer simulation
software, physical models, and calculations.
(b) The 15/30 Guideline
(a) The 2.5H Guideline
This preliminary design guideline assumes that
This longstanding guideline in the lighting design a 15-ft-wide (4.6-m) zone from a window wall
field (Fig. 10.30) assumes that there will be suffi- (Fig. 10.31) can be daylit sufficiently for office
cient work plane illuminance from a window up tasks. The next 15-ft (4.6-m) zone can be partially
to a distance of 2.5 times the head height of the daylit and supplemented with electric lighting.
window above the work plane—assuming clear Zones farther than 30 ft (9.1 m) from the window
glazing, overcast skies, no major obstructions, and would receive very little daylight. In schematic
a total window width that is approximately half design, these areas might ideally be allocated to
that of the exterior perimeter wall. circulation.
10.12 DESIGN ANALYSIS METHODS
Because of the variability of daylight, the designer

may provide a balance of illumination to save
electric energy and reduce utility costs while
addressing issues of glare, direct sunlight, and
heat gain. The art and science of daylighting is
largely about understanding how to control the
admission of daylight into buildings.
In the following sections, several interior
daylighting analysis methods are described.
The manual methods range from hand calcu-
lations that address only minimum, maximum,
and average conditions to physical scale models
where surfaces and apertures are easily changed.
15′ (4.6 m) 15′ (4.6 m) The manual and graphic calculation methods
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Daylight Only Daylight w/ Electric are inexpensive but limited to simple spatial
Supplemental Only
Electric Light geometries. Computer simulation programs can
produce detailed and realistic presentations in
Fig. 10.31 Plan shows the 15/30 guideline, which assumes that
sufficient daylight will be delivered to the desk plane at a 15-ft three-dimensional graphical form. Software is
(4.6-m) distance from the window wall. The 15- to 30-ft (4.6- to widely available, but its use is dependent upon
9.1-m) daylight zone will need supplementary electric lighting, cost and training, and the user must under-
and the zone beyond 30 ft (9.1 m) will receive virtually no daylight.
(Drawn by Jonathan Meendering and Ayush Vaidya; © Walter stand daylighting concepts and principles in
Grondzik; all rights reserved.) order to interpret the results and to overcome the
limitations of simulation. Physical models still
offer the designer an economical, realistic, and
(c) The Sidelighting and Toplighting accurate alternative. Additionally, the intuitive
Daylight Factor Guideline understanding provided by scale models may
The size of windows, clerestories, or skylights increase the client’s understanding of lighting
may be estimated by using the simple formulas in phenomena.
Table 10.5, Parts A and B, which provide target
daylight factor values. These design guidelines (a) CIE Method

consider two factors: the height of the window
in the wall and the window or skylight area This method resulted from a search for a simple,
compared to the floor area for each daylit space. rapid, straightforward, and reasonably accu-
Table 10.5, Part C, shows design guide- rate daylighting calculation method that would
lines for buildings with an atrium that provides yield reliable results without the time-consuming
daylighting to surrounding offices. Because the constructions and calculations necessitated by
lowest daylight factor will occur in offices on other manual methods. After a study of consid-
the lowest floor (deepest within the atrium), the erable length and intensity, the CIE adopted and
designer might find the required atrium aspect ratio adapted a system developed in Australia by Dresler
first for the lowest floor and then size the atrium on (Dresler, 1963). The current CIE method was
that basis. The atrium aspect ratio equals [(length published in Daylight, 1970.
× width)/height2 ]. This design approach would This system is based upon the daylight factor
provide a higher daylight factor in all the offices described previously as applied to the standard
higher in the atrium. For a detailed discussion of overcast CIE sky. Dresler developed a set of more
the relationship of atrium size, rentable office floor than 100 curves covering rooms of varying
area, and latitude, see DeKay (1992). proportions and fenestration. A typical curve is
DESIGN ANALYSIS METHODS 355
TABLE 10.5 Daylight Factor Design Estimates for Overcast Sky Conditions
PART A: SIDELIGHTINGa,b
( )
window area
DFav = 0.2
floor area
( )
window area
DFmin = 0.1
floor area H
2.5 H
Maximum penetration
of usable daylight
PART B: TOPLIGHTINGc
Vertical monitors:
( )
skylight glazing area
DFav = 0.2
floor area
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
North-facing sawtooth:
( )
DFav = 0.33
floor area
Horizontal skylights:
( )
DFav = 0.5
floor area
BUILDINGS WITH ATRIUMd
5 0% wind top floor A

50% wind 0% wind
4 B
DFav % adjacent space
A mid floor
C
50% wind
3
lower floor
2
A: room on top floor
B: room at midheight
C: room at floor level
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
L×W
Aspect Ratio of Atrium 2
H
Source: Parts A and B: Millet and Bedrick (1980). Part C: Brown and DeKay (2014).
a Assumes windows in one wall of a room with relatively light-colored surfaces.
b Window height/room depth relationships based on the works of R. G. Hopkinson (1966) and others at the British Research Station.
c Assumes an even distribution of such skylights in the roof so that an even distribution of light results in the room below: thus, only average
DF, no minimum, is listed.
d Basedon model tests of a square atrium with white walls open to the sky. “No windows” average atrium wall reflectance = 70%. “50%
windows” average atrium wall reflectance = 40%. DF values are for an office of 9 m × 9 m × 3 m (30 ft × 30 ft × 10 ft). The window
opening to the atrium is 1.5 m high × 9 m long (5 ft high × 30 ft long), and the sill height is 0.85 m (2.8 ft).
Room Data
Ceiling height: 9 ft (2.7 m)
32
Window: from 3 to 8 ft AFF (914 mm–2.7 m)
30 variable length
Room length <25 ft (7.6 m)
28 >25 ft (7.6 m)
RF Ceiling 70%
Maximum permissible room depth 26 Walls 50%
Floor 15%
24
22
20
18 30% window, that is 30% of room length
16 60% window
14 90% window
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
12
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Minimum daylight factor, percent
2 ft (610 mm) from rear wall
Fig. 10.32 Maximum room depth that will maintain a minimum daylight factor is proportional to window size. Thus, for a room less
than 25 ft (7.6 m) long with a 5-ft- (1.5-m)-high window for 60% of the room’s length, the depth cannot exceed 12 ft (3.7 m) if 2% DF is to
be maintained at a point 2 ft (61 cm) from the rear wall. (From Daylight Design Diagrams, 1963.)
shown in Fig. 10.32. The curves relate minimum 2. It is applicable to a very wide range of side and
daylight factor (at a point 2 ft [0.6 m] from the wall top fenestration designs.
opposite a window) to the maximum permissible 3. Establishment of required room proportions is
room depth, for given reflectances and a stan- architecturally more useful than solving for
dard window design, thus establishing the room’s specific dimensions.

proportions. Depth, or width, is the dimension at
right angles to the window wall. Limitations of the system are:
The curves imply that the number of design
variables is so large and daylight itself is so variable 1. It is inapplicable to clear-sky and direct-sun
that a simple routine method can be based only on conditions.
minimal conditions for a given (selected) daylight 2. It is inapplicable to other than rectangular
duration. Therefore, the diagrams give the lowest rooms.
level of daylight that can reliably be expected for 3. It is unusable with sunshading devices or
a given percentage (percentile) of normal working high-reflectance ground.
hours in sidelighted rooms and the average level in 4. Results give points of minimum, twice
toplighted spaces. minimum, and four times minimum daylight
Advantages of the system are: only. Other points must be interpolated or
extrapolated.
1. It allows consideration of obstructions, exterior 5. Window proportions and position in a wall are
reflections, and interior reflections. fixed.
Overall, the system accomplishes what it

