Underground water investigation via

geophysical and GIS techniques

Thesis submmited by

MUHAMMAD ZAKIR AFRIDI

MUHAMMAD ISHAQ
ABDUL HANAN
KAMRAN ANWAR
AMIR KAHN

Supervised by
Dr.Irfan Ullah

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
BACHA KHAN UNIVERSTIY CHARSADDA
(SESSION 2018-2022)
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Underground water investigation via geophysical and GIS
techniques
Thesis submitted to the department of Geology for partial fulfillment of requirement for the

degree of Bachelor of Science in Geology.

SUBMITTED BY:

MUHAMMAD ZAKIR AFRIDI

MUHAMMAD ISHAQ

ABDUL HANAN

KAMRAN ANWAR

AMIR KAHN

Thesis Evaluation Committee:

Convener __________________________
Dr. Fahad Ali
Member 1 __________________________
Dr. Fahad Ali
Member 2 / Supervisor __________________________
Dr. Irfan Ullah
Secretary __________________________
Mr. Rafiq ahmad
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Dr. Fahad Ali
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
BACHA KHAN UNIVERSTIY CHARSADDA
(SESSION 2018-2022)

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 Acknowledgment:
In the name of Allah, the most benevolent, the most generous. We bear witness that there is no
God but Allah and holly prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) is the last messenger. We want to
play our regard to our supervisor Dr. Saad Khan. Their invaluable comments, constructive
criticism, their helpful nature and academic support have contributed most in making this task
easier and more comfortable and also helped in interpretation of the data and construction of map
of Landikotal. We also want to acknowledge the PHED and NASA for providing free remote
sensing data to make this research work more easy and low cost for us. We would like to our
family member and our brother for their prayers, encouragement and confidence have always
given our strength to achieve our goals. Friends are part of our lives and we find them there
when we feel standing alone. Their guidance in different area calculation of Landikotal are
thankfully acknowledged. Finally, we wish to express our appreciation to the whole faculty and
staff of Department of Geology and Geophysics of Bacha Khan University Charsadda.

Regards: Group Member

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 Abstract
Groundwater is a finite and at-risk natural resource, essential to sustain life, development, and
the environment. To model both the quantity and quality of ground water is essential to endure
food security and sustainible envirnment.In this research, the underground water is investigated
using geophysical and GIS techniques. The area selected for this study is the LANDI KOTAL
tehsil of district KHYBER. It is the adminstrative headquarter of the Khyber district and is on
the way across the mountains to the city of PESHAWAR. The data of the subsurface is acquired
using a Terrameter, the electrical resistivity profiles of various sites are modeled to have an idea
about the ground water potenial, different maps of the area are generated using verious tools of
GIS to represent the data collectively. The digital elevation model DEM of the area is
downloaded from a website (https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov) which shows that the location is
topographically located at higher elevation. The water table of the area show variation ,along the
mountains, the water table is near to the surface as we go away from higher elevation tward low
lying areas, the water table goes deeper in response to atmospheric presure. The water samples
are also collected from the already drilled wells. For the physico-chemical parameters, the water
samples examine as per the standard set for the standard method of the AMERICAN PUBLIC
HEALTH ASSOCIATION. The result shows that the pH of the area is mostly normal, not very
dangeorus however little risky for health. Similarly, the TDS of the area show that water in most
area has good quality and are drinkable but someplace on the lower left side of the map shows a
high value than the normal and has poor quality and are not drinkable.

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Contents
Chapter No: 1...................................................................................................................................7
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................7
1.1 General Introduction..............................................................................................................7
1.2 Study Area..............................................................................................................................8
1.3 Geology of the study area......................................................................................................9
1.4 Stratigraphy of the area........................................................................................................10
1.4.1 LandiKotal formation....................................................................................................10
1.4.2 Shagai formation...........................................................................................................11
1.4.3 Ali Masjid Formation....................................................................................................11
1.4.4 Khyber Limestone.........................................................................................................11
1.4.5 Ghundai Sar Formation.................................................................................................11
1.4.6 Lowera Mena Formation...............................................................................................11
1.5 Statement of Problem...........................................................................................................12
1.6 Aim and Objectives..............................................................................................................12
1.7 Scope of study Area.............................................................................................................13
CHAPTER NO: 2..........................................................................................................................14
GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION........................................................................................14
2.1 Electrical resistivity..............................................................................................................14
2.1.1 Concept..........................................................................................................................14
2.1.2 Groundwater Investigation and Electrical Resistivity Method.....................................14
2.1.3 Field Procedure..............................................................................................................16
2.2 ABEM Terrameter LS system..............................................................................................16
2.3 Geographical Information System (GIS).............................................................................17
2.3.1 Illustrative modelling....................................................................................................17
2.3.2 Spatial Decision-Support Systems................................................................................18
Chapter No: 3.................................................................................................................................19
MATERAIL AND METHOD.......................................................................................................19
3.1 Digital elevation model (DEM)...........................................................................................19
3.2 Extract by Mask using ArcGIS............................................................................................20
3.3 Water Quality Sampling.......................................................................................................21

