GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OF

UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION
Soil Mechanics 101

I Gde Budi Indrawan, Ph.D.

Email: igbindrawan@ugm.ac.id

VOLUME - MASS RELATIONSHIP

• Each phase has volume and mass.

• Mechanical behavior of soil and rock is governed by phase
interaction.

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 Density, r

• Density of solids, rs

Ms = mass of solids
Vs = volume of solids

Typical values:
Larson & Berman (1934) in Terzaghi et al. (1996)

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• Density of water, rw
Mw = mass of water
Vw = volume of water

• Total density of soil, r

Mt = total mass
Vt = total volume

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• Saturated density, rsat ρsat = bulk density of the soil
when it is fully saturated

• Submerged density, r’ ρ' = density of the soil when it

is located below groundwater
table.

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• Dry density, rd Soil type Dry density (Mg/m3)

Sands and gravels 1.5 - 2.3
Silts and clays 0.6 – 1.8
Glacial tills 1.7 – 2.3
Crushed rock 1.5 – 2.0
• Unit weight, 
Peats 0.1 – 0.3
Organic silts and clays 0.5 – 1.5

Bulk unit weight, saturated unit weight, submerged unit weight,

or dry unit weight.

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 Goodman (1989)

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 Water content
Mw
a) Gravimetric water content, w w  100%
Ms
Mw = mass of water
• Expressed as a percentage Ms = mass of solid
• Possible range: 0 - 500% (marine & organic soils)
• Determination methods:
- Air dry  organic & residual soils
- Oven dry (60 ºC)  organic & residual soils
- Oven dry (105 ºC) V
qw  w
b) Volumetric water content, qw Vt
Vw = volume of water
• Expressed as a decimal V = total volume t
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 Specific Gravity, Gs Mineral type Gs Rock type Gs
Halite 2.1-2.6 Basalt 2.91
Gypsum 2.3-2.4
Dolerite 2.95
Serpentine 2.3-2.6
Orthoclase 2.5-2.6 Granite 2.64
Chalcedony 2.6-2.64
Micro-granite 2.65
Quartz 2.65
Determination method: Plagioclase 2.6-2.8
Hornfels 2.81

• Water pycnometer Chlorite & illite 2.6-3 Quartzite 2.63

Calcite 2.7
Limestone 2.69
• Gas (helium) pycnometer Muscovite 2.7-3.0
Greywacke 2.72
Biotite 2.8-3.1
Dolomite 2.8-3.1 Bell (2007)
Anhydrite 2.9-3.0
Pyroxene 3.2-3.6
Olivine 3.2-3.6
Barite 4.3-4.6
Magnetite 4.4-5.2 Goodman (1989)
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4.9-5.2 9
Galena 7.4-7.6

 Void ratio, e
Vv = volume of void
Vs = volume of solid

Das (1985)

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 Porosity, n Vv = volume of void
= Vt - Vs
Vt = total volume

- Inversely proportional to rock

strength and density.
- Directly proportional to rock
deformability.
- n – e relationship:

González de Vallejo & Ferrer (2011)

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 Saturation degree, S

Vw = volume of water
Vv = volume of voids

• Percentage of void volume containing water

‒ Kondisi jenuh (saturated): S = 100%
‒ Tidak jenuh (unsaturated): S < 100%
‒ Kering (dry): S = 0%

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SHEAR STRENGTH - Introduction

Soil strength:
• Maximum stress can be sustained.
• Source:
‒ Cohesion (c) between particles (stress
independent component)
› Cementation between sand grains
› Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
‒ Frictional resistance () between particles
(stress dependent component)

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Soil fails:
• If the strength is exceeded.
• Commonly due to combination of normal stress (σ) and shear
stress(t), not due to only σ or t.

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• Shear failure occurs if soil shear strength is exceeded
causing soil particles to slip each each other.