intended. The limitations listed are inherent in any EXAMPLE 10.1 An example of the CIE method in
quick, simplified daylight calculation technique. Mode 1 uses a classroom in a single-story Seattle
The CIE system is usable in two modes: elementary school, 25 ft (7.6 m) long, 18 ft (5.5 m)
deep, and with a 9.5-ft (3-m) ceiling. It receives
1. Given complete architectural dimensional data, daylight unilaterally from windows totaling 18 ft
find interior illuminance. (5.5 m) in length (see the room sketch in Fig. 10.34).
Window glazing is wired glass having a transmit-
2. Given incomplete architectural dimensional
tance of 80%. The school is situated in a dense
data and required interior illuminance, find
residential area. Determine the portion of the year
maximum room depth and/or other room during which tasks requiring a minimum illuminance
proportions that satisfy the illuminance of 14 fc (150 lux) can be carried out by daylight
requirement. throughout the room. Also, determine what illumi-
nance levels can be maintained for 85% of daylight
Mode 1 is simpler because it leads directly to hours and at what distances from the window.
an answer. For this reason, the designer should (Note that 14 fc [150 lux] corresponds to a DF of
set the room length (window wall dimension) and 2% applied to an EH of 70 fc [7500 lux].)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
percentage of fenestration of the window wall,
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Calculation. The latitude of Seattle is 47.6∘ N.
leaving the room depth (perpendicular to window
The design condition for Seattle is solid overcast sky
wall) as a variable. Alternatively, room length and
for 85% of the hours between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00
depth may be set, with percentage of fenestration p.m. From Fig. 10.35, the minimum unobstructed
as the variable. Ceiling height is usually fixed. See horizontal illuminance EH during these hours is 67
Fig. 10.33 for sketches showing room parameters. fc (7200 lux).
12′′(300 mm) Total

room
Reference
Window point length
height Ceiling
H height
Working plane
3′–0′′(900 mm) 2′–0′′(600 mm)
Section through a unilaterally lit room

showing the assumed dimensions. These 30% 60% 90%
dimensions are the same for bilateral
lighting except that the reference point Plane of window walls showing window width
is midway between the window walls. expressed as a percentage of total room length.
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.33 Sketches indicating the parameters of the CIE calculation system. (a) A vertical section through a room with dimensional
data relevant to this system. Note that the sill height has been selected to coincide with a working plane at 900 mm (3 ft). The height of
the working plane usually varies between 760 and 910 mm (30 and 36 in.), the former being more common in North America, the latter
in Europe. A lower sill contributes only ground-reflected light at the working plane. Where the window sill is significantly above the
working plane (i.e., short windows high on a wall), this analysis system is inapplicable. (b) Calculation size (length) of windows with
respect to overall room length. (From Daylight, International Recommendations for the Calculation of Natural Daylight, 1970,
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage; reproduced with permission.)
750 cm
25′ Length
2′
E = 70 lux DF ∼ 1
18′ [540 cm]

width
E = 140 lux DF ∼ 2
3′
E = 280 lux DF ∼ 4
6′
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
60
cm 60 cm 180 cm
2′ 6′ 2′ 6′ 2′ 6′ 1′
Window wall
Elevation
window wall
150 cm
285 cm
9′6′′
Window Window Window

5′
180 cm
150 cm
3′6′′
6′
Fig. 10.34 Plan and window wall elevation of the Seattle classroom calculation example using the CIE method. The three daylight
contours are estimated based upon the calculated center point. They represent the levels maintained for 85% of daylight hours. Levels
twice as high are maintained for 60% of the daylight hours.
STEP 1. Determine the room depth in terms of was selected as the representation of best practice
window height. Window height H is 5 ft (1.5 m) (see “without being unduly optimistic.”
Fig. 10.34). In plan, the room depth is expressed as
3 × 6 ft
multiples of window height above sill level: = 72%
25 ft
18-ft depth
= 3.6H STEP 3. Determine the design daylight factor and
5-ft window height the service daylight factor. The design daylight factor
STEP 2. Determine window coverage. This vari- is calculated at a point 2 ft (0.6 m) from the wall
able is expressed as a percentage of the total room opposite the window—on the window centerline.
length based upon the width of the glazing used This represents the minimum daylight factor that
in the room. It is assumed that the window head will occur in a room of a given depth (lower values
is 12 in. (305 mm) below the ceiling. This distance that will occur closer to the wall and/or off the
Percentage of hours between 0900 and For periods other than

1700 for which levels of illuminance 0900–1700 h, see
lm/ft2 will be available or exceeded. Table 14.3 Lux
1400 15,000
1300 14,000
95
90
85
80
70
60
1200 13,000
%
1100 12,000
1000 11,000
950 10,000
900
9,500
850 9,000
800 8,500
750 8,000
700 7,500
650 7,000
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
600 6,500
External illuminance (lux)

External illuminance (fc)
550 6,000
500 5,500
5,000
450
4,500
400
380
4,000
360 3,800
340 3,600
320 3,400
300 3,200
280 3,000
260 2,800
240 2,600
220 Curves indicate miniumum illuminance 2,400

available within a specified percentage
200 of daytime working hours, on a 2,200
190 horizontal plane outdoors when the
sun is obscured. 2,000
180
This is sometimes referred to as the
170
“Reference value of external illumination” 1,800
160
150 1,600
140
130 1,400
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Latitude N or S
Fig. 10.35 Minimum maintained external illuminance as a function of latitude for a given percentage of the normal working day. (From
Daylight: International Recommendations for the Calculation of Natural Daylight, 1970, Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage;
reproduced with permission.)
Relation between room depth and minimum (design) daylight factor

(For various room lengths and window widths)
Percentage of window; see Fig. 8.33
10.0
8.0 Room length:
90% Wd.
6.0 = 10 m (33 f t)
4.5–7 m (15–23 f t)
5.0 60% Wd.
Minimum (design) daylight factor in % Ceiling height: 2.70–4.50 m (9–15 f t)
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5 30% Wd.
2.0
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
0.4
0.3
0.2
0 1H 2H 3H 4H 5H
Room depth (multiples of window height above sill level)
Fig. 10.36 Basic design diagram that relates minimum daylight factor to room depth. Inasmuch as room depth is expressed in terms of
window height, the curves effectively relate minimum daylight factor (2 ft [610 mm] from the back wall) to room proportion. (From
Daylight: International Recommendations for the Calculation of Natural Daylight, 1970, Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage;
reproduced with permission.)
centerline being discounted). From Fig. 10.36, for effects of building components such as glazing—
a room length of 25 ft (7.6 m), ceiling height 9.5 ft and would often be described as “initial” daylight
(2.9 m), window coverage 72%: factor. Service daylight factor would often be called
design daylight factor at 3.6H = 1.3 “maintained” daylight factor and include those
effects that would reduce daylight illuminance over
The service daylight factor takes into account time (such as dirt on glazings or reductions in surface
correction factors such as glazing transmission and reflectances). Maintained daylight factor must equal
dirt accumulation. The service daylight factor is a or exceed the designer’s daylight factor criterion for
product of the design daylight factor and correction the system to be successful in the long run.
factors. STEP 4. Determine the required exterior illuminance.
DFservice = DFdesign × correction factors Use the service daylight factor in Equation 10.4 to
obtain required exterior illuminance.
Correction factors from Table 10.6 and Fig. 10.37
EH , required exterior illuminance
are:
required interior illuminance
= (10.4)
Glass transmission 0.95 DFservice
Glass cleanliness 0.8 150 lux min
EH = × 100 = 15,000 lux
1.0
Therefore:
STEP 5. Obtain the percentage of hours between
DFservice = 1.3 × 0.95 × 0.8 ≈ 1.0
9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. during which the required
Note that the terms “design” and “service” illuminance is maintained. From Fig. 10.35 with
as used in this method have meanings that are not the given conditions (roughly 48∘ N latitude, exte-
necessarily consistent with normal design practice. rior illuminance 15,000 lux [1500 fc]), an illumi-
Design daylight factor typically would include the nance of 150 lux (15 fc) will be maintained for
TABLE 10.6 Correction Factors to Be Used in CIE Daylight Calculations