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 3.3.1 Analytical Methods Applied.........................................................................................21
Chapter No: 4.................................................................................................................................23
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................................................23
4.1 Bed Rock..............................................................................................................................23
4.2 Water Table..........................................................................................................................24
4.3 Estimated discharge.............................................................................................................25
4.4 Proposed drilling depth........................................................................................................26
4.5 Physical Parameter...............................................................................................................27
4.5.1 pH..................................................................................................................................27
4.5.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).......................................................................................27
4.6 Chemical Parameter.............................................................................................................28
4.6.1Calcium (Ca)..................................................................................................................28
4.7 Digital elevation model (DEM)...........................................................................................30
Chapter No: 5.................................................................................................................................31
CONCLUSUION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................................................31
References......................................................................................................................................32

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Chapter No: 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
Groundwater is a finite and at risk natural resource, essential to sustain life, improvement, and
the environment. In Pakistan, 90% of drinking water and 60% of irrigation requirements are
achieved from groundwater (Imran, 2019; Qureshi et al., 2003). The water availability per capita
in the country has dropped from 5,269 m3 in 1951 to 908 m3 in 2017 due to a rapid increase of
population (Talib et al., 2019). When water supply falls below 1000 m 3, the country begins to
suffer from lingering water stress (Gleick, 1993). The instant population growth lead to in
continuous increase in the number of water wells that subsequently resulted in depletion in water
table due to over extraction of groundwater (Basharat, 2012). Pakistan is on the verge of water
scarceness whereas ranking third among the countries challenging critical water shortage in the
world (Nabi et al., 2019).

This increasing demand of groundwater and rapid growth in industrialization call for
investigating both water availability and quality. The types of qualitative and quantitative
statistics are derivative of hydro-geophysical and hydro-chemical data sets. The electrical
resistivity and the well logging data (Balti et al., 2014) has been utilized for hydro-geophysical
studies. The vertical electrical soundings (VES) is one of the most frequently used surface based
geophysical tools to determine thickness, depth, true resistivity, and geological units in the
subsurface using apparent resistivity data (Ammar, 2010; Louis et al., 2004). Similarly, borehole
logs are used in analysing the source, groundwater movement, and physio-chemical properties
(Keys and MacCary, 1971). In the perspective of quality of water, the contamination of water
resources is of vital importance for the environment as well as human well-being (Emmanuel et
al., 2009; Muhammad et al., 2011). The Contamination of drinking water is a fundamental
problem at global-scale triggered by different anthropogenic sources i.e. discharge of a variety of
chemicals and heavy metals (Rapant and Krcmova, 2007). The Groundwater quality may change
from one location to other due to different dynamics such as agricultural and mining activities
etc. Similarly, changing water table has an influence on groundwater quality in an area with

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shallow aquifer system. Groundwater quality is the main factor in water resources management
primarily in addressing the public health concern in emerging countries (Khan et al., 2013). To
assess the groundwater quality, different physio-chemical factors such as pH, EC and TDS are
studied (Popoola et al., 2019) at standard procedure of American Public Health Association
APHA. Recently, geospatial tools has been used extensively for monitoring as well as
management of water resources (Singh et al., 2004). The Groundwater potential zonation has
been carried out based on GIS and remote sensing techniques. (e.g., Venkatachalam et al., 1991;
Krishnamurthy et al., 1996; Jain, 1998; Sankar, 2002).

