ST.

AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANZANIA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & COMMUNICATION
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

General guidelines for Bachelor and Master

of Arts degree dissertations in the department of
sociology

Approved version
2018
Dear Students and Staff,

Research is a scientific activity which has a number of obstacles and challenges on the

way which can make people anxious, frustrated, confused or even discouraged in the middle of

their research work. Knowing how to start and proceed is a milestone in handling the issue of

research.

In recognition of the challenges of writing research reports, the department of sociology

has reviewed its research guidelines and regulation in this academic year 2018/19. I am pleased

to present to you this small booklet which contains the approved research regulations and

guidelines in the department of sociology at St. Augustine University of Tanzania, Mwanza main

campus. We recommend that all BASO and MASO students, research supervisors, and external

research evaluators to adhere to these guidelines.

I wish you a successful academic year.

Fr. Dr. Paskas Wagana.

Ag. Head of Department.

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 Table of Contents

PRELIMINARY PAGES
1.1: Title page. 4
1.2: Declaration 6
1.3: Certification 6
1.4: Copyright statement 6
1.5: Dedication 6
1.6: Acknowledgement. 6
1.7: Table of Contents 7
1.8: List of Tables 7
1.9: List of figures 7
1.10: List of Abbreviations 7
1.11: Definition of terms. 7
1.12: Abstract 8
1.13: Important regulations on typing and formatting dissertation: 8
1.13.1: A note on APA 8
1.13.2: Typing 9
1.13.3: Pagination 9
1.13.4: Margins 9
1.13.5: Numbers: 9
1.13.6: Paragraphs: 10
1.13.7: Quotations: 10
1.13.8: Appendices 10
1.13.9: Abbreviations/Acronyms 11
1.13.10: Tables: 11
1.13.11: Figures and other illustrations 12

THE BODY OF DISSERTATION

2.1: Chapter One: Introduction 13
2. 1.1 Background of the study. 13
2.1.2 Statement of the problem/Research problem 13
2.1.3: Objectives of the study. 13
2.1.4 Research Questions or hypotheses 14
2.1.5 Justification/Rationale/significance of the study 14
2.1.6 Scope of the study 14
2.1.7 Limitation 14
2.2: Chapter Two: Literature Review 15
2.2.1: Theoretical review 15
2.2.2: Conceptual framework 15
2.2.3: Empirical literature review 15
2.2.2. Research gaps 16
2.3: Chapter Three: Methodology 16
2.3.1 Research design 16
2.4: Chapter Four: Research Findings 17
2.5: Chapter Five: Discussion of the results 18
2.6: Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations. 19

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 CITATION & REFERENCING
3.1: APA in-text citations overview 20
3.2: In-text citation for one author. 21
3.3: in-text Citation of individual Chapters in multi-authored books 21
3.4: In-text citation of works by multiple authors: 22
.5: In-text citations for corporate authors 23
3.6: In-text citation of works by no identified author: 23
3.7: In-text citation of two or more publications in the same parenthetical citation: 24
3.8: In-text citation of an indirect source (secondary citation). 24
3.9: In-text citation of publications in the same parenthesis, and in indirect source 24
310: In-text citation of Personal communication materials eg. Letters, e-mails, conversations, etc. 25
3.11: In-text citation of specific parts of a source 25
3.12: APA reference list overview 26
3.13: Referencing a print journal article. 27
3.14: Referencing an electronic Journal article. 28
3.15: Referencing Individual chapters in multi-authored books 28
3.16: Referencing proceedings of conferences/workshops/monographs 29
3.18 Referencing for print and electronic newspaper articles 30
3.19: Referencing eBooks and PDFs 30
3.20: Referencing archive material and artwork 31
3.21: Referencing for dictionary entry 31
3.22: Referencing for print encyclopedia articles 32
3.23: Referencing government publications 32
3.24: Referencing religious texts 32
3.25: Referencing emails and blogs 33
3.26: Referencing broadcasts, dvd, video, and film 33
3.27: Electronic Sources and Locator Information. 33

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 Preliminary Pages

1.1: Title page.

The title page should bear the name & Logo of St. Augustine University of Tanzania. It
should also bear the names of the faculty of social sciences and communication and the
department of sociology. Below this information is the title of the study followed by the names
of the candidate and his/her registration number. The title should not contain words such as ‘A
Study of…’, ‘An Examination of….’, ‘An Assessment of ….’, ‘The relationship between…’, nor
should abbreviations such as ‘NGO’ or ‘AU’ or ‘MDGs’, etc., appear in the title.

The names of the candidate must be written in full beginning with the surname. Titles
such as Mr., Fr., Dr., Sr., Rev., etc. should not be included. The use of the word ‘By’ in the title
page should be avoided.

Then the candidate must write the statement of affiliation such as: A dissertation
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of (insert name of degree)in
Sociology of St. Augustine University of Tanzania.

All information in the face page must be center aligned. APA regulations allow the
capitalization of the first word of the title, the first word of the subtitle and all proper nouns; all
other words are written in small letters. In short, the title page should include the following:

i. The title must not exceed 20 words.

ii. Write your full name.
iii. Indicate the year of completion of dissertation
iv. Use 1.5 inch margin on the left side and 1 inch in all other sides (the wider margin
on the left hand side is to allow for good binding).
v. Don’t put frame.
vi. Maintain double spacing.

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 Example of title page 1 inch

St Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT) (Font 20 )

Faculty of Social Sciences and Communication (Font 16 )

Department of Sociology (Font 16 )

1.5 inch 1 inch

General Guidelines for The Format of Research Report Writing in the
Department of Sociology.(Font 12 bold)

Kitinku, Donald E.
Reg. BASO/27865 (Font 12)

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Sociology of St. Augustine University of Tanzania. (Font 12)

May 2013 (Font 12)

61 inch
1.2: Declaration
The declaration is nothing but a pronouncement of the candidate that the manuscript is
his/her authentic work. It includes both the candidate’s and supervisor’s duly signed certification
of this fact. It begins with the candidate’s declaration: ‘ I,……, declare that this research report is
my original work and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree in any other
university or higher learning institution’

……………….. …………
Signature Date

1.3: Certification
Approval by supervisor should contain the following words: ‘The undersigned certifies
that he/she has read and here by recommends for acceptance by the St, Augustine University of
Tanzania a dissertation entitled, (write title of your research in italics). In partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of Degree of (insert name of degree).