A. CORRECTION FACTOR TO ACCOUNT FOR GLASS TRANSMITTANCE
Diffuse Transmittance of Glass (%) Correction Factor
80 0.95
70 0.80
60 0.70
50 0.60
40 0.45
30 0.35
B. CORRECTION FACTORS TO ACCOUNT FOR DIRT ACCUMULATION ON GLASS
Angle of Slope
(Measured to the Horizontal)
Locality Class of Industry 90–75∘ 60–45∘ 30–0∘
Country or outer-suburban area Clean 0.9 0.85 0.8
Dirty 0.7 0.6 0.55
Built-up residential area Clean 0.8 0.75 0.7
Dirty 0.6 0.5 0.4
Built-up industrial area Clean 0.7 0.6 0.55
Dirty 0.5 0.35 0.25
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
C. PERCENTAGES TO USE WHEN FIGURE 10.35 CURVES ARE APPLIED TO PERIODS OTHER THAN 09.00–17.00
Curve in Figure 10.35 95% 90% 85% 80% 70% 60%
Alternative period Percentage of alternative period
07.00–15.00 95 90 85 80 70 60
08.00–16.00 100 100 95 85 70 60
07.00–17.00 95 85 75 65 55 45
06.00–18.00 75 70 65 60 50 40
Source: Daylight: International Recommendations for the Calculation of Natural Daylight (CIE, 1970).
Unilateral lighting
= angle of obstruction to window
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Correction factor
0.5
0.4
No obstruction
0.3
0.2
Structure Ceiling height: 2.7–4.6 m (9–15 ft)
obstructing 0.1 Room length: > = 5.0 m (16 ft)
portion of
sky
1H 2H 3H 4H 5H
Room depth
(multiples of window height above sill level)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.37 (a) Angle of obstruction α of an external object. (b) Correlation factors to account for the influence of external obstructions
on the minimum daylight factor. (From Daylight, International Recommendations for the Calculation of Natural Daylight, 1970,
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage; reproduced with permission.)
Unilateral lighting
= angle of obstruction to window (see Fig. 8.37)
Ceiling height: 2.7–4.6 m (9–15 ft)
Room length: > = 5.00 m (16 ft)
Unilateral lighting
(expressed in multiples of window height 3H 3H
(expressed in multiples of window height

10° Ceiling height: 2.7–45 m (9–15 ft)
Room length: > = 5.00 m (16 ft)
2.5H 2.5H
0°
20° = angle of obstruction to window
above sill level)
2H 30° 2H
above sill level)

Distance from window
Distance from window

1.5H 1.5H 20°
40° & 50° 10°
0° 30°
1H 1H
40° & 50°
0.5H 0.5H
0
1H 2H 3H 4H 5H 0 1H 2H 3H 4H 5H
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Room depth Room depth

(expressed in multiples of window height (expressed in multiples of window height
above sill level) above sill level)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.38 (a) Distance from the window at which the daylight factor is twice the minimum daylight factor. (b) Distance from the
window at which the daylight factor is four times the minimum daylight factor. (From Daylight: International Recommendations for the
Calculation of Natural Daylight, 1970, Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage; reproduced with permission.)
less than 60% of the hours between 09:00 a.m. and drawn and are shown in Fig. 10.39 (for comparison
5:00 p.m. (for time periods other than this, see Table with the graphic method discussed in the next
10.6C). The level that is maintained for 85% of the section). For bilateral sidelighting, toplighting
hours is: (skylights, sawtooth roofs, and monitor roofs),
and calculations for other α angles of obstruction,
Emin = 7200 lux × 0.01 (a DF of 1.0) = 72 lux additional information is found in the CIE document
(CIE, 1970).
STEP 6. Determine the locations in the room that will
receive adequate illuminance. Figure 10.38 shows

the distance from the window at which the daylight In summary, the CIE method is relatively
factor is twice or four times the minimum. Using simple but provides only limited data on predicted
Fig. 10.38a, the room depth from Step 1 is 3.6H. This performance. In this example, its exterior illumi-
point intersects with the α = 0∘ angle of obstruction nance data (7250 lux from Fig. 10.35) seem to
line at a 1.8H distance (1.8 × 5 ft = 9 ft [2.7 m]) from
agree well with a measured average value of 7200
the window, resulting in a doubling of the daylight
factor. lux for Seattle. From the rough contours shown
in Fig. 10.35, an integrated daylight and electric
7200 lux × 0.02 (a DF of 2.0) = 144 lux lighting strategy should be designed for areas
farther from the window wall.
Using Fig. 10.38b, the room depth from Step 1
is 3.6H. This point intersects with the α = 0∘ angle of
(Reminder: The term design illuminance as
obstruction line at a 1.2H distance (1.2 × 5 ft = 6 ft used with the CIE method differs from common
[1.8 m]) from the window, resulting in a quadrupling lighting system design usage, where design illumi-
of the daylight factor quadruples. nance is used to identify the criteria [benchmark]
illuminance established for a space or position;
7200 lux × 0.04 (a DF of 4.0) = 288 lux
initial illuminance identifies the illuminance actu-
These calculated illuminance levels are accurate ally provided at system startup, and maintained
only at the centerline of the window wall. By visual illuminance is the illuminance provided after some
estimate and extrapolation, rough contours can be defined time period.)
0.5
0.5 (1) 0.5 (1) 0.5

1.0
1.0 (2) 1.0 (2) 1.0

2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0

(4) (4) 4.0
(5) (3) (5)
4.0 4.0 4.0 5
5.0 (8) 5.0 (8) 5.0
8
10 10 10
10
15 (10) 15 (10) 15
15
20 20
20 20
(a) (b)
18
17
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
IES 125 lux
MENTAL SYSTEMS
CIE 1.0 DF (70 lux)
16 1.0 DF
70 lu
ux x
15 70 l
14
13
1.5 DF
12 105
x IES 150 lux lux
0 lu
15
18 Foot room depth
11
10 2.0 DF
IES 235 lux 140
x CIE 2.0 DF lux
9 0 lu
14 140 lux
3.0 DF
8 210
lux
7 x
0 lu
21 CIE 4.0 DF
4.0 DF
6 IES 474 lux 280 lu
x 280 lux x
0 lu 5.0 DF
5 28 350 lu
x x
0 lu 8.0 DF
4 35
560 lu
x x
0 lu
3 56 700 lux
x F
0 lu 10 D
2 70
0 lux
105 lux
10
50
1
15 D F
0
IES 1150 lux
(c)
Fig. 10.39 (a) Daylight contours for each window of Fig. 10.34 are plotted on the floor plan of the room being studied. Numbers in
parentheses are combined SC values. (b) The isolux contours of (a) are combined to form new isolux contours that represent the total
SC of daylight within the room. (c) The final isolux contours are calculated, including correction factors (accounting for internally
reflected components of daylight plus light reduction due to glazing). The numbers represent daylight factors. Note the variance
between these contours and the points calculated by the CIE method. The five design points calculated by the IESNA method are also
shown. A comparison of the results on the room centerline (a location where comparison of all methods is possible); agreement is
within engineering accuracy (see text discussion).
(b) Graphic Daylighting Design Method by Millet and Bedrick (1980). Its primary advan-
(GDDM) tage over the CIE method is that its results are a
family of daylight factor contours that are more
This method, which applies to overcast sky condi- useful to a lighting designer than is numerical
tions and shows results as daylight factor (isolux) output. The disadvantages of this method are
contours within a room (rather than individual that it is not readily applicable to clear-sky condi-
daylight factors at specific points), was developed tions, and it requires that a designer acquire a
“library” of 200 or so patterns that cover most STEP 2. Select the appropriate window pattern. In
design situations. An outline of the method is this case, Fig. 10.40 (selected from a library of isolux
presented here. patterns developed by Millet and Bedrick) is the
A computer simulation program (UWLIGHT) closest pattern to match the example. S/H = 0 indi-
developed the daylight distribution patterns cates that the pattern begins at the window wall, as
resulting from either sidelights or skylights. To shown.
STEP 3. Develop an isolux pattern for each window
generalize the system, windows are identified
of the space. On a plan of the room, trace the isolux
by height-to-width proportion (H/W), and the
pattern for each window (Fig. 10.39a). The patterns
positions of the isolux contours on the plan are overlap because the windows are close together.
determined by the ratio of the height of the sill Where contours meet, the daylight factors of the
above the work plane to the window height. The contours are added together, producing values
GDDM method can account for high windows, for the new combined contours. The combined
clerestories, and other designs intended to intro- contours and their daylight factors are shown in
duce daylight deep into a space—something that Fig. 10.39b.
the CIE method cannot do because it is restricted STEP 4. Make corrections to the isolux pattern.
to a sill height at the work plane. The value of the combined contours is corrected
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
to account for internally reflected components of