1.2 Study Area

LandiKotal is lies between latitude 34.21852N and 34.06746N and longitude 71.12889E and
71.22499E and lies on the Khyber Pass in the Khyber district at 1,072 meters above sea level. Its
population is 274,409 among which 240,712 is rural and 33,697 is urban. It is the headquarters of
the administration of Khyber district and it is on the way across the mountains to the city of
Peshawar. LandiKotal Tehsil comprises of four major territories Tirah, Khyber, LandiKotal, and
Shalmans. The well-known River Kabul is 700 kilometer Long River that appears in the
Sanglakh range of the Hindukush Mountain in Afghanistan and run through these mountains
enter to Loy Shalman area of LandiKotal Khyber district which flow further and join the river
Indus at Attock Pakistan. Alongside this there are natural stream and water channel which is
initiated from different mountains such Ghar water stream in Ali Masjid, natural stream of Landi
Khana Torkham, some natural water channel among the mountain of Muktarkhel, Ashkel,
Perokhel and Kam Shalman which flow throughout year are the natural reservoir of water.
LandiKotal has a barren and rocky mountainous landscape. The area mostly consists of hilly
tracks, mountains and narrow strips of valleys. It is the meeting place of high ranges of the
mountain such as the Koh-e-Safaid, and outcome of the mighty Hindukush Mountains. The
smaller part consists of the plain area which mainly consists of loamy sand and loamy clay soil
texture. The area is entirely fertile and can produce good crops, but due to suffering fall, some of
its areas are barren, and some areas of the cultivation are rainfalls (Barani in Urdu) and under the
good condition of weather and plenty, rainfall gives very good yield to the growth of wheat,
maize, and vegetable. A small part of this area is plain and fertile where a variety of fruit plants

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are grown-up by local people for their own use, many different fruits also grown-up by people
for their making money [Safeer Ullah et al 2014, Ali Kashif et al 2015].

1.3 Geology of the study area

Tectonically, the Khyber area lies at the junction of two prime tectonic zones of northern
Pakistan; (i) Northwest Himalayan fold and thrust belt (ii) Himalayan Crystalline Nappe and
Thrust Belt. The Khyber Ranges are a portion of the Khyber Lower Hazara Metasedimentary
Fold and Thrust belt. This Metasedimentary Fold and Thrust Belt lie towards the north of
Khairabad-Panjal Thrust and spread out eastward from Khyber Pass region to Garhi Habibullah.
The Khyber-Hazara Metasedimentary Belt is mainly composed of Precambrian to early
Mesozoic Sediments. The Precambrian sequence is mostly comprised of slates and phylites with
subordinate quartzite and marbles, which crop out in the southern part of the belt. The Khyber-
Hazara Metasedimentary fold and thrust belt has been intruded by mafic dykes, sills and granitic
rocks of which the extensive Ambela pluton and Warsak granite are exposed. These intrusive
rocks range in age from Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic. This Metasedimentary Belt is
distinguish by tight, asymmetrical or isoclinal folds imbricated by several thrust faults (Shah et
al., 1971; Pogue et al., 1992). A debate exists amongst the researchers relating to the
stratigraphic set-up and nomenclature of the area owing to the complex structural setup of the
region and non-acceptable age control over the rock units (Shah, 2009). The effort of Shah (1969
and 1980) and Khan et al. (1989) for organizing the stratigraphy of the area is significant.
Constituting an essential member of the area, the Precambrian Khyber Limestone of the Khan et
al., 1989 in the Khyber Pass section is dominantly comprised of the thin to thick bedded and at
places massive limestone. The limestone is light gray, hard, compact and is dolomitic at places.
Algal stromatolites are common in the Khyber Limestone.

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Figure.1.1 Regional tectonic map of North Pakistan showing geological setting of the Khyber
range area. MCT- Main Central Thrust; MBTMain Boundry Thrust; MFT- Main Frontal Thrust;
JB- Jhelum Balakot Fault; JT- Jammu Thrust; HN- Hissartang-Cherat-Nathia
Gali Thrust; IS- Indus Syntaxis; O- Oghi Fault; Ba- Banna Fault; b- Batal Fault; R- Raikot Fault;
NP-Nanga Parbat; M- Malakand Slice (After, Dipietro and Pogue, 2004).

1.4 Stratigraphy of the area

1.4.1 LandiKotal formation is originally named by Stauffer (1968) as LandiKotal slates

while Shah (1969) renamed as LandiKotal formation due to heterogeneous lithology like slate,
phylite, limestone, quartzite, sandstone and in places dolomite, intruded by basic dykes and sills.