Prof. John Masaluka, MCED, PhD (consult your supervisor how to write his or her name)
Signature……………………
Date………………..
1.4: Copyright statement
Refers to permission to use previous published document/material. The copyright is
reserved by the author. It is represented by ©. Use the following words “No part of this
Dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written
permission of the author or The St. Augustine University of Tanzania in that behalf”.

1.5: Dedication
Just mention the name or names to whom the research is dedicated.

1.6: Acknowledgement.
In acknowledgement write a note of gratitude to all people who supported the research
work. These may include: the supervisor, parents, colleagues, typists, institutions, individuals,
respondents, etc.

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1.7: Table of Contents
This is a summary of the whole manuscript in the form of chapters, sections, sub-
sections, headings and sub-headings with their corresponding page numbers.

i. The title page is not numbered.

ii. All pages starting with declaration to the abstract are paginated in Roman
numerals (eg. i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc).
iii. The chapter titles should be in capital letters and bolded.
iv. Maintain single spacing between subheadings.

Table of contents is closely related to levels of Heading. The heading style recommended
by APA consists of 5 formatting top-down arrangements. Each heading level is numbered. APA
displays heading 1 to heading 9 in the style menu and you can make options for headings on
change style option.

APA 5 heading formats

i. Centered, boldface, uppercase and lowercase Heading. This type is also known as
title case.
ii. Flush left, Boldface, uppercase and lowercase heading.
iii. Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period (in
lowercase paragraph heading, the first letter of the first word is uppercase and the
remaining words are lowercase).
iv. Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
v. Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

1.8: List of Tables

Lists all the tables used in the report and their corresponding pages.

1.9: List of figures

Lists all figures/illustrations used in the report and their corresponding pages.

1.10: List of Abbreviations

List of abbreviations used in the document. Don’t show page numbers.

1.11: Definition of terms.

Define terms in the document that are not common.
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1.12: Abstract
An abstract is summary, one or two pages, of the key points of the research which reports
what was done, the central findings of the study and the conclusion reached. Its points are
organized in the same order as they are in the complete report. Although the abstract appears in
the beginning of the document, it is actually written last, after all the chapters have been written.

An abstract should not exceed 150 words (can range 100 – 150words) and it includes the
following:

i. At least one-sentence statement of the problems of research question

ii. A brief description of the participants (how many and their characteristics)
iii. A brief description of the research method and procedures
iv. A report of the results
v. A statement about the conclusion and key recommendations.

1.13: Important regulations on typing and formatting dissertation:

1.13.1: A note on APA
The accepted mode of typing, citation and referencing in the department of Sociology
(generally in social sciences) at SAUT is the American Psychological Association (APA). You
can also access this at www.apastyle.org. APA stands for the American Psychological
Association. It is the most popular citation format and typing style in social sciences.

APA style has a number of regulations: first, it requires the researcher to use an objective
and impersonal style in writing. Phrases like ‘I think’, ‘I believe’, or ‘I instructed the
participants’ are not accepted in research reports written in APA style. Instead, one can use
phases like ‘The participants were instructed’, etc.

Secondly, utmost care is required in the use of verbs. When presenting background
material of research or information about past researches the use of past tense and present
perfect tense is recommended eg. ‘They demonstrated that….’ Or ‘it has been demonstrated
that…’. When presenting the results always use past tense eg. ‘Majority of respondents were….’
However, when discussing the results and conclusion switch back to the present tense eg.’the
data suggests that…’.

1.13.2: Typing

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 The dissertation must be computer- processed and printed on good quality A4 paper.
Typing must be double spaced and on one side of the paper only. Typing should be done using
Times New Roman font size 12 and this should be maintained throughout the document.

Research work demands a lot of reading and usually students collect more data than they
probably need. However, not all materials read can find space in the dissertation. As part of
training students are expected to have an ability to select what should go into their dissertations,
and what should be left out. In recognition of this important aspect of training, the department of
sociology has set maximum lengths for Bachelor and Master’s dissertations/thesis. The lengths
for undergraduate students: lower limit 20,000 words and upper limit 25,000 words (appendices
and footnotes included). For Master students: lower limit 35,000 words and upper limit 50,000
words (appendices and footnotes included).

1.13.3: Pagination
Preliminary pages must be numbered with Roman numerals (i, ii, iii etc). The title page
should not be numbered (Don’t show the page number “i” on the title page). Arabic numerals
(1,2,3, etc) begin with the main text of the report i.e. from the Introduction/Background section
and then numbered consecutively. All pages are numbered in the lower center position.

1.13.4: Margins
The left hand margin must be 1.5 inch margin on the left side and 1 inch in all other
sides.

1.13.5: Numbers:
i. Use words to express numbers from zero through nine, and numerals to express
numbers from 10 and higher, e.g. One gram of water guard and 10 mls of water
were mixed; seven shops, 15 plots.
ii. Use numerals only for days, years, dates, page numbers, classes etc., e.g. 3 days, 1
year, 6th January, page 13, type 7, etc.
iii. In a series of three or more numbers, use figures, e.g. ‘In an observation with 6
students in Mwanza, 4 in Dodoma and 8 in Arusha…………’
iv. For units of measurement us SI (System International) units. Spell out the units
unless they are preceded by numbers. Note that abbreviations for units are the
same in singular and plural forms e.g.. Write kg not kgs.

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 v. Use numerals only whenever a number is followed by a unit of measurement e.g.5
kg,2 g.
vi. In numbers and columns of numbers (e.g. in tables) containing four or more than
four digits, group the digits into three.
vi. Spell out numbers that occur at the beginning of sentences.
vii. For simple fractions use the form one-quarter, two-thirds, not 1/4, 2/3 etc.
viii. Avoid large figures ending in several zeros. e.g. instead of 1,600,000 write
1.6 million.
ix. For Percentages use the % symbol only with figures, e.g. 82% but spell out the
words percent or percentage when they occur without figures.
x. For time use the 24-h clock, e.g. 07:30 h, 23:45 h, etc
xi. For dates use the form 22 January, not 22nd January, January 22 or January 22nd
xii. Express years 1980s not 1980’s. Also write 2011-12, not 2011- 2012. For parts of
two years write 2011/12.