MENTAL SYSTEMS
daylight plus light reduction due to glazing. The final

EXAMPLE 10.2 Figure 10.40 shows a typical contours are shown in Fig. 10.39c. Note that this
isolux pattern for a window whose H/W ratio is 0.8 diagram gives the designer a much more complete
and whose sill is at the work plane. This particular picture of the daylight contours than do the results
window pattern was selected because it corre- of the CIE method. For the purpose of comparison,
sponds to the window in the previous example, the three calculated daylight factors from the CIE
Fig. 10.34, enabling graphical comparison. method are shown in Fig. 10.39c.
Calculation. Employing the GDDM method

with the dimensions of the Seattle classroom used
in the last section: (c) IESNA Lumen Method
STEP 1. Determine the window proportion.
Referring to Fig. 10.34, the window propor- IESNA developed the lumen method for calculating
tion is daylight availability (published as RP-23–89,
H 5 Recommended Practice for the Lumen Method
= = 0.83
W 6
Use of pattern:
W W W
1.) Rotate side lights (windows)
0.5 on to working plane.
2.) Place pattern over rotated
H
side light and plot contours.
1.0 See Fig. 8.39a.
2.0
3 H
4
5
10 Workpla
15 n e
20 H
Floor
Workplane
H/W = 0.8 S/H = 0

Rotated side light
Fig. 10.40 Typical isolux contour map for a window with a height-to-width ratio of 0.8 and a sill at the working plane elevation.
Numbers represent the SC of daylight factors for an overcast sky condition. The rectangles are the window outlines rotated (projected)
onto the working plane. See insert. (From Millet and Bedrick, 1980, p. 191.)
of Daylight Calculations). Although inexpen- 3. Provision is made for various types of glazing,
sive, like many manual methods it is limited in as well as common window controls such as
application—in this case, to rectilinear spaces horizontal and vertical blinds.
with flat ceilings. A trade-off between usability, 4. The principles of the zonal cavity calculation
learning curve, and cost, however, is often made approach for interior lighting are applied.
when selecting a design method. The window height determines the cavities
The calculation procedure for sidelighting (i.e., the floor cavity extends to the windowsill
is discussed in this section, as this is a more height, and the ceiling cavity from the top of
frequently encountered strategy than toplighting. the window to the ceiling). The room cavity is
The method, as fully described in RP-23–89, therefore the window height.
consists of four detailed steps. In the discussion 5. The work plane is always at the sill height
that follows, the same notation and terms found of the window. Where this is decidedly not
in RP-23–89 are used except for bearing angle, the case (a difference of up to 1 ft is usually
which is referred to in the IESNA procedure as
negligible), such as when a clerestory or a
solar window azimuth. The term bearing angle is
floor-to-ceiling window is used, work plane
commonly used in international sources.
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
illuminance can be calculated by superposi-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
tion. For instance, with a clerestory, subtract
Characteristics of the Method. The IESNA
method is probably the most flexible manual tech- a work-plane-to-clerestory sill height window
nique available. It has the following major charac- from a work-plane-to-top-of-clerestory window
teristics for sidelighting: to obtain the desired result. A degree of inaccu-
racy is unavoidable in the calculation when the
1. It takes into account reflected light from the work plane is above the sill.
ground and adjacent structures, as well as the 6. Cavity reflectances are fixed (Fig. 10.41) at
reduction in sky light due to such structures. 70%, 50%, and 30% for ceiling, room, and
2. It cannot accommodate direct sunlight, floor cavities, respectively.
but conversely, it readily accommodates the 7. The system calculates only five points in a room
shading devices normally used to block direct on the window centerline. As noted with refer-
insolation. ence to the three points calculated by the CIE
CEILING CAVITY 70 PERCENT REFLECTANCE
ROOM CAVITY 50 PERCENT REFLECTANCE
D
W
FLOOR CAVITY 30 PERCENT REFLECTANCE
10 PERCENT 30 PERCENT 50 PERCENT 70 PERCENT 90 PERCENT

0.1 D
0.3 D
0.5 D
0.7 D
0.9 D
Fig. 10.41 Standard conditions in a room for daylighting calculations: sidelighting. (IESNA, Recommended Practice for the Lumen
Method of Daylight Calculations, RP-23–89.)
method, this is not normally sufficient to give a Vertical illuminance from the ground is:
picture of the interior daylight distribution.
ExHk
8. The method is usable in only one mode—that Exvg = RFg × (10.5)
2
is, given location and full dimensional data,
daylighting can be calculated. It cannot ExHk
Dec. 21∶Exvg = RFg × = 0.2 (5380) = 1076 lux
readily be used to determine desirable room 2
proportions, given the other data, as can the
CIE method. Mar. 21 ∶ Exvg = 0.2 (13,340) = 2670 lux
STEP 2. Determine net transmittance of the window.

A number of factors affect the transmittance of
light through glazing. The net transmittance is the
EXAMPLE 10.3 To again use the Seattle class-
product of the glazing transmittance (Table 10.8)
room as an example, here are the conditions of the
and a light loss factor (Table 10.9), which represents
problem:
the cleanliness of the window. The net transmittance
Location: Seattle, Washington
should also account for the net glazing area (i.e.,
Latitude: 47.6∘ N
gross window area less mullions, glazing bars, and
Room: 25 ft (7.6 m) long, 18 ft (5.5 m) deep,
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
so on) and any other factor (such as insect screens)

MENTAL SYSTEMS
with a 9.5-ft (3-m) ceiling

that would reduce actual transmittance.
Window: height 5 ft (1.5 m) above a 30-in.
Glass transmittance is 85% (Table 10.8), light
(760-mm) working plane; total length, 18 ft (5.5 m)
loss factor is 0.9 (Table 10.9), and the net glass area
Transmittance: 85%; net glass area 92%
is given as 92%. The net transmittance (τ) of the
Ground reflectance: Not previously specified.
window is a product of these factors:
Assume an extensive area of mixed grass, asphalt,
and concrete walkways, with an average overall τ = (0.85)(0.9)(0.92) = 0.70
reflectance of 20% (see Table 10.10). For a more
accurate calculation of reflectance, see the method STEP 3. Select coefficients of utilization for the five
described in the IES Recommended Practice for the calculation locations (10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and
Calculation of Daylight Availability (IESNA, 1994). 90%) from Tables C.21–C.26 on the basis of room
dimensions and the portion of the sky seen by the
Calculation. Illuminance Ei will be found at the
window. The SC seen by the window is determined
five points shown in Fig. 10.41 for a spring day and
by the ratio of vertical to horizontal illuminance at
a winter day at 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. Assume
the window.
that the sky is overcast so that a direct comparison
with other methods can be made. Reflectances are SC Exvk ∕Exhk ∶ (from Table 8.7)
assumed to be 70% for the ceiling, 50% for the wall,