1.4.2 Shagai formation is named after the Shagai Fort in the Khyber Pass by Stauffer (1968)
for the 30m unfossiliferous limestone (lower 15m dolomite and upper 15m brown limestone).

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Khan et al (1989) included the Ali Masjid formation and LandiKotal slates in this formation and
show the lithology as shale, slate, limestone and dolomite.

1.4.3 Ali Masjid Formation Stauffer in 1968 called it Ali Masjid formation. Shale,
siltstone, sandstone, quartzite and limestone. The diagnostic features at the type locality are red
colored shale and an alternation of various lithologies. Basial parts of formation, siltstone with
subordinate shale and volcanic ash, followed by sandstone and quartzite, fine to medium grained,
medium to thick bedded.

1.4.4 Khyber Limestone Stauffer in 1968 introduced the name Khyber limestone.
Limestone is dominant lithology and is dark grey massive recrystallized to grey to brown
dolomite, which is fine grained, thick bedded, contains calcite and quartz veins, at places
limestone can be oolitic and also include sills and dykes. Clay and sandstone beds can be found
at the base.

1.4.5 Ghundai Sar Formation Hussain and Yeats 1987, introduced its name. The
formation consists of interbedded dolomite, marble, limestone, argillite and quartzite. Argillite
includes slates and phyllites of light to dark grey color. Quartzite is fine to medium grained,
white to grey color. Basic rocks intrusions are also observed. Crinoids. Coral. Mollusks.
Bryozons are reported from this formation.

1.4.6 Lowera Mena Formation Hussain, 1987 called it Lowera Mena formation. The
formation dominantly composed of phyllite, phyletic slates, interbedded limestone. Greyish to
whitish quartzite. Quartz veins and granitic intrusion are common. Devonian fossils Crinoid and
Brachiopods are common.

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 Fig 1.2 shows the stratigraphic column of the Khyber ranges

1.5 Statement of Problem

The over-exploitation of groundwater, unpremeditated urbanization and persistent increase in the

population are making water reserve at odds to meet the growing demand of water of the
residents of the area. For developed water management, the suggested thorough approach will
provide a prospect for comprehensive analysis of aquifer system and movement of the
underground water in the study area by geophysical based GIS data.

1.6 Aim and Objectives

The aim of the suggested research work is to carry out a geophysical and geospatial assessment
of the groundwater resources of tehsil LandiKotal Khyber district.

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The objectives of the proposed research work are:

 To evaluate the groundwater quality.

 To determine the groundwater potential.
 To develop depth to water table map of the study area.
 To construct maps of geophysical.

1.7 Scope of study Area

The implication of the present study to map fresh groundwater quality zones in the study area.
The study will make available comprehensive maps of groundwater. The current research work
will help out groundwater management by providing quantitative result in terms of potential
water bearing strata at a particular depth and maps indicating spatial variability of various
parameters related to water quality.

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CHAPTER NO: 2

GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION

2.1 Electrical resistivity

Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) is a
central property of a material that measures how powerfully it resists electric current. A low
resistivity shows a material that freely allows electric current. Resistivity is generally symbolized
by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m). For
example, if a 1 m3 solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the
resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m. (Books)

2.1.1 Concept
Subsurface exploration is purposely to identify a layer of the aquifer via the geophysical
electrical resistivity method. In order to obtain a 2-dimensional ground profile the resistivity
method is taken on for scanning the subsurface. This method measures the resistance of the
direct electrical current travel through the soil. The resistivity values are then utilized to interpret
and correlate the soil properties such as density, porosity, and quality of groundwater. (Aziman,
2017)

2.1.2 Groundwater Investigation and Electrical Resistivity Method

The resistivity values for rocks and soil ingredients are considerably reliant on the degree of
fracturing, porosity of the rock, and the salinity of the groundwater. The resistivity value is
dissimilar between dry and wet material, and thus it is suitable for search out the ground water.
Furthermore, the resistivity of groundwater is governed by dissolved salt and can be varied
between 0.05 ohm.m for saline groundwater to 1000 ohm.m for glacial melt water. Innovative
equipment in geophysical exploration, especially in electrical resistivity has encouraged
scientific study on groundwater exploration. The study is capable to produce the subsurface
resistivity in 2-dimension image. The tube well drilling site is decided by way of interpreting the
surface geological mapping and electrical resistivity results. (Aziman, 2017) Three factors

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including the temperature, the concentration of ions in solution, and the nature of ions plays
crucial role in weighing the electrical behaviour (resistivity and conductance) of the pore water.
Table 2.1 make available an array of resistivity values for various genre of water.
Table 2.1: Electrical Resistivity of Water (Ohm-m) (Keller et al 1996).