1.13.6: Paragraphs:
Paragraphs should be block format (i.e. with first sentence indented), justified and with a
space between paragraphs. A paragraph should be longer than a single sentence but not beyond a
manuscript page. The minimum number of sentences in a paragraph is 5. Maintain Double-line
spacing throughout the document, with all paragraphs indented on the left margins.

1.13.7: Quotations:
Short quotations of fewer than 40 words must be incorporated in the text and enclosed
with double quotations mark. Quotations of 40 words or more must be typed and indented five
(5) spaces from the left without quotation marks. Every quotation must include the author, year
and page number in the citation and a complete reference in the reference list.

1.13.8: Appendices
Appendices include all information and materials used for preparation or supporting
research work. These are useful information about research but if they are inserted inside the
research report, they can interrupt the reader and the flow of text. To avoid that, they are
appended at the end of the document. Appendices include: a copy of the questionnaire, a
computer program, detailed instructions to participants, extra big tables and figures, letters of

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introduction, budgets and work plan. Each appendix start on a separate page and is identified by
letters A, B, C, etc. (eg. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.).

1.13.9: Abbreviations/Acronyms
Whenever abbreviations/Acronyms of organizations, technical terms etc., are used, spell
them out in full the first time they occur, followed by the abbreviation/acronym in brackets, e.g.
St. Augustine University of Tanzania (SAUT). Thereafter use the abbreviation only. Never begin
a sentence with an abbreviation even if it has been previously spelled out. Omit full stops in
abbreviations e.g. write USA, not U.S.A., PhD not Ph.D., RUCU not R.U.C.U.

When local terms or unfamiliar terms are used, write the local name in italics or a
description jn parenthesis.

1.13.10: Tables:
i. Present each table on a separate page.
ii. APA recommends tables without middle lines (simple formatting).
iii. Use upper case “T” for the word “Table” when citing tables in text.
iv. The table caption should be placed at the top and should be in bold and indented (5
spaces), left margin.
v. Tables should be numbered using Arabic numbers (e.g. 4.1, 4.2 etc) as per the
chapters in which they are found (example: 4.1 means first Table in Chapter 4).
vi. The title or caption of the table should sufficiently describe what is contained in the
table.
vii. Explanatory notes (footnotes or legends) of the table or figure should be in Times
New Romans size 11.
viii. For tables that are represented in a landscape format (horizontal), the caption
should be typed length-wise at the left hand margin of a page.
ix. Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of captions and of column
headings in tables.
x. Place acknowledgements of source below tables cited from other sources.
xi. Large tables should be avoided in the main text and if necessary they
xii. should be attached as Appendices.
xiii. A table in the text should not exceed the printed area of the page.

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1.13.11: Figures and other illustrations
i. Present figures and other illustrations on separate pages
ii. Number figures sequentially in Arabic numbers according to
chapters (e.g. Figure 1.1, 2.5, etc).
iii. Type captions below figures. Each figure caption is numbered and italicized
eg. Figure 1.
iv. Capitalize only the first letter of captions.

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 The Body of Dissertation

The structure of dissertations/thesis in the department of sociology has six (6) chapters:
Introduction, Literature review, Methodology, Findings, Discussion and Recommendations.
Begin each chapter with an introduction and end it with a short summary.

2.1: Chapter One: Introduction

2. 1.1 Background of the study.
Background should show the existence of the problem; that is, in a few sentences
describe the issue being investigated, how and why it has become a problem and why this
problem is important. How far back can it be traced in history. Talk about the nature of this
problem: economic, social, educational, political etc. Give both the global and local/regional
perspectives of the problem. Background should be approximately 600 words/4-6 pages.

2.1.2 Statement of the problem/Research problem

Repeat the information derived from the previous section which indicates why and how
the issue is really a problem. Who are affected? But this time around support your claim with
empirical evidence, for example by use of statistics. Indicate what has already been detected with
regard to the consequences of this problem and what are the challenges ahead/magnitude of the
problem.

Show both sides of the coin: what is likely to happen if nothing is done and what changes
will take place if the research is done. What methods of research do you think could be used to
broaden the understanding/ explore the existence of the problem? Statement of the problem
should be concise and brief with Length- Maximum 1 page.

2.1.3: Objectives of the study.

The general objective: statement of the intention of the study which indicates what the
research is supposed to accomplish/goal to achieve. It should be in line with the title.

Specific objectives refer to specific aims arising from the general objective. They should
be in line with the variables the candidates hypothesize to influence the phenomenon being

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investigated. Specific objectives guide the researcher in the selection of respondents, research
tools and study area. They should also be able to clarify the variables of the study – making them
specific, measurable, operational, focused and realistic.

Specific objectives use research-based performative verbs such as : ‘identify and

describe’, ‘investigate’, ‘explore’, ‘evaluate’, ‘assess’, ‘appraise’, ‘examine’, ‘study’, ‘consider’,
‘search for’, ‘explore’, ‘probe’, ‘inquire’, ‘scrutinize’, ‘analyze’, etc. Note: specific objectives
should not be questions in the questionnaire.

2.1.4 Research Questions or hypotheses

These are issues that the researcher wants to answer, they are related to research
objectives and equal in number. They have to be numbered (1, 2, 3…..) and should be questions
and not statements. The chapter of introduction typically ends with a statement of the hypothesis
concerning the relationship between variables.

2.1.5 Justification/Rationale/significance of the study

It answers the question Why? of the research. It illustrates why the researcher is
conducting the research and whom it shall benefit.

Justification focuses on the beneficiaries of the study when the study is complete. What
will be the contribution of the study after its completion: to discipline, policy, society or
humanity in general. Will the findings /results of the study bring any changes/improvements to
the society?

2.1.6 Scope of the study

Scope cites the boundary/focus of the study in terms of geographical area, target group/
population, depth of investigation, content, time frame or theoretical coverage. A student
researcher should be able to say why he/she cannot take everything related to his area of
interested and he/she picks only a small part of it.