and 30% for the floor to correspond to the IESNA Dec. 21 ∶ 2150∕2690 = 0.8
method standard conditions. Mar. 21 ∶ 5380∕6670 = 0.8
STEP 1. Determine the vertical and horizontal illumi-
nance on the exterior of the window. The Exvk ∕Exhk value corresponds most closely to
Using the solar altitude for the spring and the Exvk ∕Exhk value of Table C.21. Use the following
winter day (Table D.1, solar data), the vertical values to find the coefficients of utilization, CUk :
and horizontal illuminances can be found from room depth
Fig. 10.23. Calculate Exhk , the half-sky illuminance = 18∕5 = 3.6
window height
(a vertical window sees only half of the sky). The
results are compiled in Table 10.7. use 4.0 (first column variable)
TABLE 10.7 Vertical and Horizontal Illuminance Values for Spring and Winter, Seattle, Washington
Vertical Window Horizontal Illuminance
Solar Altitude Illuminance, Exvk from Full Sky, ExHk Horizontal Illuminance
(Appendix D.1) (Fig. 10.23) (Fig. 10.23) from Half Sky, Exhk
Dec. 21: 14∘ 200 fc (2150 lux) 500 fc (5380 lux) 250 fc (2690 lux)
Mar. 21: 36∘ 500 fc (5380 lux) 1,240 fc (13,340 lux) 620 fc (6670 lux)
TABLE 10.8 Transmittance Data for Glass and TABLE 10.10 Reflectances of Building
Plastic Materials Materials and Outside Surfaces
Approximate Material Reflectance (%)
Material Transmittance (%)
Aluminum 85
Polished plate/float glass 80–90 Asphalt (free from dirt) 7
Sheet glass 85–91 Bluestone, sandstone 18
Heat-absorbing plate glass 70–80 Brick
Heat-absorbing sheet glass 70–85 Light buff 48
Tinted polished plate 40–50 Dark buff 40
Figure glass 70–90 Dark red glazed 30
Corrugated glass 80–85 Red 15
Glass block 60–80 Yellow ochre 25
Clear plastic sheet 80–92 White 75
Tinted plastic sheet 9–42 Cement 27
Colorless patterned plastic 80–90 Chromium 65
White translucent plastic 10–80 Concrete 55
Glass-fiber-reinforced plastic 5–80 Copper 40
Double glazed—two lights clear 77 Earth (moist cultivated) 7
glass Granolite pavement 17
Tinted plus clear 37–45 Glass
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
Reflective glassa 5–60
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Clear 7
Reflective 20–30
Source: IES Recommended Practice for the Lumen Method of Tinted 7
Daylight Calculations, RP-23–1989; reprinted with permission. Grass (dark green) 6
a Includes single glass, double-glazed units, and laminated assem- Gravel 13
blies. Consult manufacturer’s material for specific values. Granite 40
Marble (white) 45
Macadam 18
Marble 45
TABLE 10.9 Typical Light Loss Factors for Paint (white)
Daylighting Design New 75
Old 55
Light Loss Factor Glazing Position Plaster
Smooth 80
Location Vertical Sloped Horizontal Rough 40
Clean areas 0.9 0.8 0.7 Stippled 40
Industrial areas 0.8 0.7 0.6 Slate (dark clay) 8
Very dirty areas 0.7 0.6 0.5 Snow
New 74
Source: IES Recommended Practice for the Lumen Method of Old 64
Daylight Calculations, RP-23–1989; reprinted with permission. Vegetation (mean) 25
Source: Values compiled from Lam (1986), Stein and Reynolds

(1992), and the Lighting Design Lab (© 2005; used with
permission).
window length
= 18∕5 = 3.6
window height
where
use 4.0 (first row variable)
Ei = interior illuminance at a specific reference
The ground component vertical illuminance
point
(Exvg ) is the product of the ground reflectance
τ = net transmittance of the window
(Table 10.10) and half of the horizontal illuminance
Exvk = exterior vertical illuminance at the window
(Equation 10.5). The sky and ground compo-
from half of the sky (an unobstructed
nent values are compiled in Table 10.11 for each
vertical window sees only half of the sky)
of the five reference locations (from C.21 and
Exvg = exterior vertical illuminance at the window
C.26).
from the ground
STEP 4. Calculate the illuminances for each of the CUk = coefficient of utilization for sky light
five reference locations. (Table 10.12 tabulates the CUg = coefficient of utilization for ground light
illuminance values from this calculation.) The basic
equation for each location is:
To compare the lumen method results with
the CIE and GDDM methods, the values calculated
Ei = τ(Exvk × CUk + Exvg × CUg ) (10.6) for December 21 are plotted on the room plan
TABLE 10.11 Coefficients of Utilization for Sky TABLE 10.13 Illuminance Values for Clear-Sky
and Ground Components for Five Interior Conditions on June 21 at Five Reference
Locations Locations
Location CUk (Sky) CUg (Ground) Location Ei June 21, lux (fc)
10 0.673 0.183 10 4674 (434)
30 0.235 0.159 30 2225 (207)
50 0.104 0.103 50 1188 (110)
70 0.065 0.071 70 784 (73)
90 0.053 0.060 90 652 (61)
TABLE 10.12 Illuminance Values for Winter Determine the vertical illuminance (refer to
and Spring in Seattle, Washington, at Five Fig. 10.26b):
Reference Locations At a solar altitude of 55∘ and a bearing angle of
101∘ , the Exvk = 700 fc (7500 lux).
Location Ei Dec. 21, lux (fc) Ei Mar. 21, lux (fc)
From Equation 10.5, vertical illuminance on the
10 1151 (107) 2877 (267) exterior of the window resulting from ground
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
30 474 (44) 1182 (110)

50 234 (22) 585 (54)
light is:
70 151 (14) 378 (35) 80,000 + 9000
90 125 (12) 312 (29) Exvg = 0.2 × = 8900 lux (827 fc)
2
STEP 2. Determine net transmittance of the
window:
of Fig. 10.39. The December values are minimum τ = 0.70, as previously
values and correspond most closely to the 85th
percentile figures of the CIE and GDDM methods. STEP 3. Select the coefficients of utilization (as was
The agreement is excellent for the half of the previously done for overcast conditions):
room nearest the window. For the deeper half, Exvk 7500
where there is significant ground contribution, the = = 0.83
Exhk 9000
IESNA method yields higher illuminances because it
considers the re-reflected ground light contribution. STEP 4. Calculate the illuminance, using
Overall, the agreement among the three methods is Equation 10.6:
excellent. The figures for March 21 correspond most Ei = τ (Exvk × CUk + Exvg × Exvg × CUg )
closely to the 50th to 60th percentile of Fig. 10.35,
that is, somewhat more than double the minimum = 0.7 (7500 × CUk + 8900 × CUg )
figures—and here again the agreement is good.

Table 10.13 tabulates the illuminances at the five
To demonstrate the use of the IESNA method
reference locations.
for clear-sky conditions, we can work through a brief
example where five IESNA point illuminances are
calculated for the same Seattle classroom, on June
21 at 10:00 a.m. for clear-sky conditions. Assume
that the window faces southwest (azimuth angle = 10.13 DAYLIGHTING SIMULATION
45∘ west of south). PROGRAMS
Solar azimuth at 10:00 a.m. on June 21 at 48∘ N
latitude is 56∘ (Table D.1). The bearing angle is there- Daylighting simulation tools were historically
fore 45∘ + 56∘ or 101∘ (i.e., no direct sunlight enters too expensive and complex to use on day-to-day
the window, which is a necessary condition of the designs; they were, as such, primarily utilized by
IESNA clear-sky method). Solar altitude is 55∘ . lighting consultants or researchers. Computer
rendering tools have been developed so that many
CALCULATION
simulation programs now provide realistic visual
STEP 1. Determine the horizontal illuminance (refer
daylighting output with varying degrees of accu-
to Fig. 10.24):
racy. Computational approaches can simulate the
Sun only: 80,000 lux (7432 fc) distribution of light from both daylight and elec-
Sky only: 18,000 lux (1672 fc) full sky
9000 lux (836 fc) half sky (Exhk ) tric sources, for any selected season, time of day,
DAYLIGHTING SIMULATION PROGRAMS 369
and building location (orientation and latitude). on thermal mass, and calculate daylight factor
Many of these programs use radiosity techniques. (Figs. 10.43 and 10.44). Ecotect was developed
Radiosity-based renderings are produced by by Dr. Andrew Marsh, and became Autodesk
dividing all the surfaces in a scene into a mesh of Analysis in 2008; this program is no longer
small polygons. Each polygon takes on a different fully supported.
value of light absorption/reflection, depending • Autodesk 3ds Max Design (www.autodesk.com/
upon its relationship to a light source and its products/autodesk-3ds-max-design/): Autodesk
surface parameters. These values simulate the 3ds Max Design includes 3-D modeling,
light distribution throughout the scene. rendering, and animation. Autodesk VIZ
(Fig. 10.45) has migrated to Autodesk 3ds
• Desktop Radiance (http://radsite.lbl.gov/ Max Design, which continues to offer a special-
deskrad/): Known as Radiance, this program ized visualization and rendering program that
integrates a realistic rendering package includes lighting effects from indirect illumina-
(Fig. 10.42) with a computer-aided design tion and shadows under varying conditions of
(CAD) input environment. Libraries of mate- daylight and electric light, as well as expanded
rials, glazings, luminaires, and furnishings imagery and cinematographic effects.
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
facilitate data entry. Lawrence Berkeley • AGI32 (www.agi32.com/): Lighting Analysts,
National Laboratory, Pacific Gas and Elec- Inc. offers this software program for lighting
tric, and the California Institute for Energy and calculations and renderings of electric lighting
Environment developed this program. and daylighting systems (Fig. 10.46). It is widely
• Sefaira Autodesk Ecotect Analysis (http://usa used in the lighting industry and includes a
.autodesk.com/ecotect-analysis/): This is a Web-based interface that allows users to access
building analysis software program offering manufacturers’ photometric data and provides
a range of modeling and analysis features for easier updating.
such as visualization, shading, shadows, • DFcalc (http://archiphysics.com/programs/
solar analysis, lighting, thermal performance, daylight/daylight.htm): ArchiPhysics offers this
ventilation, and acoustics. It can export to Radi- beta-software program to show how daylight is
ance for higher-level ray-tracing techniques. distributed in a room. The program, so far, only
Daylighting capabilities can model shadows and calculates the sky component daylight factor
reflections on the surfaces of other buildings for a uniform sky. With simple room dimension
at a single point in time, show an entire year’s and glazing inputs, the program shows daylight
shadow patterns for a single surface, model distribution on the work plane and daylight
surface solar radiation relative to the effects factor.
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.42 Renderings studies using Radiance. (a) Shading provided by the blinds at the New York Times building. (b) Veiling reflections
on a computer monitor. (a: © Greg Ward and Judy Lai; b: by Chas Erlich, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, used with permission.)
PERCENTAGE OF DAYTIME HOURS WHERE DAYLIGHTING IS ADEQUATE FOR READING AND OTHER LIGHT DESK-ORIENTED TASKS (I.E., 28 FOOTCANDLES).
100 % 75 % 50 % 25 % 0%
1ST FLOOR
2ND FLOOR
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 10.43 Schematic daylighting study using Sefaira depicts spatial daylight autonomy (sDA) for a renovation project in Indianapolis,
Indiana. (Illustrations courtesy Daniel Overbey; © Browning Day Mullins Dierdorf.)
• Rhinoceros with DIVA plugin: (www.rhino3d adding lightshelves, reflectors, or shading devices,
.com/) 3-D modeler software works with a and/or modifying surface materials, a designer
daylighting and energy modeling plug-in— can quickly produce a three-dimensional visual
DIVA for Rhino (http://diva4rhino.com/). image that displays qualitative and quantitative
Initially developed at the Graduate School performance results for a proposed daylighting
of Design at Harvard University and now design.
distributed and developed by Solemma LLC, The advantages of physical models include:
this program offers renderings, glare analysis,