(ABEM Instruction Manual for SAS 4000)

Type of Water Resistivity (Ωm)

Precipitation 30 -1000

Surface water, in areas of igneous rock 30 -500

Surface water, in areas of sedimentary rock 10 -100

Groundwater, in areas of igneous rock 30 -150

Groundwater, in areas of sedimentary rock >1

Sea water 0.2

Drinking water (max. salt content 0.25%) > 1.8

Water for irrigation and stock watering (max. salt content 0.25%) > 0.65

Since the deviation in soil temperature is often minor; thus the influence of temperature is often
insignificant on the whole process.

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 Figure 2.1 Setting of Potential and Current electrodes. (Naeem et al, 2021).

2.1.3 Field Procedure

To achieve thorough data on the variance in resistivity with depth, the sounding "techniques" of
stretching the electrode collection along a fixed core were used. First, we specify site selection,
and then take the coordinates of that point through GPS. Then, we configure the tools for the
survey. Terrameter, battery, electrode cable, tape measure and steel rods. The Schlumberger
configuration was preferred for logistical simplicity and because of its relative insensitivity to the
lateral variations in the superficial deposits. Current electrodes separation was increased from 2.0
to 300 meters in the ratio of 1:1.2. The potential dipole length varied between 0.5 and 20 m in
three steps with overlapping of one point to define any consequent offset in the apparent
resistivity values.

2.2 ABEM Terrameter LS system

Terrameter LS system incorporates both a powerful transmitter, high resolution receiver as well
as an integrated electrode switching matrix. Together with an integrated computer and full color
screen it’s a one single item solution configuration tailored to meet each individual client’s
requirements. Terrameter LS utilizes a constant current transmitter that sends an almost perfect
square current wave. This means that the instrument is less sensitive to noise disturbances. The

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instrument also incorporates galvanically isolated input channels where every input can measure
totally independent of the others. Variations in lithology do not always lead to significant
contrasts in resistivity, for example in the case of disseminated ore minerals. In such cases the
ground may contain many small conducting zones that are isolated from each other, thus
imitating the characteristics of a capacitor. The presence of the conductors does not affect the
resistivity measured by direct current, whereas the chargeability measured as Induced
Polarization (IP) will reveal them. This chargeability varies for different materials and they can
therefore be differentiated from each other by using IP measuring (e.g. Bertin and Loeb 1976;
Sumner 1976).

Figure 2.2 Shows the ABEM terrameter LS system Field setup. (ABEM, 2015)

2.3 Geographical Information System (GIS)

Conventional paper maps are still useful for many field mapping purposes, but rugged laptops,
tablets and handheld devices now allow for direct digitizing of structural features on digital maps
and images and are becoming more and more important. Field data in digital form can be
combined with elevation data and other data by means of a Geographical Information System
(GIS). By means of GIS we can combine field observations, various geologic maps, aerial
photos, satellite images, gravity data, magnetic data, typically together with a digital elevation
model, and perform a variety of mathematical and statistical calculations. (Book).
It should be renowned that abundant associated work has been done in the field of surface water
modelling. Recent papers by De Vantier and Feldman (1993), Ross and Tara (1993), and Djokic
and Maidment (1993) are just a little that exemplify the profits of GIS to surface-water modeling.
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Although numerous of the benefits of GIS apply to both surface water and ground-water
modelling, chiefly those related to spatial data management, the modelling procedures used are
quite different.