2.1.7 Limitation
Indicate the challenges encountered in the study that may have limited the study. One
should be honest to state all the constraints imposed by methods adopted in the research, time,
financial difficulties, data inaccessibility or problems related to the location/situation of the

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research. The student researcher should be in a position to show an attempt made to overcome
such challenges.

2.2: Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.2.1: Theoretical review
Focus on the review of theoretical literature relevant to the subject being investigated to
make oneself familiar with modern trends and related previous findings on the subject. Review
both conceptual literatures related to concepts, theories and schools of thought. Theoretical
review is necessary as it helps the researcher to formulate the theoretical framework for his/her
study.

2.2.2: Conceptual framework

Sometimes people find it difficult to distinguish between theoretical framework and
conceptual framework. The former, Theoretical framework, refers to the process of examining
existing or self-formulated theories which are related to the research objectives.

Conceptual framework on the other hand, is a demonstration of how a variable/variables

influence others. It is a kind of scheme of concepts (variables) which a researcher will
operationalize/refine in the study in order to achieve the set objectives. The conceptual
framework is normally presented graphically (diagrammatically). Example of conceptualization: Let
us say one student is doing a research on how divorce affects Children wellbeing. The conceptual framework will
demand that student to specify what dimensions of wellbeing he or she is referring to ; emotional, financial,
physical, social, legal, environmental, etc. There can be subdimensions of the concept eg. Social wellbeing – can be
relations with some people, discrimination, or child’s safety. Relationship can be measured by indicators such as
frequency of contacts, conflicts, shared activities, etc.

In short, conceptual definition of a variable refers to meaning provided in dictionaries.

But operational definition is redefining the variable in terms of physical steps to be taken in order
to realize the variable. Operational definitions are designed to help replication or to confirm the
results of the study by conducting it again.

2.2.3: Empirical literature review

This deals with the review of literature concerning studies conducted before that are
similar to your own research study.The best place for literature review is the scholarly Academic
Journals, Books and dissertations (also government documents), policy reports and presented
papers where scholars present findings of various studies. Take both old and recent ones. Record
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information as you go along reading otherwise you will be overwhelmed by materials and forget
valuable information. Create two files/notebooks: one in which you record all the bibliographic
information. You can still sub-divide this into the sources you have read and documented and
another section for sources you have identified but have not read them. The second file/notebook
call it ‘Content’ in which you store interesting information of what you have read including
findings, methodology, discussions, analysis, etc.

While reading the literature reveal what has been done by other researchers/contributions
in terms of methodologies used & findings, discussions, analysis and also identify the
weaknesses and main gaps. It is sometimes confusing what to record and what to leave. As a
general rule, record the hypotheses tested, major concepts measured findings, basic design of the
research, group or sample used. Note all areas of accord or discord among previous researchers.
And after reading all these documents try to figure out your own ‘voice’.

2.2.2. Research gaps

Write a note of the current gap, identify a problem(s) of the study and plan for a way to
address that knowledge gap.

2.3: Chapter Three: Methodology

2.3.1 Research design
Research design is the process of the development of the actual structure or framework
that indicates research concepts or theories and how they have been operationalized, selection of
the appropriate methods that can best be used to obtained the required data from various sources
(or method design), choosing an appropriate technique of sampling which helps in making a
decision on the size, method and time required to obtain the units of analysis(sampling design),
the procedure of collecting data, type of statistics needed to undertake the analysis, tools such as
software packages used to analyzed data, and the way data is going to be interpreted and
reported. Research design is therefore a framework for generation of evidence (data collection
and data analysis) suited to answer the research question in which the investigator is interested.
Research design follow under the quantitative and qualitative divide. With quantitative studies
appropriate designs include experimental, non-experimental (quasi-experimental and
correlational or survey designs), there are research designs appropriate for quantitative studies as

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well as for qualitative studies. Qualitative design include designs such as grounded theory,
ethnography and narrative research designs.

Therefore, in this chapter candidate is required to indicate type of research he or she is

undertaking, methods of sampling, data collection and data analysis. It is prudent to justify the
choice of type of research by citing an authority.

In short, the method section in the research report should include specific information
about

i. Research approach(whether quantitative, qualitative or mixed)

ii. Research type (descriptive, exploratory, explanatory or evaluative)
iii. Population and sampling procedure (who will be involved, how, when, where)
iv. Sampling techniques and sample size.
v. Data collection methods used (eg. questionnaire survey, archival analysis, etc).
vi. Description of the measurements (such as operationalizations, reliability and
validity of any standardized instrument)
vii. Instrument procedure used to gather data (online or distributed questionnaire,
number and type of follow-ups to improve response rates, etc)
viii. Data analysis strategies
ix. Ethical considerations (protocols to be followed in order to ensure the study is
conducted in an ethical manner).
2.4: Chapter Four: Research Findings
This chapter is about analysis: in the data analysis you break things apart; re-group, re-
organize them, and come up with findings/results. In this chapter you are presenting KEY
findings (note: not all the data). That is, work out what results to present – always refer to the
research question to find out what you are supposed to report. Organization is required on how to
present the results. For example, if you did both quantitative and qualitative data collection, you
have to decide on how to present your results chronologically starting with results maybe from
quantitative, then that of qualitative interview. But if you are looking at your results thematically,
then you have to present results on the basis of different themes.

Note the use of language in this chapter. Avoid phrases such as “my findings prove”, “my
study conclusively answered all the questions about,” or “we found the answer to.” It is much
more accurate to say that “my findings suggest that…..” or “for the sample of people studied, we
can conclude that…..”

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 Present results in the best illustrative and illuminative way in the form of figures and or
describe observations. Just use words to explain the contents of the figure. Use tables without
vertical lines (use simple formatting). Table titles should be at the top of the tables. Figure titles
should be at the bottom of the figures. In a result section never interpret data (that is done in
discussion section).

Principles to follow:

i. Show results focusing to your research question

ii. Think as a spectator rather than a presenter
iii. Be simple and direct
iv. Do not discuss findings, just present them.
v. End this section with a summary: just repeats the purpose of research,
hypothesis, results whether they supported or did not support or there were
mixed evidences towards the hypothesis.