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• Shear failure is commonly expressed as Mohr-Coulomb

Failure Criterion: tf = c + nf tan 
tf
C
tf = shear stress at failure
ϕ
B c = cohesion
nf = normal stress at failure
c A  = internal friction angle
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion tf = c + nf tan 

nf
A: shear failure will not occur along the plane ab.
B: shear failure will occur along the plane ab.
C: state of stress cannot exist as shear failure would have
already occurred. Departemen Teknik Geologi | Universitas Gadjah Mada 16
 www.maricopa.edu

Angle of repose represents angle of internal friction () of

granular material at its loosest state
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EFFECTIVE STRESS VS. TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Two sets of failure or strength equations in soil stability analysis:

1. Effective Stress (ES) Analysis
• Using drained shear strength parameters (c‘ & ϕ‘):
t = c’ + ( – uw) tan ’
- Where t = shear strength, c’= cohesion; ’ =  – uw = effective
stress or portion of stress in the soil mass carried by the solid
skeleton; and ϕ’ = effective angle of shearing resistance.
- Pore pressures determined from hydrostatic water levels or
steady seepage analyses (once excess pore-water pressure
dissipated).

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2. Total Stress (TS) Analysis
• Using undrained shear strength parameters (cu & ϕu or ϕu = 0
for cohesive soils) :
t = cu +  tan u
- where t = shear strength, cu = cohesion;  = total stress or
portion of stress in the soil mass carried by the solid skeleton &
pore water; and ϕu = angle of shearing resistance.
- For cohesive soils: ϕu = 0, therefore t = cu.

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Drained vs. Undrained Shear Strengths

• Drained strength (c’ & ϕ’): shear strength of a soil (high
permeability) when the excess pore pressures generated by
shearing dissipate rapidly or are not present at all  under
drained condition.
• Undrained strength (cu & ϕu): shear strength of soil (low
permeability) in situations where the excess pore water
pressures developed during shearing cannot dissipate and
failure takes place  under undrained condition.

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Drained vs. Undrained Conditions
1. Drained condition: where changes in load are slow enough, or
where they have been in place long enough, so that all of the
soils reach a state of equilibrium and no excess pore
pressures are caused by the loads.
Ex: embankment construction on sand layer.
2. Undrained condition: where changes in loads occur more
rapidly than water can flow in or out of the soil.
Ex: placement of excavation material on clay layer.

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• ES vs.TS Analysis

Jennings (2010)

Short-term stability condition during placement of excavated

materials (on the assumed low permeability peat)  peat is
under undrained condition  unless Δuw is measured, use TS
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analysis!
SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

• ES vs.TS Analysis

Jennings (2010)

Short-term stability condition during excavation (assumed low

Jennings (2010)

permeability peat)  peat is under undrained condition 

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unless Δuw is measured, use TS analysis!

SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

• ES vs.TS Analysis

Jennings (2010)

Long-term stability condition influenced by rain infiltration

 peat is under drained condition (Δuw = 0)  use ES
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analysis!
• The drainage characteristics of the soil mass, and its size,
determine how long will be required for transition from an
undrained to a drained condition (Duncan & Wright, 2005).
𝐷2
𝑡99 = 4
𝑐𝑣
where t99 = the time required to reach 99% of drainage equilibrium; D =
length of the drainage path; cv = coefficient of consolidation.

– cv (clays) ≈ 1.0 cm2/h to about 100 times this value.

cv (silts) ≈ 100 cv (clays), and
cv (sands) ≈ 100 cv (silts).

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• Drainage path length D is related to layer thicknesses:

D = ½ layer thickness for layers that are bounded on both
sides by more permeable soils;
D = layer thickness for layers that are drained only on one
side.

𝑡99

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 SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS

To determine Drained Condition vs. Undrained Condition:

compare t99 with duration of event/ operation.

Event/ Operation Duration

Shock wave - piling <1s
Shock wave - earthquake 1–2s
Trench excavation 1 - 3 hours
Small building foundation 5 - 20 days
Large excavation or building 1 - 6 months
Construction of dam or embankment 1 - 3 years
Filling of reservoir 2 – 5 years
Natural erosion > 50 years

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UJI KUAT GESER TANAH – Lab Tests

• Uji lab untuk menentukan parameter-parameter kuat geser

tanah (c dan ϕ):
1. Direct Shear
2. Triaxial Compression
3. Unconfined Compression
Direct shear

Unconfined
compression Triaxial
compression
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• Interpretasi hasil uji direct shear:

t Test 3 t

Test 2 Test 3

Test 2 ϕ' or ϕu
Test 1 Test 1
c’
or
cu

x σ or (σ-u)

x = horizontal strain (%) = (L/L0) x 100%

t = shear stress (kPa) = Fshear/A
 = normal stress (kPa) = Fnormal/A
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• Interpretasi hasil uji triaxial:

Failure envelope
t
(1-3)

Test 3
ϕ
Test 2
Mohr circle

Test 1
c
y 3 3 1 3 1 1 n

x = vertical strain (%) = (L/L0) x 100%

t = shear stress (kPa)
’ = effective normal stress (kPa) = ( – u)
1' = major effective principal stress (kPa) = (1 – u)
3' = minor effective principle stress or effective confining stress (kPa) = (3 – u)
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• Interpretasi hasil uji unconfined compression:
- σ3 = 0

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Triaxial cell for testing unsaturated soils

Fredlund & Rahardjo (1993)
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Extended Mohr-
Coulomb failure
envelope for
unsaturated soils

Fredlund & Rahardjo (1993)

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Shear strength:

Fredlund & Rahardjo (1993)

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

• It suits practically all soils and weak
rocks due to its great penetrability.
• The dynamic nature of the test
makes the interpretation and use of
result in low permeability soils
difficult.
• Carried out in a pre-bored hole.

Das (2010)

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XI. PENYELIDIKAN LAPANGAN – Uji Lapangan

Budhu (2011)
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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• The standard penetration number (N) is influenced by

hammer efficiency, borehole diameter, sampler correction,
and drill rod length.
• The N-value obtained from in-situ testing needs to be
standardised. The standard practice in the U.S. is to express
the N-value to an average energy ratio of 60% (N60).

EmCbCsCr N
N60 
0.60
where Em = hammer efficiency; Cb = correction for borehole
diameter; Cs = sampler correction; Cr = correction for drill rod
length; N = N-value obtained during SPT.
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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• Correction for overburden pressure needs to be applied

because N-value tends to be lower near the ground surface.
• Liao & Whitman (1986):

100 kPa
( N1 )60  N 60
 v'
where (N1)60 = N-value corrected for overburden pressure; N60 =
N-value corrected for hammer efficiency, borehole diameter,
sampler, and drill rod length; σv’ = effective normal stress.

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

 Correlation between SPT testing results and engineering

properties of granular soils

Das (2010)

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• Estimation of drained shear strength of coarse-grained soils

from SPT results:

- Wolff (1989): ' = 27,1+0,3(N1 )60 - 0,00054(N1 )60

2

0,34
 
 
-1  N60 
- Kulhawy and Mayne (1990):  ' = tan 
 σ' 
 12,2+20,3  v 
where:
  Pa  
Pa = atmospheric pressure (unit Pa = unit v’)

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• Estimation of undrained shear strength of fine-grained soils

from SPT results (Das, 2010):

Standard penetration Consistency Unconfined compression

number (N60) strength qu (kN/m2)
<2 Very soft < 25
2-8 Soft-medium 25-80
8-15 Stiff 80-150
15-30 Very stiff 150-400
>30 Hard > 400

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

2. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

• A static penetration test that is
applicable to almost all soils with
sizes up to small gravels.
• Allows pore water pressure
measurements (CPTU).
• The test is faster and cheaper since
no borehole is required.

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• Type of cone penetrometer

˗ Dutch cone (old version)
˗ Electric cone (CPT)
˗ Piezocone (CPTU) with pore pressure measurement
˗ Seismic cone (SCPTU) with shear wave measurement

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• Estimation of drained shear strength of coarse-grained soils

from CPT results (Robertson dan Campanella, 1983):
qc
 '  tan 1 (0,1  0,38log )
 v'
• Estimation of undrained shear strength of fine-grained soils
from CPT results (Schmertmann, 1978):
qc   v
cu 
Nk
where:
Nk = cone bearing capacity = 10-15 (NC clay) = 15-20 (OC clay)
qc = cone end resistance
σ'v = effective stress; σv = total stress
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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

• Soil classification from CPT (Robertson & Campanella (1983):

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SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS – In Situ Tests

3. Field Vane Shear

• Can be carried out in a pre-bored hole or by means of a push-
in type vane.
• One of the most widely used in-situ strength (undrained
strength) tests for soft to medium stiff clay.

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SHEAR STRENGTH – Typical Values

• Inorganic soils (Das, 2010)

Soil type ϕ’ (°)
Sand: rounded grains
Loose 27-30
Medium 30-35
Dense 34-38
Sand: angular grains
Loose 30-35
Medium 35-40
Dense 40-45
Gravel with some sand 34-48
Silts 26-35

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