2.3.1 Illustrative modelling

The use of GIS-expedited compound simulations in a short time, reduced the prospect of data-
entry errors, and proved convenient in interactions between hydrologists and decision-makers
(Bitner et al. 1988; Harris et al. 1991). Additional references to the use of GIS in ground-water
modelling studies include Pope and Declercq (1988). Hubbard and Darling (1987), Ozbilgin et
al. (1991), Ross et al. (1991), Baker et al. (1991), and Chieh et al. (1993).
In common, related techniques and measures are used in each of these studies. Some common
uses of GIS in ground water modelling have been as follows:
1. Preparation of data for model input. Contours or triangular irregular networks (TINs)
produced from point-data coverages of aquifer properties are intersected with the model grid.
Effective factors for each cell are assigned automatically and systematically.
2. Valuation of the competence of the model input through the visual display and/or comparison
of contour or TIN values (such as in making sure the top of the aquifer is not above the land
surface).
3. Sharing out of pumping and recharge rates to each grid cell.
4. Visual evaluation of simulated and measured head or concentration values.
5. Interactive revision of parameter values and/or spatial discretization.
6. Display of model results such as contours of hydraulic head, flow vectors, and water quality
contours.

2.3.2 Spatial Decision-Support Systems

Nevertheless GIS can be precious to geologists and engineers developing ground-water models,
conceivably the greatest advantage of GIS is to those constructing decisions concerning ground-
water problems. Certainly, a ground-water model interfaced with a GIS, as part of a spatial

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decision-support system (SDSS), can make available decision-makers with extra convenient and
timely statistics than could be provided by a ground-water model on its own. Though there is
abundant concern in SDSSs for water resources, few systems specific to ground-water
management have advanced beyond the conceptual stage (Loucks and da Costa 1991; Fedra
1991). The theoretical background for developing SDSSs consist of GISs, hydrological models,
and practiced systems is delivered by numerous researchers (Fedra 1993; Moore et al. 1993;
Walsh 1993; Leip nik et al. 1993), while Fürst et al. (1993) discuss SDSS issues specific to
ground-water management.

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Chapter No: 3

MATERAIL AND METHOD

In the study area, field investigation of the subsurface was carried out by the PHED department.
To investigate the water table, depth to bedrocks, and much more within the study area, many
co-ordinate points were selected to carry out a resistivity survey and assemble resistivity reports.
Reports were collected from different elevated areas. In total, 23 co-ordinates points were
carefully chosen and collected electrical resistivity reports. Investigation was carried out by the
PHED department for sake of drilling wells in the area. The data we received from the
department were in hard copy, to make operational the data for GIS, we pile up the data in excel
file and save the file is CSV which is usable for GIS. With the help of GIS and using its tools for
example Kriging and IDW etc, we interpret the collecting data and find different maps. (Watkins
et al, 1996). Resistivity reports include data about different parameters such as water table mean
static water, depth to Bedrock, proposed drilling depth, and estimated discharge. The data also
include the elevation values of the specific points, so instead of using the given records, we use a
website (https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov) and took the digital elevation model DEM of the
study area.

3.1 Digital elevation model (DEM)

A digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital depiction of the topography or shape of a surface,
usually the surface of the Earth, but a DEM can be prepared for any geologic surface or interface
that can be mapped in three dimensions. Surfaces mapped from cubes of seismic data are now
customarily presented as colored and shaded DEMs and can easily be analyzed in terms of
geometry and orientations. (Book).

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Figure 3.1 shows the outlines of the study area (Landi Kotal, Khyber region) (Via google access
at 1/7/2022)

3.2 Extract by Mask using ArcGIS

It is likely to select an exact area of a raster via another layer (raster or entity) as a template
whose extension mark out the size of the output raster. The yield raster will preserve its attribute
table, bounded to the extension that we have carry out. (https://www.giscourse.com/extract-by-
mask-using-arcgis/).

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 Figure 3.2 Shows the example of different layers outline in Arc GIS.

We downloaded DEM from the aforementioned website. The file was 52 MB jpg form. The
mentioned file is not the exact DEM of the study area, so we use the abovementioned tool of GIS
means masking to mask the interested area.
Investigation was carried out by the PHED department for sake of drilling wells in the area.
To evaluate the quality of water in the study area the department collects water samples from the
different wells.

3.3 Water Quality Sampling

Sampling of groundwater was taken from wells and total of eight samples were collected.
Polystyrene bottles having a volume capacity of 1.0 litre were used for the assemblage of water
samples for physico-chemical analysis. Using the water initially and then distilled water, the
bottles should carefully soaked, cleaned and rinsed over and over determinedly. For trace
elements and nitrate nitrogen in sampling bottles hydrochloric acid (HCL) and hydrogen borate
(boric acid) are used correspondingly as stabilizers earlier the collection of the samples. All
samples are analysed for water quality parameters.