2.5: Chapter Five: Discussion of the results

This chapter is about synthesis: to locate the close findings in a broader context – by
referring to literature, practice, policy, etc. (depending on type of research). Discussion should
follow the results. It is a synthesis i.e. taking the results and making sense of it. In other words,
What do the findings mean? And its application - how can I use it?

Result section contains several parts:

i. Conclusion: at least one paragraph
The discussion section should begin with a statement of the hypothesis
(which was presented at the end of your introduction).
Say what were the main findings of the study. Use words to explain what
the numbers mean. Forexample, The purpose of this study was to
investigate on ………..it was found that there were no significant
differences……
ii. Discussion:
Explain how the findings are linked with the findings of previous
studies/literature. How your findings similar or not similar, add or confirm
to the previous literature. Do the findings agree or disagree with the
previous research? If they disagree, why can that happen?

Show how the findings fit within the theories or practice. How major
findings either support or fail to support your hypothesis.What are the

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 implications? (Practical, theoretical), Strength and weaknesses, Direction
of future research.
Forexample: The only significant difference in motivation
was/came…..These results indicate that……According to John(1998)
motivated individuals……

Discussion chapter can follow this outline

i. Summary of the findings

ii. Interpretation of the findings(answer research Qs, explain results, unexpected
results)
iii. Compare findings to literature
iv. Implications of the findings (improve, add, or change field).
v. Evaluation of the study (limitations, justify your approach, etc) – conclusion.
vi. Recommendation or future research ( recommendation can be for practice,
policy, future research. Recommendation is not something found in every
research as it depends on the type of research) – conclusion.
vii. End the chapter with a summary.

2.6: Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations.

This chapter deals with Evaluations – take a step back and say ‘Now that I have done this
study, what can I say….?’

Note that there are no new materials in this section as such. But summarize the entire
research on what you set out to do (purpose); what you did (methods); what you found (results).
Give some critical evaluation of your research and focus on future research – what new research
questions arose? Then give recommendations and Key Message (s).

20
 Citation & Referencing

A citation is a way of identifying the author and the year of publication of the source of
an idea mentioned in a research report. It provides enough information for a reader to trace the
full reference in the list of references at the end of the report. Sources are cited for two major
reasons: to acknowledge authors whose works have helped us with our research work, and to
provide a standard way for others to understand and possibly explore the sources we have used to
do our research.

There are two types of citations: In-text citations used when directly quoting or
paraphrasing a source. These are located in the body of the text eg. “After that I lived like a
young rajah in all the capitals of Europe…” (Fitzgerald, 2004). The second type of citation is the
reference lists located at the end of the text eg. Fitzgerald, F. (2004). The great Gatsby. New
York: Scribner.

In order for a dissertation to be recommended for examination at least 10% of all

references cited must be Journal articles. The Journal articles cited should not be older than 10
years. Journal articles may include ones accessed through electronic data bases.

3.1: APA in-text citations overview

APA use the author - date method of in-text citation. In-text citation is used to indicate
the specific parts of papers/articles/books that were paraphrased or quoted directly from a source.
The in-text citation is usually located at the end of the quoted or paraphrased sentence. APA in-
text citation has the following structure:

i. The last name of the author and the date of publication are inserted in the text in the
appropriate place.
ii. When referencing or summarizing a source, provide the author and year.
iii. When quoting or summarizing a particular passage, include the specific page or
paragraph number, as well.
iv. When quoting in your paper, if a direct quote is less than 40 words, incorporate it
into your text and use quotation marks. If a direct quote is more than 40 words, make
the quotation a free-standing indented block of text and DO NOT use quotation marks.

21
 Examples:
Direct quote less than 40 words:
Nyerere (1966, p.3) once said, “The world is becoming too fragile; unlike glass please,
handle with prayer.”

Direct quote with more than 40 words:

Kothari (1990) proposes:
In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies
received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing
the questionnaire. Proper sequencing reduces the possibility of individual
questions being misunderstood (p.126).
3.2: In-text citation for one author.
Cite references by author’s SURNAME followed by year of publication, with a
separating comma, e.g. (Mbwette, 2000). The source is cited in parentheses within the same
sentence in the beginning, middle or at the end as the following examples demonstrates.

i. In one developmental study (Manga, 2015), children learned...

ii. In the study by Manga (2015), primary school children...
iii. In 2015, Manga’s study of primary school children…
iv., …this is what was formerly proposed in earlier research (Kanyama, 1983).
v. In some cases, researchers use the source as the subject of the sentence. In such cases
the author(s) name(s) appear within the body of the sentence and ONLY the
publication year is put into parentheses eg. In a related study, Jones (1999) found
that…… Or, Mbogo and Malele (1999) found that….
vi.If the author(s) has more than one publication in the same year, the letters ‘a’ and ‘b’
are used to differentiate the publications. These are added after the date of publication
eg. …Fungameza (2001a, b)….(two papers published by the same author in the same
year).

3.3: in-text Citation of individual Chapters in multi-authored books

i. Author’s surname, initials, (year of publication in brackets),
ii. ‘title of the paper in inverted commas’,
iii.‘In’ editor’s surname, followed by the editor’s initials. Note: after the ‘in’ initials are
placed before rather than after the surname.

22
 iv.title of the book in italics,
v. page numbers of the article
vi.place of publication, publisher, page numbers.

Example:
Wragg, T. (2002) ‘Interviewing’, in M. Coleman and A.R.J. Briggs (eds) Research
Methods in Educational Leadership and Management. (pp 1004 – 1009). London:
Paul Chapman Publishing.

3.4: In-text citation of works by multiple authors:

i. When a piece of work has 2 authors cite both names every time you reference the
work in the text eg. (Owens & Munene, 2014), Or, Mabiki and Kikwala (1978) claim
that……. The symbol/ampersand ‘&’ is used in place of “and” when the full citation
is within parenthesis.
ii. When a work has three to five authors cite all the authors names and the date the first
time the reference occurs in your text and then subsequently include only the first
author’s last name followed by et al and the date. The word et al means (and others).
There is always a full stop after ‘al.’