daylight factor and illuminance analysis, single • The opportunity for accurate daylight measure-
thermal zone energy, and load calculations. ments and for qualitative evaluation
• Easy construction (for most designers)
• Crude models that can yield critical information
• Easy comparisons of various schemes (e.g.,
10.14 PHYSICAL MODELING interchangeable wall or ceiling elements)
• Realistic visualization for clients
Physical modeling is a useful and indispensable
tool for the investigation of complex daylighting The principal disadvantage of using physical
phenomena. Simple physical models can give models is the need to expose them to the desired
both the designer and the client a visual under- sky conditions. For example, waiting for suitable
standing of a daylighted space. Physical models sky conditions in order to view a particular space
can duplicate the lighting phenomena that would under both overcast and clear sky conditions, or
occur in a full-scale space and, when placed under at different seasons of the year, or during different
identical sky conditions, will yield accurate results times of day, is not always practical.
relative to brightness, shadows, and daylight Constructing scale models is relatively simple,
factor. By changing window design or orientation, using corrugated cardboard, mat board, and
PHYSICAL MODELING 371
(a)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(b)
Fig. 10.44 (a) Dynamic and diffuse daylighting analysis by targeting a range of illuminance levels for specific spaces and (b) estimating
energy performance (EUI) for various parts of a studio program using Sefaira. (Illustrations by Megan York; used with permission.)
colored paper—mounted on a base for ease of Cardboard is an ideal material for daylighting
manipulation (Fig. 10.47). The model should models because it is opaque, unlike foam core
be made modularly so that alternative design board, which is translucent and transmits some
proposals can be interchanged. For example, light. Unintentional light leaks must be prevented,
to compare various skylight configurations, typically by sealing the joints of a model with black
several replaceable roof configurations can be electrician’s (or duct) tape or by using strips of
constructed. Model size depends upon the size of black cardboard to close gaps. “Portholes” in one
photometers used to measure interior illuminance, or both of the long sides of a model (approximately
the size of the space, and the need to accommodate 2 in. [50 mm] in diameter) will accommodate
a camera viewport. Considering ease of construc- visual inspection and insertion of a camera lens to
tion and visualization opportunities, bigger is photograph the distribution of light. Model surface
usually better—although larger models are often reflectances (both interior surfaces and exterior
preceded by smaller/cruder study models. surfaces that contribute to daylight distribution)
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.45 Renderings of daylight in a residence. (Images reproduced from Autodesk® VIZ Render 2004 software with permission of
Autodesk, Inc.; all rights reserved.)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
30fc 40fc 50fc 50fc 40fc 30fc
30fc
20fc 50fc
40fc
30fc 60fc
30fc
60fc
50fc
50fc 40fc
30fc 40fc
Fig. 10.46 (a) Daylighting rendering for a middle school design in Las Vegas, Nevada and (b) corresponding photometric plan using
AGi32. (Illustrations courtesy Daniel Overbey; © Tate Snyder Kimsey Architects.)
should be the same as those proposed for the box can duplicate overcast sky conditions with
actual building (see Table C.27 for reflectances and a high degree of accuracy and are ideal for
mat board colors). Special care should be taken testing physical models. A number of such
to accurately replicate details around daylight units exist in major universities and lighting
openings—the size and depth of mullions, the laboratories around the world. Sky domes
depth and reflectivity of the sill, louvers, shading are usually illuminated by interior perimeter
devices, and surfaces just outside daylight open- lamps with the model located in the center.
ings. Any major furnishings that might have a A mirror box is essentially a room with a lumi-
significant impact upon light distribution should nous ceiling (using fluorescent lamps) and
also be included. mirrored walls to create a sky with an “infinite”
Daylight model testing may be conducted horizon. For construction details, see Moore
under a real or an artificial sky and may also (1985).
involve heliodon studies. 3. Heliodon. The heliodon, as shown in Fig. 10.48,
is a sophisticated device that allows the study
1. Use of a real sky with daylighting models is of shading and solar access at a specific lati-
logical but often difficult to coordinate (as tude and longitude, time of day, and time of
described earlier in this section). year, using architectural scale models. It oper-
2. Artificial sky or mirror box. Carefully designed ates by rotating and tilting a building model
and controlled artificial sky domes or a mirror with respect to the real sky or an “artificial
PHYSICAL MODELING 373
(a)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
(b)
Fig. 10.48 ShadowTracker heliodon at the Baker Lighting Lab at

the University of Oregon. Automated adjustments for latitude,
elevation, and tilt permit exposure of the model to desired clear

sky conditions. (© Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.)
helioluxes, sun emulators) have been built using a

(c) variety of configurations to simulate the sun’s posi-
tion relative to an architectural scale model. In
Fig. 10.47 The effectiveness of even a crude model for
daylighting studies. (a) A faculty office served as an exercise
all cases, the device establishes a geometric rela-
for a daylighting study. (b) The scale model for this office was tionship for three variables: site location (latitude),
constructed of cardboard. Important reflecting surfaces such as solar declination (time of year), and the Earth’s
desk surfaces and windowsills were carefully modeled. (c) A
quick modification was made to the model so that the rear of the
rotation (time of day). With an adjustment to any
office would receive more light. All photos were taken on site at one of these variables, a heliodon can simulate
midday on an overcast day. (© Alison Kwok; all rights reserved.) sunlight penetration and shading for any combi-
nation of site location and time. Other types of
heliodons keep the position of the model fixed and
sun” (a narrow-beam electric light source) until use a band of lamps that move along three axes to
the desired solar altitude and azimuth are reached. simulate the sun’s position for different times and
Over the years, heliodons (sun machines, sun tables, seasons.
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.49 (a) Shaded walkway at the Horseshoe Lodge, Beulah, Colorado. (b) Sidelighting in dormitory room of the summer camp.
(Photos © Dan Bihn; used with permission.)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
10.15 RECAPPING DAYLIGHTING of electric lighting. Skillfully employing strategies

such as toplighting, sidelighting, lightshelves,
This chapter began by describing the control of and shading devices involves numerous quali-
daylight in buildings as both an art and a science. tative judgments and quantitative calculations
Daylighting is a cornerstone of green design to achieve design intents and criteria. While it is
and a major contributor to good building energy important to conduct necessary calculations, it
performance, as well as occupant comfort, produc- is also important to recognize the beauty in the
tivity, and health. Addressing daylighting early in simplicity of the straightforward design of the
schematic design is a critical step for successfully past—as shown at the historic Horseshoe Lodge,
zoning activities and massing the building to built in 1939 (Fig. 10.49).
optimize the use of daylight and minimize the use
10.16 CASE STUDY—DAYLIGHTING DESIGN