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3.3.1 Analytical Methods Applied
The physico-chemical constraints (parameters) of water samples examine as per the standard set
for the Standard Methods of American Public Health Association (Association, 2012). Table 3.1
shows the analysis parameters and their corresponding methods as follows:
Table.3.1. Parameter and analysis method
Sr.# PARAMETERS ANALYTICAL METHOD
1 Color (TCU) Sensory Test
2 Electrical E.C meter, Hach-44600-00, USA
Conductivity(µS/cm)
3 pH pH meter, Hanna Instrument, Model 8519, Italy
4 Turbidity( NTU) Turbidity meter, Lamotte, Model 2008, USA
5 Alkalinity (ppm) 2320, Standard method (2005) APHA
6 Bicarbonate (ppm) 2320, Standard method (2005) APHA

7 Calcium (ppm) 3500-Ca-D, Standard Method (2005) APHA

8 Carbonate(ppm) 2320, Standard method (2005) APHA

9 Chloride(ppm) Titration (Silver Nitrate), Standard Method (2005) APHA

10 Hardness(ppm) EDTA Titration, Standard method (2005) APHA

11 Magnesium(ppm) 2340-C, Standard Method (2005) APHA

12 Potassium(ppm) Flame Photometer PFP7, UK

13 Sodium (ppm) Flame Photometer PFP7, UK

14 Sulfate (ppm) SulfaVer4(Hach-8051) by Spectrophotometer

15 Nitrate (N) (ppm) Cd. Reduction (Hach-8171) by Spectrophotometer

16 TDS(ppm) 2540C, Standard method(2005) APHA

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Chapter No: 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The produced maps are classified into several classes based on obtained data. It was done to
distinguish the location of water potential zone.

4.1 Bed Rock

The rock beneath the Earth's surface is the bedrock. However Earth's bedrock contains of several
types of rock, for instance sandstone, granite, and limestone. In the given map if we look at the
geology we mostly have limestone as bedrock for water accumulation. In limestone water mound
up if fractured, or has cavities and caves. The map is divided into few classes to distinguish
different zone. The upper center is dark black represent greater depth so the water table will also
deeper as compare to the surrounding. Similarly the whitish area show that bedrock are at
shallow depth and more possible that the ware table are near the surface.

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Figure 4.1 Shows the general layout of the Bed Rock in the study area.

4.2 Water Table

The water table is an underground borderline between the soil surface and the area
where groundwater saturates spaces between sediments and cracks in rock. The saturated zone is
bounded at the bottom by impenetrable rock. The map generated is classified into four classes on
the basis of obtained value. The dark greenish color part of map show high value represent the
water table at greater depth compare to the surrounding. More effort and energy required to
extract water from here. The light sky color shows that the water table is at shallow depth. If
water is not extracted in a sustainable manner, the water table may drop permanently.

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Figure 4.2 shows the depth to the water table in the study area ( the red dots denotes the data
points) .

4.3 Estimated discharge

Groundwater is the chief source of usable, fresh water in the world. Groundwater depletion
occurs when the rate of extraction through wells is higher than the rate
of recharge from precipitation. Groundwater depletion is mainly caused by continued
groundwater pumping. Land subsidence happens when there is a loss of backing below
ground.as the map is classified into few classes. The dark red color area show water potential
zone having possibility of large production of water, so more gallon per hour can be extracted
from the location. Less discharge is estimated for light color area.

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Figure 4.3 shows the map of the estimated discharge of different area

4.4 Proposed drilling depth

We know that water table is vary even within the same area. In order to get more water for
drinking a depth is proposed for each well. Up to two kilometre in subsurface water is available.
The average well depth is between 100 to 800 feet. It may vary if the geology is different than
the other region in the country. If we look at the map the dark blue color shows the highest value
for drilling. It mean that the water table are at greater so to produced more water , we have to
pump more into the subsurface to get more yield. The light color show that the water table lies
near to the surface, less drilling is required to touch the water table.

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Figure 4.4 shows the depth to the water bearing zone in the study area.