For example:
First citation: Olwari, Kaaya, Busikwa and Okello (2010) state that..... Subsequent
citations: Olwari et al. (2010) state that...

Or, First citation: It has been found that word recall decreases as a function of age
(Jones, Smith & Brown, 2002). Subsequent citation: It has been found that word
recognition decreases as a function of age (Jones et al, 2002). Or, Potter et al. (2013)
go on to explain that “among the most Catholic Filipinos, parents keep the newborn
inside the home until after the baptism to ensure the baby’s health and protection.”

iii. For 6 or more authors, cite only the last name of the first author followed by et al. and
the year for the first and subsequent citations. e.g. A recent study by Nsobya et al.
(2010) showed that cultured malaria parasites exhibited a wide range of sensitivities
to chloroquine (CQ).

23
.5: In-text citations for corporate authors
Use the name of the organization in place of the author.
Example:
“Dr. Scharschmidt completed her residency in 2012, joined the Leaders Society in 2013,
and became a new volunteer this year to encourage other young dermatologists in her
area to join her in leadership giving” (Dermatology Foundation, 2014).
If the name of the organization is used in the text, place only the year in parentheses.
Example:
The Dermatology Foundation (2013) stated in their report that “industry also played an
important role in the success of the highly rated annual DF Clinical Symposia–Advances
in Dermatology.”

3.6: In-text citation of works by no identified author:

i. When a resource has no named author, cite the first few words of the reference entry
(usually the first three words of the title).
For example:
In Managing Citations (2007), students get introduced to rules about ……..

ii. Use double quotation marks around the title of an article, chapter, or Web page.
Italicize the title of a periodical, book, brochure, or report.
For example:
The site seemed to indicate support for homeopathic drugs (“Medical Miracles,”
2009). The brochure argues for homeschooling (Education Reform, 2007).

iii. If the source has no date use n.d.

Example:
Maze (n.d.) claims that there is correlation between the size of the head and IQ.

iv. Treat reference to legal materials such as court cases, statutes, and legislation like
works with no author.

24
3.7: In-text citation of two or more publications in the same parenthetical citation:

i. Citations of two or more works in the same parentheses should be listed in the order
they appear in the reference list (i.e., alphabetically, then chronologically). That is, if
the same information has more than one author, you list them in alphabetical order by
the first authors’ last names and separate the items with a semicolon.

For example:
Several studies (Jones & Powell, 1993; Peterson, 1995, 1998; Smith, 1990) suggest
that... Or, …it is evident from various researches (Kayungi, 2004; Maliwa, 2005;
Mkotani, 2007) that….

If the information has more than one source by the same author(s), use commas to
separate years of publication. For example: …this is evident from his recent
publications (Rwehumbiza, 2006, 2007).

3.8: In-text citation of an indirect source (secondary citation).

i. When citing from an indirect source – use the phrase as cited in.
For example:
Kibonde observed, “While growing square tomatoes may seem to be engineering
ingenuity ……….” (as cited in Livingstone, 1992, p.45). Or, ….Victor (1996), cited
by Fweja et al. (2002). Secondary citations should be kept to minimum or where
possible avoided all together.

3.9: In-text citation of publications in the same parenthesis, and in indirect source

i. Citations of two or more works in the same parentheses should be listed in the order
they appear in the reference list (i.e., alphabetically, then chronologically). That is, if
the same information has more than one author, you list them in alphabetical order by
the first authors’ last names and separate the items with a semicolon.

For example:
Several studies (Jones & Powell, 1993; Peterson, 1995, 1998; Smith, 1990) suggest
that... Or, …it is evident from various researches (Kayungi, 2004; Maliwa, 2005;
Mkotani, 2007) that….

25
 If the information has more than one source by the same author(s), use commas to
separate years of publication. For example: …this is evident from his recent
publications (Rwehumbiza, 2006, 2007).
ii. When citing from an indirect source – use the phrase as cited in.

For example:
Kibonde observed, “While growing square tomatoes may seem to be engineering
ingenuity ……….” (as cited in Livingstone, 1992, p.45).

310: In-text citation of Personal communication materials eg. Letters, e-mails,

conversations, interviews, etc.

For example: According to the theatre attendant Mr. Matatizo (personal communication,
November 22, 2007), the operation was an absolute mistake. (Do not include personal
communication sources in the Reference List).

3.11: In-text citation of specific parts of a source

i. Always give the page number for quotations or to indicate information from a specific
table, chart, chapter, graph, or page.
ii. The word page is abbreviated but not chapter.
For example:
The painting was assumed to be by Matisse (Powell, 1989, Chapter 6), but later
analysis showed it to be a forgery (Murphy, 1999, p. 85).

If, as in the instance of online material, the source has neither visible paragraph nor
page numbers, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it. This
allows the reader to locate the text in the source. For example: The patient wrote that
she was unimpressed by the doctor’s bedside manner (Smith, 2006, Hospital
Experiences section, Para. 2).

26
3.12: APA reference list overview
Referencing refers to the way of acknowledging the sources of information that one has
used to back up or support his argument. The reference list at the end of each manuscript
provides the information necessary to identify and retrieve each source.

i. Include only the sources you have cited, not everything you have read.
ii. Entries are listed alphabetically by the last name of the author or by the first major
word of the title if no author is mentioned.
iii. For more than one author, alphabetize by last name of the author whose name appears
first.
iv. For several sources by same author – list according to year of publication, the earliest
first.
v. All run-on lines are indented ½” to the right.
vi. APA reference list citations follow this format: Last name, First Initial. (Year
published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s)
Examples
Kothari, C. R. (1990). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques (2nd
Edition). New Delhi: Vishwa Prakashan.