The Hive: Worcester Library and History Centre, Worcester, England
PROJECT BASICS • Design team: Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios

(architects), Max Fordham (services), Hyder
• Location: Worcester, England, United Kingdom Consulting Ltd. (structural); Galliford Try
• Latitude: 52.2∘ N; longitude: 2.2∘ W; elevation: Construction Central (contractors) and
58 ft (17.7 m) specialist consultants
∘
• Heating degree days: 5866 base 65 F (3259
base 18∘ C); cooling degree days: 1355 base
∘
50 F (752.3 base 10∘ C); annual precipitation:
26.3 in. (669 mm) Background and Context
• Building type: New construction; library The Hive: Worcester Library and History Centre
• Building area: 142,654 ft2 (13,253 m2 ) gross is an integrated public and university library in
floor area divided into four levels Worcester, England (Figs. 10.50 and 10.51). The
• Completed: January 2012 city’s existing library was no longer fit, and the
• Client: WLHC ProjectCo for Worcester- university sought to improve its connection to
shire County Council and the University of the city. So the County Council put forward a
Worcester proposal of both a public and university library,
CASE STUDY—DAYLIGHTING DESIGN 375
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 10.50 Aerial of the site near the Severn River; site diagram showing the massing of the building. (Photo by Simon Kirwan; © Simon
Kirwan Photography; used with permission.)
Fig. 10.51 The Hive is in a historic part of the city of Worcester. It is designed to be an integrated public and university reference and
loan library. (© Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios; used with permission.)
S W WIND PRAVING NAT. VENTS

LIGHT
LIGHT
LIGHT
RIVER WATER WATER STORAGE
Fig. 10.52 Early design sketch showing environmental strategies. (© Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios; used with permission.)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
The Hive, Worcester

Section B
1 to 400 @ A3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 10.53 Section drawing showing roof cowls. (© Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios; used with permission.)
in order to meet the needs of both Worcester profile originates from the surrounding ridgeline
County Council and the University of Worcester. of the Malvern Hills and the traditional hop-kiln
In 2007, a competition included a program for houses found in the region. The roof cones
a new building that achieves a 50% reduction maximize daylight and provide natural ventilation
in carbon emissions, and fills 50% of its energy through a central atrium and a series of voids
needs from renewable sources. The brief also strategically positioned in the building’s various
called for the building to have a minimum envi- floor plates (Figs. 10.52, 10.53, 10.54, 10.55).
ronmental rating of “Excellent” by the Building The nearby Severn River is used as a heat sink for
Research Establishment Environmental Assess- the cooling system in the library. Biomass from
ment Method (BREEAM) for buildings. In addition, local sources provides the primary heating source.
the building must be able to adapt to the extreme
environmental conditions expected in 2050. Design Criteria and Validation
The Hive secured a BREEAM “Outstanding”
Design Intent rating with a score of 86.4% at the final
Seven golden pyramidal roofs cover an irregular, post-construction review. The scheme also
pentagonal, four-story building plan. The roof exceeds the 50% carbon reduction target,
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 10.54 Daylit atrium is controlled by the structural timber baffles; use of absorptive material around voids in the atrium provides a
good acoustical environment. (Photo by Nick Hufton; © Hufton & Crow; used with permission.)
Fig. 10.55 Rooftop cowls and skylight features. (© Hufton & Crow; used with permission.)
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 10.56 Section drawing of the building showing the daylight strategy. Baffled skylights allow daylight to wash along the large
surfaces, creating a “larger” aperture. (© Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios; used with permission.)
Fig. 10.57 Section of the building showing the natural ventilation strategy. Air enters around the building perimeter, rises through atria
by the stack effect, and exits via the roof cowls under negative wind pressure. (© Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios and Max Fordham LLP;
used with permission.)
with renewables contributing almost 35% to KEY DESIGN FEATURES

the reduction. The building is designed to
adapt to climate change predicted by the UK • Daylighting. Skylights with large chamfered
Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP) to 2050. surfaces maximize daylight deep into the atrium
The building has an “A” rated Energy Perfor- and down through voids cut into the floor
mance Certificate (given by the government plate (Fig. 10.56). Sidelighting from large areas
whenever a property is bought, sold, or rented). of shaded vertical glazing supplements the
top-lighting strategy and ensures an average out additional post-occupancy monitoring and
daylight factor of 3%. to work with facilities contractor SGP to improve
• Natural ventilation. The building is naturally the building performance.
ventilated by air entering through windows at
the building perimeter and rising up by the PERFORMANCE DATA
stack effect through the main atrium, then
exiting through the roof vents assisted by • Building Emissions Rate: 3.57/lb CO2 /ft2 per
negative wind pressure. Baffles in the skylights year (17.4/kg CO2 /m2 per year).
create ventilation troughs that ensure the pres- • Predicted electricity consumption: 9.84
ence of negative pressure regardless of wind kWh/ft2 per year (105 kWh/m2 per year)
direction (Fig. 10.57). Additional ventilation is including small power and IT use.
delivered to the central atrium via a concrete • Predicted fossil fuel consumption: 0.467
duct; air travels from an exterior intake vent, kWh/ft2 per year (5 kWh/m2 per year) not
under the basement to the base of the atrium, including biomass fuel, assumes gas usage for
and rises into the atrium. peak loads and backup only.
• Thermal mass. Thermal mass in the concrete • Predicted renewable energy generation: 3.561
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
soffits stabilizes temperature swings in the kWh/ft2 per year (38 kWh/m2 per year).
library by absorbing heat in the building. • Predicted water use: 668 gallons (2530 L)
During the summer the soffits are precooled per occupant per year; 396 gallons (1500 L)
by night ventilation that flushes the heat off the potable water per occupant per year; 264
concrete and keeps the building cool during gallons (1000 L) harvested rainwater per
the day. During the winter the soffits absorb occupant per year.
daytime radiation and keep the building warm • Rainwater is projected to supply 40% of the
at night. building’s water needs.
• Heat sink. The site’s proximity to the Severn
River allows it to be used as a heat sink. Water AWARDS
is pumped from the river to the building,
passes through a heat exchanger and then • 2013 RICS Awards Regional Design and
into radiant coils in the concrete, and is then Innovation—Winner
returned to the river. Piping within the concrete • 2013 RICS Awards Regional Community
floor cools the structure of the building and Benefit—Winner
provides radiant cooling to occupants. Engi- • 2013 RIBA Awards National—Winner
neers predicted that the cost of running the • 2013 RIBA Awards Regional Sustainability
water pumps would be a third of the operation Award—Winner
costs for conventional HVAC equipment. • 2013 Building Awards: Sustainability Project of
• Rainwater harvesting. Water from the rain- the Year—Winner
water harvesting system is used for flushing • 2013 Civic Trust Awards—Winner
toilets and in the wash and silt trap, which • 2013 CIBSE Building Performance Awards:
forms part of the archaeology service in the New Build Project of the Year (value above £5
history center. million)—Winner
• Alternative energy source. Biomass from • 2012 PFI Partnership Awards: Best Sustain-
local wood chips provides peak heat to the ability in a Project
building and further reduces demand on the • 2012 Wood Awards: Commercial & Public
energy grid. Access: Shortlist
• 2012 Partnerships Awards: Best Community
Post-Occupancy Validation Methods and Perfor- Project: Shortlist
mance Data • 2012 Partnerships Awards: Best Sustainability
The public can monitor the building’s perfor- in a Project—Winner
mance using the display screen in the entrance • 2012 Partnerships Awards: Best Pathfinder
foyer. Max Fordham has been appointed to carry Project: Shortlist
• 2012 Partnerships Awards: Best Local Govern- “The Hive / Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios,” Arch-
ment Project Team: Shortlist Daily. April 13, 2012: http://www.archdaily.com/
• 2012 Partnerships Awards: Best Designed 225962
Project: Shortlist “The Hive by Feilden Clegg, Bradley Studios,”
• 2012 WAF Awards: Culture—Libraries: Short- De Zeen Magazine. April 12, 2012: https://www
list .dezeen.com/2012/04/12/the-hive-by-feilden-
• 2009 Bentley Awards—Be Inspired: Infrastruc- cleggbradley-studios/
ture Best Practices Symposium and Awards:
Pearson, Andy. 2013. “The Hive: The UK’s First
Innovation in Generative Design—First Prize
Fully Integrated Public and University Library.”
CIBSE Journal, March 2013. https://www
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION .cibsejournal.com/archive/PDFs/CIBSE-Journal-
Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios: http://www 2013–03.pdf
.fcbstudios.com/ The Hive: Worcester Library and History Centre
Max Fordham LLP: http://www.maxfordham (project archive): http://www.wlhc.org.uk
.com/
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS
References and Resources Hopkinson, R. G., R. Pethebridge, and J. Longmore.