4.5 Physical Parameter

4.5.1 pH
In common, natural water consist of dissolved carbon-dioxide gas and bicarbonate ions from a
carbonic acid buffering system. Very high pH levels, i.e. above 8.5, are usually thought to be
allied with sodium carbonates and bicarbonates in water. Groundwater sample shows variance of
pH in water. In the figure 4.5 the red color show the highest value 8.4 which almost touch the
high value. This high pH can also lead to calcium and magnesium carbonate building up in your
pipes. While this higher pH doesn't pose any health risks, it can cause skin to become dry, itchy
and irritated.

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4.5.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
The total dissolved solids TDS is the quantity of dissolved minerals in fresh water which is
measured in part per million (ppm). Water that pass through rocks that comprised of soluble
minerals have high total dissolve solids contents. Total dissolved solids obtaining to determine
the competency of fresh water conductivity. Area having TDS value 150 to 300 ppm is good and
fair and is drinkable. When the value is more than 300 ppm, its quality is pore and is not
drinkable. In the map the lower left side show high value than the normal, so the water of this
area is not drinkable, and is risky to health.

Figure 4.5 (a) shows the Ph values of the ground water (b) Shows the total dissolved solid
TDS.

4.6 Chemical Parameter

4.6.1Calcium (Ca)
Calcium is ample component of the water that is allied with calcite, gypsum and dolomite. Shale
and additional deposits generally contain calcium as a cementing material. Anhydride and
gypsum take place as evaporites in sediments and are essential source of calcium in groundwater.
Calcium and sulphate are soluble in water, and calcium concentration is determined by carbonate
and sulphate solubility.
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Table 4.1: Water quality status.

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 Wells Color PH EC Turbidity TDS Hardness Ca Mg ALKY HCO3 Cl NO3
Name

Bakar
Abad
Clear 7.1 544 0.79 272 244 41.6 29.9 80 80 28 0
Yar
Afzal
LandiK
otal

Chritian
Colony
Turbid 7.4 881 68.7 440 216 29 33 76 76 60 14.3
LandiK
otal

Ibrar
Kalli
Clear 7.03 607 0.67 303 216 40 30.3 88 88 28 0.9
LandiK
otal

Haji
Khana
Clear 7.48 594 0.37 297 256 25.6 33.8 48 48 26 6.3
Jan
Kalli
LandiK
otal

Haji
Tharkha
Clear 8.24 596 0.12 298 228 64 24.5 44 44 28 0.8
n Shah
LandiK
otal

Sadu
Khel
Clear 7.16 613 0.88 306 212 41.6 29.9 60 60 30 2.2
Booster
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LandiK
otal
32 | P a g e
4.7 Digital elevation model (DEM)
A digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital representation of the topography or shape of a
surface, generally the surface of the Earth, but a DEM can be prepared for any geologic surface
or interface that can be mapped in three dimensions. The given DEM of the area id downloaded
from a website (https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov) and prepared with the help of GIS. The map
is classified into a range of value. The black color show the high elevation of the area. The light
white color show less elevation compare to the dark region.

4.7 Shows the digital elevation model (DEM) of study area .

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Chapter No: 5

CONCLUSUION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In the study area variation found in water table. The water table of area near to mountainous
region is at shallow depth and as go away from the mountain the water table also goes down and
found at greater depth. If we look at the already mention geology of the area, we found mostly
sedimentary rock. Most of them has low porosity, permeability or both due to which the surface
water is not sufficiently filter through the ground to recharge the subsurface. Bedrock mostly at
shallow depth if look at the whole area. Extraction are estimated in order to avoid underground
water depletion. Drilling depth is mostly normal and water can be easily extracted due to normal
water less energy required to touch the desire depth. DEM of the area represent that it is highly
elevated, mostly the area in mountainous showed by the highest value. Over all pH of the area is
normal but some area show high pH value which is not very danger but little risky to health.
Commonly TDS of the area is in the average value but some places show high value which has
poor quality and water is not drinkable.

Recommendations for the area are that first of all on the urgent basis the over extraction of
underground water should be control. As aforementioned that the region is Barani so recharge
should be installed to the recharge subsurface via rain water. And as the world faces the burden
of over population, so the papulation should be control in order avoid such threatens in coming
future. And when the extraction of water is higher than the recharge, depletion will occur in the
ground water. And if continued it may turned into water scarcity in future.

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