Kothari, C. R. and Kendall, B. (1991). Questionnaire Techniques. Madison: Sage

Publishers

Note: When a source has up to 7 authors we include all names in the list.
But, for 8 or more authors we include the first six author’s names and then use
ellipsis point (---) before concluding with the last author’s name
Eg. Mangi, A.A., Mbole, P.K., Pula, W.Y., Ndambo, J.J., Joshu, P., Kothari, C.R.,
--- Kendall, B. (2008).
A reference list is related to a bibliography. A bibliography includes all the material used
in the preparation of research work. It therefore include entire reference list as well as any other
material one has read or used but have not referred to directly. It is written in the same format as
reference list. Unlike a bibliography, a reference list cites only the works which were cited in the
text. Elements of references differ according to the type of publication. Referencing make use of
Latin abbreviations:

ibid. = ibidem
op. cit. = opere citato

27
 et al. = et alii

English abbreviations accepted in the reference list for parts of books and other publications
include:
Ed. Edition
Rev. ed Revised edition
2nd ed second edition
Ed. (Eds.) Editor(Editors)
Trans. Translator(s)
n.d. no date
p. (pp.) page (pages)
vol. volume
vols. Volumes(as in vols. 1-4)
No. Number
Pt. Part
Tech. Rep. Technical Report
Suppl. Supplement
APA use Arabic numerals and not Roman numerals in volume number (e.g., Vol.3, not Vol. III).

3.13: Referencing a print journal article.

i. Author’s name, initials, (year of publication in brackets),
ii. ’title of the article in inverted commas’,
iii. title of the journal in italics,
iv. volume number in bold, (issue number in brackets), page numbers
Example:
Porter, S (1993) ‘Critical realist ethnography: the case of racism and professionalism
in a medical setting’, Sociology, 27(4):591 – 603.

Journal paper not in English

Nunes, E. (1985). Investigacao recente sobra as principal’s factor queimitam a
producao do milho em Mozambique. (A recent investigation of the main factors
limiting sorghum production in Mozambique). Agricultura Boletin Tecnica. 8: 4 - 10.

Journal paper accepted for publication but still in press

Majamba, H. I. (In press). Legal training for diverse roles in Zanzibar: Open
University Law Journal.

28
3.14: Referencing an electronic Journal article.
i. Name of author
ii. Year of publication in parenthesis
iii. Title of article
iv. The name of the journal in Italics, and the pages for the article.
v. DOI as a unique identifier.
Example:
Birch,S,& Chase,C.(2002). Effects of varying focus and accenting of adjuncts on the
comprehension of utterances. Journal of Memory and language, 47,571 – 588.
DOI:10.1016/s0749-596X(02)00019-9

If the article has no DOI. Write, Available from: or retrieved from: . . . name of
service, URL of web site and date it was accessed. The URL (universal resource
locator) is the unique address of the server on which the document is stored.

Example
Raina, S. (2015). Establishing Correlation Between Genetics and Nonresponse.
Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, [online] Volume 61(2), p. 148. Available at:
http://www.proquest.com/products-services/ProQuest-Research-Library.html
[Accessed 8 Apr. 2015].

3.15: Referencing Individual chapters in multi-authored books

i. Author’s surname(s) and initials.
ii. Year of publication in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
iii. Title of chapter or article, followed by the word ‘In’.
iv. Title of book in italics.
v. The words ‘Edited by’, followed by surname(s) and initials of the editor(s) of the
publication, underlined and enclosed in brackets.
vi. Name of publisher and town, in that order. vii. First and last page numbers of
chapter, article, part, or section; pp. 18- 24.
Example
Barrow, E., Gichohi, H. and Infield, M. (2001). The Evolution of Community
Conservation Policy and Practice in East Africa. In: Africa Wildlife and Livelihoods: The
promise and Performance of Community Conservation. (Edited by Hulme, D. and
Murphree, M.), James Currey Ltd, Oxford. pp. 59 - 73.

29
3.16: Referencing proceedings of conferences/workshops/monographs
i. Author’s surname(s) and initials.
ii. Year in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
iii. Title of article followed by the work ‘In’.
iv. Title of proceeding or workshop italicized.
v. Name of Editor(s) in brackets.
vi. Date of the conferences, town, Country, Volume (if any ), page numbers.
vii. First and last pages of the article; pp. 180-194.
Example of Conference or workshop proceedings
Boyle. P. J. (Ed.) (1987). Appropriate Manpower for Agricultural Research. In:
Proceedings of SADCC Workshop, Gaborone, Botswana, 25 November, 1985. 120pp.

Example of Individual paper in conference or workshop

Gimbi, A. A., Kimambo, A. E., Kanuya, N. L., Mtenga, L. A., Laswai, G. H. and
Madsen, J. (2003). Seasonal variations on reproductive performance, mineral and body
condition status of smallholder dairy cattle in Rungwe district, Tanzania. In; Proceedings
of Tanzania Society of Animal Production Scientific Conference. 28 - 30 October, 2003,
Tanga, Tanzania 30: pp. 333 - 341.

Example of Monographs
United States Agency for International Development (2000). Rice Production in Africa.
Agriserve Ltd., New York, 150pp.

Example of Annual Report

Botswana Ministry of Agriculture (1999). Livestock Research in Botswana Annual
Report. Government Printer, Gaborone, Botswana. 10pp.

If the conference is published online use this format: Last name, First initial.
(Conference Year). Title of Paper or Proceedings. In: Name or Title of Conference.
[online] City: Publisher of the Proceedings, pages. Available at: URL [Accessed Day Mo.
Year]. 3.17: Referencing Dissertations and Theses
i. Author(s) surname(s) and initials,
ii. Year in bracket, followed by a period (full stop).
iii. Title of the dissertation.
iv. Name and country of the host institution.
v. Total number of pages in the form: 230pp
Example
Ndesendo, C. V. (2011). Role of job application using e-recruitment system in the
banking industry: The case of banks in Dar es Salaam region. A dissertation for award of
MBA degree at Open University of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 103pp.

30
3.18 Referencing for print and electronic newspaper articles
i. Last name, First initial. (Year published).
ii. Article title. Newspaper(italicized), Page(s).
Example:
Kisembo, P. (2006). Survey shows food price further going down in Dr es Salaam. Daily
news, Issue No. 36000. p. 13.

Weisman, J. (2015). Deal Reached on Fast-Track Authority for Obama on Trade

Accord. The New York Times, p.A1.

For electronic Newspaper use the following structure: Last name, First initial. (Year
published). Article title. Newspaper, [online] pages. Available at: URL [Accessed Day
Mo. Year].