American Institute of Architects. 2012. Architect’s 1966. Daylighting. London: Heinemann.
Guide to Integrating Energy Modeling in the Design IESNA. 2012. Lighting Measurement 83 (LM-83),
Process. Washington, DC: American Institute of Approved Method: IES Spatial Daylight
Architects. http://www.aia.org/practicing/ Autonomy (sDA) and Annual Sunlight Exposure
AIAB097932 (ASE). IES Daylight Metrics Committee.
Brown, G. Z., and M. DeKay. 2014. Sun, Wind and IESNA. 1994. Recommended Practice for the
Light: Architectural Design Strategies (3rd ed.). Calculation of Daylight Availability (RP-21-84;
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. reaffirmed 1994). New York: Illuminating
Bryan, H., and S. M. Autif. 2002. Engineering Society of North America.
“Lighting/Daylighting Analysis: A Comparison.” IESNA. 1999. Daylighting (RP-5-99). New York:
In Proceedings of the National Solar Energy Illuminating Engineering Society of North
Conference. Boulder, CO: American Solar Energy America.

Society. IESNA. 1989. Recommended Practice for the Lumen
CIE. 1970. Daylight: International Recommendations Method of Daylight Calculations (RP-23–89).
for the Calculation of Natural Daylight (Publication New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of
No. 16 E-3.2). Paris: Commission Internationale North America.
de l’Eclairage. IESNA. 2011. The Lighting Handbook: Reference and
DeKay, M. 1992. “Volumetric Implications and a Application. 10th Edition
Rule-of-Thumb for Thickness of Atria Buildings.” International Energy Agency. 2000. Daylight in
In Proceedings of the 17th National Passive Solar Buildings: A Source Book on Daylighting Systems
Conference. Boulder, CO: American Solar Energy and Components. International Energy Agency,
Society. Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, Energy
Dresler, A. 1963. Daylight Design Diagrams. Conservation in Buildings and Community
Melbourne, Australia: Service Division, Systems. Berkeley, CA.
Commonwealth of Labor and National Service. Krochman, J. 1963. “Über die horizontal
Heschong Mahone Group. 1999–2003. Executive Beleuchtungsstärke der Tagesbeleuchtung.”
summaries and reports available from: http:// Lichtechnik, Vol. 15, no. 11.
h-m-g.com/downloads/Daylighting/order_ Lam, W. 1986. Sunlighting as Formgiver for
daylighting.htm Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 381
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. “Windows Rennhackkamp, W.M.H. 1967. “Sky Luminance
and Daylighting.” http://windows.lbl.gov/ Distribution in Warm Arid Climates.” In
Lighting Design Lab (Seattle): http:// Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on
lightingdesignlab.com/ Illumination. Washington, DC.
Millet, M. S., and J. R. Bedrick. 1980. Graphic Sefaira.com, Measuring Daylight: Dynamic
Daylighting Design Method. Washington, DC: Daylighting Metrics & What They Mean for
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory/U.S. Department Designers, February 19, 2014; http://sefaira
of Energy. .com/resources/measuring-daylight-dynamic-
Moore, F. 1985. Concepts and Practice of Architectural daylighting-metrics-what-they-mean-for-
Daylighting. New York; Van Nostrand Reinhold. designers/
National Institute of Building Sciences. Whole Van Den Wymelenberg, Kevin, and Alen Mahić.
Building Design Guide. “Daylighting.” http://www 2016. “Annual Daylighting Performance Metrics
.wbdg.org/resources/daylighting.php/ Explained,” A-L Architectural Lighting, April 16,
Reinhart, Christoph F., J. Mardaljevic, Z. Rogers. 2016. http://www.archlighting.com/
2006. “Dynamic Daylight Performance for technology/annual-daylighting-performance-
Sustainable Building Design.” Leukos 3, no. 1 metrics-explained_o
(July 2006): 7–31. bit.ly/1Rw3uaU
PASSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment For Buildings - (Chapter 10 Daylighting)

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C H A P T E R 10

10.1 THE DAYLIGHTING OPPORTUNITY

building’s occupancy. While overall design goals

through deep, tall windows and thick walls, and

10.3 SITE STRATEGIES FOR (b) Zoning

heating and cooling design.

(a) Orientation Zoning is most often influenced by the

2. Schedule. Closely related to function, scheduling

1.0 W/sf (0.09 W/m2)

100′ 1.5 W/sf (0.13 W/m2)

Cooking Energy Lighting Energy Heating Energy

4. To what extent will daily changes in daylighting

5 1. Can the sun be used to heat spaces? If so, how

buildings have more floor space away from climate

skylights play in daylighting?

particularly important questions accompany each (open by night, closed by day)?

BUILDING TYPE DAYLIGHT HEATING COOLING

Core is dark Unbalanced solar Large core requires

THICK TALL BUILDING

Complete Passive heating Natural ventilation is

THIN BUILDING, TALL OR SHORT

Complete Passive heating Natural ventilation is

THIN COMBO BUILDING

Roofs South walls

Relatively easy fixed

North walls East walls West walls

High glazing for deep

Vertical fins for very early

Fig. 10.6 (continued)

(e) Fenestration with to provide for sufficient illuminance. Gener-

electric lighting is available to fill those needs.

a space is generally most evenly distributed

11% for space cooling and ventilation, and 14%

of Journalism, Eugene, Oregon. (© Karen Tse; used with permission.)

should be blocked before it enters a space at

10.5 APERTURE STRATEGIES: light to diffuse upon, virtually becoming a larger

rejection becomes more severe as the degree of

an exciting strategy because of the length it can

the generally low efficacy of lighting in build-

Tungsten–halogen lamp (50–1500 W) 18–22

become much higher). Losses vary between ballasts and manufac-

For manual calculation procedures, it is

1. Solid overcast sky

ratio. Sky luminance at any altitude angle above Lz ESSENTIALLY

as essentially uniform at approximately 3500 cd/m2 (1000 fL).

Unobstructed exterior surface illuminance, solid overcast sky

Eq. 10.2 Fig. 10.23

90 Direct sun only;

illuminance) is divided into two components: sky 6

only and direct sun only, as plotted in Fig. 10.26 as 5.5

in units of lumens per watt of received radiation

(c) Partly Cloudy Sky 2

The luminance of a partly cloudy sky cannot be 1.5

at many weather stations, and these data should

Illumination on a vertical surface, (fc)

Fig. 10.26 (continued)

cloudy and direct sun) because under such condi-

factors for locations in a given space and the exte- DF = SC+ERC+IRC1+IRC2

rior illuminance derived from sky luminance data.

accurate performance predictions over the entire

% and obstructions, alters these curves and requires

0.4 2. Use of a library of graphic light distribution

by a longhand daylight-protractor-aided tech- an example, we use the daylight factor method