Example:
Harris, E. (2015). For Special-Needs Students, Custom Furniture Out of Schoolhouse
Scraps. New York Times, [online] p.A20. Available at: http://go.galegroup.com [Accessed
17 Apr. 2015].

For magazines, use the following structure: Last name, First initial. (Year published).
Article title. Magazine (italicized), (Volume), Page(s).

Example:
Davidson, J. (2008). Speak her language. Men’s Health, (23), pp.104–106.
3.19: Referencing eBooks and PDFs
When referencing eBooks and PDFs, include the edition, even if it’s the first edition, and
follow it with the type of resource in brackets (either [eBook] or [pdf]). Include the URL at the
end of the citation with the date it was accessed in brackets. Use the following structure:

i. Last name, First initial. (Year published).

ii. Title. Edition. [format]
iii. City: Publisher, page(s).
iv. Available at: URL [Accessed Day Mo. Year].

Example:
Zusack, M. (2015). The Book Thief. 1st ed. [eBook] New York: Knopf. Available at:
http://ebooks.nypl.org/ [Accessed 20 Apr. 2015].

Robin, J. (2014). A handbook for professional learning: research, resources, and

strategies for implementation. 1st ed. [pdf] New York: NYC Department of Education.
Available at http://schools.nyc.gov/ [Accessed 14 Apr. 2015].

31
3.20: Referencing archive material and artwork
Archival materials include all information sources that provide evidence of past events.
Archival Such materials include manuscripts, letters, diaries, etc. The structure for archival
materials includes:

i. Last name, First initial. (Year published).

ii. Title of the material. [format]
iii. Name of the university, library, organization, Collection name, code, or number.
iv. City.
Examples:
Pearson, J. (1962). Letter to James Martin. [letter] The Jackson Historical Society, Civil
Rights Collection. Jackson.

Marshall, S. and Peete, L. (1882). Events Along the Canal. [program] Afton Library,
Yardley History. Yardley.
To reference artwork, use the following structure: Last name, First initial. (Year
created). Title. [Medium]. City that the artwork is/was displayed in: Gallery or Museum.

Example:
Gilbert, S. (1795-1796). George Washington. [Oil on canvas] New York: The Frick
Collection.
Jensen, L., Walters, P. and Walsh, Q. (1994). Faces in the Night. [Paint Mural] Trenton:
The Trenton Free Library.
3.21: Referencing for dictionary entry
If the dictionary entry is in print,

i. Last name, First initial. (Year published).

ii. Entry title.
iii. In: Dictionary Title, Edition.
iv. City: Publisher, page.
If a dictionary entry is found online, use the following structure: Last name, First initial.
(Year published). Entry title. In: Dictionary Title, Edition. City: Publisher, page.
Available at: URL [Accessed Day Mo. Year].

Examples:
Sporadic (1993). In: Webstin Dictionary, 8th ed. New York: Webstin LLC, page 223.
Reference. (n.d.) In: Merriam-Webster [online] Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Inc.
Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reference [Accessed 12 Dec.
2014].
Note: If no author/editor/or contributor is given, omit it from the citation.

32
 If the publishing year is unavailable, use the abbreviation n.d., which stands for no
date

3.22: Referencing for print encyclopedia articles

i. Last name, First initial. (Year published).
ii. Article title. In: Encyclopedia title, Edition.
iii. City published: Publisher, page(s).

Example:
Harding, E. (2010). Anteaters. In: The International Encyclopedia of Animals, 3rd ed.
New York: Reference World, p. 39.
3.23: Referencing government publications
i. Government Agency OR Last name, First Initial., (Year published).
ii. Title of Document or Article.
iii. City published: Publisher, Page(s).

Examples:
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, (2012). BicyclePA Routes. Harrisburg:
PENNDOT, p.1.
3.24: Referencing religious texts
i. Title (Year published).
ii. City published: Publisher, pages used.

Example:
New American Standard Bible, (1998). Anaheim: Foundation Publications, Inc, pp.332-
340.

33
3.25: Referencing emails and blogs
i. Sender’s Last name, First initial. (Year published).
ii. Subject Line of Email. [email].

Example:
Niles, A. (2013). Update on my health. [email].
Blogs are regularly updated webpages and run individuals. When referencing a blog
post, use the following format: Last name, First initial. (Year published). Post title.
[Blog] Blog name. Available at: URL [Accessed Day Mo. Year].

Example:
Cohen, M. (2013). Re-election Is Likely for McConnell, but Not Guaranteed. [Blog]
FiveThirtyEight. Available at: http://fivethirtyeight.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/re-
election-is-likely-for-mcconnell-but-not-guaranteed/ [Accessed 4 Apr. 2015].

3.26: Referencing broadcasts, dvd, video, and film

To reference radio or tv broadcast, use the following structure:
i. Series title, (Year published). [Type of Programme]
ii. Channel number: Broadcaster.

Examples:
Modern Family, (2010). [TV programme] 6: Abc.
For DVD, Video, or Film, use the following format: Film title. (Year published).
[Format] Place of origin (place where the film was made): Film maker(director or studio
or producer)
Example:
Girls Just Want to Have Fun. (1985). [film] Chicago: Alan Metter.

3.27: Electronic Sources and Locator Information.

Uniform Resource Locators (URL) is used to map digital information on the internet.
However, since information in the internet can be changed, restructured or even deleted, scholars
publish their works and store them in journals using DOI. Digital Object Identifiers (DOI)
assigns identifiers to articles. All DOI numbers begins with a 10 and contain a prefix and suffix
separated by a slash. DOI should be included for both print and electronic sources (Use this
format for the DOI in references: doi:xxxxxxxxx). If DOI is not available, provide the home
page URL of the journal or of the book (Do not add a period after the URL and do not include
retrieval dates).

34
 References used

APA Documentation and format (n.d). Writing in the Social Sciences (chapter 51).

APA Style Guide to Electronic References, Sixth Edition

https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4210512.aspx

Journal Manuscript Preparation Guidelines

https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/resources/manuscript-submission-guidelines.aspx

The Open University of Tanzania (n.d). Guidelines for preparing a detailed research proposal
for Masters degree by thesis or Phd degree

VandenBos R. G. (ed.) (2010).Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association

(6th ed.).Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

www.apa.org/journals/

35